Unit 7 in English

Rudra‘s IAS
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Rudra’s IAS CLASS NOTES MPPSC (Pre) New Syllabs 2020
Fundamental principles of science
Newtons Law of Motion
Sir Isaac Newton's three laws of motion describe the motion of massive bodies and how they interact.
First Law of Motion
The First Law of Motion states, "A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain
in motion unless it is acted upon by an external force." This simply means that things cannot start,
stop, or change direction all by themselves. It takes some force acting on them from the outside to
cause such a change. This property of massive bodies to resist changes in their state of motion is
sometimes called inertia.
Second Law of Motion
The Second Law of Motion describes what happens to a massive body when it is acted upon by an
external force. It states, "The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its
acceleration."
This is written in mathematical form as F = ma, where F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration.
Third Law of Motion
The Third Law of Motion states, "For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction." This law
describes what happens to a body when it exerts a force on another body. Forces always occur in pairs,
so when one body pushes against another, the second body pushes back just as hard. For example,
when you push a cart, the cart pushes back against you; when you pull on a rope, the rope pulls back
against you; when gravity pulls you down against the ground, the ground pushes up against your feet;
and when a rocket ignites its fuel behind it, the expanding exhaust gas pushes on the rocket causing it
to accelerate.
Pascal’s Law
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According to Pascal‘s law, ―The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is distributed or
transmitted evenly throughout the liquid in all directions‖. The static pressure acts at right angles to
any surface in contact with the fluid. Pascal also found that the pressure at a point for a static fluid
would be the same across all planes passing through that point in that fluid. Pascal‘s law is also known
as Pascal‘s principle of transmission of fluid-pressure. In 1653, Pascal law was stated by French
mathematician Blaise Pascal.
Hooke‘s Law
Hooke‘s law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the elastic
limit of that material. When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and molecules deform until
stress is been applied and when the stress is removed, they return to their initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke‘s law is commonly expressed as:
F = –k.x
In the equation, F is the force x is the extension length k is the constant of proportionality known as
spring constant in N/m.
Archimedes Principle
Archimedes principle deals with the forces applied to an object by fluids surrounding it. This applied
force reduces the net weight of the object submerged in a fluid. It is also this physical law of buoyancy
that helps us understand how ships float in water.
Archimedes‘ principle states that: ―The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a
fluid, whether partially or fully submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces
and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid‖. The value of thrust force
is given by the Archimedes law which was discovered by Archimedes of Syracuse of Greece. When
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an object is partially or fully immersed in a liquid, the apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced by it.
Boyle’s Law
Boyle‘s law is a gas law which states that the pressure exerted by a gas (of a given mass, kept at a
constant temperature) is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it. In other words, the
pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other as long as the temperature and
the quantity of gas are kept constant. Boyle‘s law was put forward by the Anglo-Irish chemist Robert
Boyle in the year 1662.
As per Boyle‘s law, any change in the volume occupied by a gas (at constant quantity and
temperature) will result in a change in the pressure exerted by it. In other words, the product of the
initial pressure and the initial volume of a gas is equal to the product of its final pressure and final
volume (at constant temperature and number of moles). This law can be expressed mathematically as
follows:
P1V1 = P2V2
Where, P1 is the initial pressure exerted by the gas V1 is the initial volume occupied by the gas P2 is
the final pressure exerted by the gas V2 is the final volume occupied by the gas.
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Charles Law
Charles‘ Law, also sometimes referred to as the law of volumes, gives a detailed account of how gas
expands when the temperature is increased. Conversely, when there is a decrease in temperature it will
lead to a decrease in volume. When we compare a substance under two different conditions, from the
above statement we can write this in the following manner:
V2/V1=T2/T1 OR V1T2=V2T1
This above equation depicts that as absolute temperature increases, the volume of the gas also goes up
in proportion. In other words, Charle‘s law is a special case of the ideal gas law. The law is applicable
to the ideal gases that are held at constant pressure but the temperature and volume keep changing.
Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro‘s law, a gas law which states that the total number of atoms/molecules of a gas (i.e. the
amount of gaseous substance) is directly proportional to the volume occupied by the gas at constant
temperature and pressure.
Bernoulli’s Principle
Bernoulli‘s principle states that the total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the
gravitational potential energy of elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic
energy of the fluid motion, remains constant.
Bernoulli‘s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy, and gravitational potential
energy of a fluid in a container. The formula for Bernoulli‘s principle is given as:
p + 1/2 ρ v2 + ρgh =constant
Where, p is the pressure exerted by the fluid v is the velocity of the fluid ρ is the density of the fluid h
is the height of the container Bernoulli‘s equation gives great insight into the balance between
pressure, velocity and elevation.

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Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation
Kirchhoff‘s law of thermal radiation, postulated by a German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff,
states that the emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a given temperature and wavelength are
equal.
It implies that good radiators are good absorbers.
