1.

Newton's law of universal gravitation states that a particle attracts every other particle
in the universe using a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

(or) where G is the universal gravitational constant.

The value of G is 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 and its dimensional formula is M−1 L3 T−2.
Acceleration due to gravity on the Earth’s surface, g = 9.8 m s–2
Time period of revolution of the moon around the Earth,T = 27.3 days.
2. Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the
difference in temperatures between the body and its surroundings. As such, it is
equivalent to a statement that the heat transfer coefficient, which mediates between heat
losses and temperature differences, is a constant.
3. Archimedes' principle indicates that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body
immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the
fluid that the body displaces and it acts in the upward direction at the centre of mass of
the displaced fluid.
4. Pascal's law or the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure (also Pascal's Principle)
is a principle in fluid mechanics that states that a pressure change occurring anywhere in
a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same
change occurs everywhere.

4a. Applications of Pascal's law

 The underlying principle of the hydraulic jack and hydraulic press.

 Force amplification in the braking system of most motor vehicles.
 Used in artesian wells, water towers, and dams.
 Scuba divers must understand this principle. At a depth of 10 meters under water, pressure is
twice the atmospheric pressure at sea level, and increases by about 100 kPa for each increase
of 10 m depth.[5]
 Usually Pascal's rule is applied to confined space (static flow), but due to the continuous
flow process, Pascal's principle can be applied to the lift oil mechanism (which can be
represented as a U tube with pistons on either end). However, the lift height will be in
microns because energy will be drained and pressure will be diminished after each impact
with the lifting material, but force exerted will be equal.
 Applied force in cylinder P1A1.
 The underlying principal of hot isostatic pressing
 5. Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the
least surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water striders), usually
denser than water, to float and stride on a water surface.
6. The viscous force is the force between a body and a fluid (liquid or gas) moving past it,
in a direction so as to oppose the flow of the fluid past the object.

6a. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear
stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness"; for
example, honey has a much higher viscosity than water

The unit of the viscosity is poiseuille.

7. Boyle's law is an experimental gas law that describes how the pressure of a gas tends to
increase as the volume of a gas decreases.
Mathematically, Boyle's law can be stated as

Pα(1/V)
or

PV=K
Where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, and k is a constant.
8. Charles' law
The law states that the volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature.
VαT
9. Joule’s Law of Heating
The heat which is produced due to the flow of current within an electric wire, is expressed in
Joules. Now the mathematical representation or explanation of Joule’s law is given in the
following manner.
1. The amount of heat produced in current conducting wire, is proportional to the square of the
amount of current that is flowing through the circuit, when the electrical resistance of the
wire and the time of current flow is constant.

2. The amount of heat produced is proportional to the electrical resistance of the wire when the
current in the circuit and the time of current flow is constant.
 3. Heat generated due to the flow of current is proportional to the time of current flow, when
the resistance and amount of current flow is constant.

When these three conditions are merged,

the resulting formula is like this –

10. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

(i) The law of orbits
Each planet moves in an elliptical orbit with the Sun at one focus. A is a planet revolving round
the Sun. The position P of the planet where it is very close to the Sun is known as perigee and the
position Q of the planet where it is farthest from the Sun is known as apogee.
(ii) The law of areas
The line joining the Sun and the planet (i.e radius vector) sweeps out equal areas in equal interval
of times. The orbit of the planet around the Sun is as shown in Fig. 4.17. The areas A1 and A2
are swept by the radius vector in equal times. The planet covers unequal distances S1 and S2 in
equal time. This is due to the variable speed of the planet.
When the planet is closest to the Sun, it covers greater distance in a given time. Hence, the speed
is maximum at the closest position. When the planet is far away from the Sun, it covers lesser
distance in the same time. Hence the speed is minimum at the farthest position.
(iii) The law of periods
The square of the period of revolution of a planet around the Sun is directly proportional to the
cube of the mean distance between the planet and the Sun. (i.e) T 2 α r3
11. Raman Effect
In 1928, Sir C.V. Raman discovered experimentally, that the monochromatic light is
scattered when it is allowed to pass through a substance. The scattered light contains some
additional frequencies other than that of incident frequency. This is known as Raman effect.
a. The lines whose frequencies have been modified in Raman effect are called Raman lines.
b. The lines having frequencies lower than the incident frequency are called Stoke’s lines.
c. The lines having frequencies higher than the incident frequency are called Anti−stokes
lines.
d. This series of lines in the scattering of light by the atoms and molecules is known as
Raman Spectrum.
Applications of Raman Spectrum
i. It is widely used in almost all branches of science.
 ii. Raman Spectra of different substances enable to classify them according to their
molecular structure.
iii. In industry, Raman Spectroscopy is being applied to study the properties of materials.
iv. It is used to analyse the chemical constitution.

12. Bernoulli’s theorem

According to Bernoulli’s theorem, for the streamline flow of a non-viscous and
incompressible liquid, the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
per unit mass is a constant.
(i.e)

This equation is known as Bernoulli’s equation.

Application of Bernoulli’s theorem

(i) Lift of an aircraft wing

(ii) Blowing of roofs
(iii) Bunsen burner

13. Ohm's law

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points.

14. Ampere's Law,

Ampere's Law specifically, says that the magnetic field created by an electric current is
proportional to the size of that electric current with a constant of proportionality equal to
the permeability of free space. Stationary charges produce electric fields proportional to
the magnitude of the charge

15. Right hand palm rule

The coil is held in the right hand so that the fingers point in the direction of the current in the
windings. The extended thumb, points in the direction of the magnetic field.

16. Fleming Left Hand Rule. It is found that whenever a current carrying conductor is
placed inside a magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor, in a direction perpendicular
 to both the directions of the current and the magnetic field.

17. Fleming's right-hand rule. The right hand is held with the thumb, first finger and
second finger mutually perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as shown in the
diagram. The thumb is pointed in the direction of motion of the conductor

18. Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction states that, the magnitude of
induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages with the coil. The flux linkage
is the product of number of turns and the flux associated with the coil.

E = N (dΦ/dt) (volts)

19. Lenz's law of electromagnetic induction states that, when an emf is induced according
to Faraday's law, the polarity (direction) of that induced emf is such that it opposes the
cause of its production.

Thus, considering Lenz's law

E = -N (dΦ/dt) (volts)
20. Faraday's First Law:
Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets induced across the
conductor (called as induced emf), and if the conductor is a closed circuit then induced current
flows through it.
Magnetic field can be varied by various methods -
1.By moving magnet
2. By moving the coil
3. By rotating the coil relative to magnetic field
 21. Faraday's Second Law:
Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction states that, the magnitude of induced emf
is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages with the coil. The flux linkage is the product
of number of turns and the flux associated with the coil.