When a green body is heated in a dark room then it appears red because it emits all colors except
green and the emitted colors are dominated by red color.
Newton’s Law of Cooling
Newton‘s law of cooling describes the rate at which an exposed body changes temperature through
radiation which is approximately proportional to the difference between the object‘s temperature and
its surroundings, provided the difference is small.
According to Newton‘s law of cooling, the rate of loss of heat from a body is directly proportional to
the difference in the temperature of the body and its surroundings.
Stefan Boltzmann Law
Stefan Boltzmann Law relates the temperature of the blackbody to the amount of the power it emits
per unit area. The law states that; ―The total energy emitted/radiated per unit surface area of a
blackbody across all wavelengths per unit time is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black
body‘s thermodynamic temperature. ‖
ε = σT4
σ is Stefan‘s constant = 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2 k4
First Law of Electromagnetic Induction
The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a long series of
experiments carried out by Faraday and Henry. From the experimental observations, Faraday arrived
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at a conclusion that an emf is induced in the coil when the magnetic flux across the coil changes with
time.
With this in mind, Faraday formulated his first law of electromagnetic induction as, whenever a
conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced. If the conductor
circuit is closed, a current is induced which is called induced current.
Mentioned here are a few ways to change the magnetic field intensity in a closed loop:
1. By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.
2. By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
3. By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.
4. By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.
Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday‘s second law of electromagnetic induction states that the induced emf in a coil is equal to the
rate of change of flux linkage.
Joule-Thomson Effect
The Joule-Thomson effect also known as Kelvin–Joule effect or Joule-Kelvin effect is the change in
fluid‘s temperature as it flows from a higher-pressure region to lower pressure. In thermodynamics,
the Joule–Thomson effect describes the temperature change of a real gas or liquid when it is forced
through a valve or porous plug while keeping it insulated so that no heat is exchanged with the
environment. This procedure is called a throttling process or Joule–Thomson process.
Important Indian scientific research insitutes and their achievements
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
India decided to go to space when Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was
set up by the Government of India in 1962. With the visionary Dr Vikram Sarabhai at its helm,
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INCOSPAR set up the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in
Thiruvananthapuram for upper atmospheric research. Indian Space Research Organisation, formed in
1969, superseded the erstwhile INCOSPAR.
In the process, it has become one of the six largest space agencies in the world. ISRO maintains one of
the largest fleets of communication satellites (INSAT) and remote sensing (IRS) satellites, that cater to
the ever-growing demand for fast and reliable communication and earth observation respectively.
ISRO develops and delivers application specific satellite products and tools to the Nation: broadcasts,
communications, weather forecasts, disaster management tools, Geographic Information Systems,
cartography, navigation, telemedicine, dedicated distance education satellites being some of them.
Raja Ramanna Center for Atomic Technology (RRCAT)
Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology is a unit of Department of Atomic Energy,
Government of India, engaged in R & D in non-nuclear front line research areas of Lasers, Particle
Accelerators & related technologies. Indus-2 RRCAT was established by the Department of Atomic
Energy, India to expand the activities carried out at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC),
Mumbai, in two frontline areas of science and technology namely Lasers and Accelerators. On 10
February 1984 the President of India, Gyani Zail Singh, laid the foundation stone of the centre.
Construction of laboratories and houses began in May 1984.
In June 1986, the first batch of scientists from BARC, Mumbai, moved to RRCAT and scientific
activities were started. Since then, the centre has rapidly grown into a premier institute for research
and development in lasers, accelerators and their applications. The RRCAT campus is spread over a
760-hectare picturesque site on the outskirts of Indore city. The campus encompasses laboratories,
staff housing colony and other basic amenities like school, sports facilities, shopping complex, gardens
etc.
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The Centre has indigenously designed, developed, and commissioned two synchrotron radiation
sources: Indus-1 and Indus-2, serving as a national facility. Indus-2 is presently the largest and the
highest energy particle accelerator in the country.
The Centre is also involved in development of a variety of laser systems and their utilization for
applications in industry, medicine and research. The industrial applications being pursued include
cutting, drilling, welding, surface modifications and rapid manufacturing. Various laser based
instruments such as uranium analyzer, land leveler, compact N2 laser, photo-coagulator, fibre based
temperature sensor, surgical CO2 laser system have been developed.
Satish Dhawan Space Center (SDSC) Shriharikota
Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) or Sriharikota Range (SHAR) is a rocket launch centre operated
by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It is located in Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh. The
centre became operational in 1971 when an RH-125 sounding rocket was launched. The first
attempted launch of an orbital satellite, Rohini 1A aboard a Satellite's Launch Vehicle, took place on
10 August 1979, but due to a failure in thrust vectoring of the rocket's second stage, the satellite's orbit
decayed on 19 August 1979.
SHAR was named as 'Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR' (SDSC), on 5 September 2002, in memory
of Satish Dhawan, former Chairman of the ISRO. The SHAR facility now consists of two launch pads,
with the second built in 2005. The second launch pad was used for launches beginning in 2005 and is a
universal launch pad, accommodating all of the launch vehicles used by ISRO. The two launch pads
will allow multiple launches in a single year, which was not possible earlier.
India's lunar orbiter Chandrayaan-1 launched from the centre at 6:22 AM IST on 22 October 2008.
India's first Mars orbiter Mangalyaan was launched from the centre on 5 November 2013, which was
successfully placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. Initially under Indian Human Spaceflight
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Program existing launch facilities will be augmented to meet the target of launching a crewed
spacecraft called Gaganyaan.
Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO)
DRDO is the R&D wing of Ministry of Defence, Govt of India, with a vision to empower India with
cutting-edge defence technologies and a mission to achieve self-reliance in critical defence
technologies and systems. DRDO's pursuit of self-reliance and successful indigenous development and
production of strategic systems and platforms such as Agni and Prithvi series of missiles; light combat
aircraft, Tejas; multi-barrel rocket launcher, Pinaka; air defence system, Akash; a wide range of radars
and electronic warfare systems; etc., have given quantum jump to India's military might, generating
effective deterrence and providing crucial leverage.
"BalasyaMulamVigyanam" the source of strength is science-drives the nation in peace and war.
DRDO has firm determination to make the nation strong and self-reliant in terms of science and
technology, especially in the field of military technologies. DRDO was formed in 1958 from the
amalgamation of the then already functioning Technical Development Establishment (TDEs) of the
Indian Army and the Directorate of Technical Development & Production (DTDP) with the Defence
Science Organisation (DSO).
DRDO was then a small organisation with 10 establishments or laboratories. Over the years, it has
grown multi-directionally in terms of the variety of subject disciplines, number of laboratories,
achievements and stature. Today, DRDO is a network of more than 50 laboratories which are deeply
engaged in developing defence technologies covering various disciplines, like aeronautics, armaments,
electronics, combat vehicles, engineering systems, instrumentation, missiles, advanced computing and
simulation, special materials, naval systems, life sciences, training, information systems and
agriculture. Several major projects for the development of missiles, armaments, light combat aircrafts,
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radars, electronic warfare systems etc are on hand and significant achievements have already been
made in several such technologies.
Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) Mumbai
Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha conceived the Nuclear Program in India. Dr Bhabha established the Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) for carrying out nuclear science research in 1945. To
intensify the effort to exploit nuclear energy for the benefit of the nation, Dr Bhabha established the
Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) in January 1954 for multidisciplinary research
program essential for the ambitious nuclear program of India.
After the sad demise of Bhabha in 1966, AEET was renamed Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC). Dr. Bhabha established the BARC Training School to cater to the manpower needs of the
expanding atomic energy research and development program. Dr Bhabha emphasized on self reliance
in all the fields of nuclear science and engineering. BARC is the mother of the R&D institutions such
as IGCAR, RRCAT, VECC, etc., which carry out pioneering research on nuclear and accelerator
technologies and industrial establishments such as NPCIL, NFC, ECIL, etc., spearheading nuclear
power production, materials technology, electronics & instrumentation.
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) is a public deemed research university located in
Mumbai, India that is dedicated to basic research in mathematics and the sciences. TIFR is considered
as one of the outstanding research institutes in India. It is a Deemed University and works under the
umbrella of the Department of Atomic Energy of the Government of India. It is located at Navy Nagar,
Colaba, Mumbai, with an affiliated campus in Serilingampally near Hyderabad.

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TIFR conducts research primarily in the natural sciences, mathematics, the biological sciences and
theoretical computer science and is considered to be one among India's outstanding research centres.
TIFR has a graduate Program leading to a PhD in all the major fields of study.
TIFR has a Linear particle accelerator and a Pelletron capable of accelerating particles to moderate
energies for studying heavy ion atomic interactions and a Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Facility to
study complex molecules housed in campus in addition to several other facilities. The Institute's
Dental Section has been actively involved in investigations pertaining to carcinogenic effects of
tobacco. In addition to in campus facilities the institute has several field stations and research facilities
in different parts of the country.
A Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope, the largest of its kind in the world, is operational at Khodad near
Narayangaon, north of Pune and a large equatorially mounted cylindrical radio telescope and a high
energy cosmic ray laboratory are operational at Udhagamandalam in Tamil Nadu. High Energy
Cosmic ray and Gamma Ray laboratories are operated from Pachamarhi in Madhya Pradesh. TIFR
runs a National Balloon Facility in Hyderabad which is among the best in the world and has the
geographical advantage of being close to the geomagnetic equator. At Gauribidanur, TIFR scientists
have built an extremely sensitive balance to study the difference between gravitational and inertial
mass.
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL) Tirupati
NARL is an autonomous research laboratory fully funded by the Department of Space, Government of
India and involved in carrying out fundamental and applied research in Atmospheric and Space
Sciences. It had its humble beginning in 1992 as the National Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere
(MST) Radar Facility. Over the years several complementary techniques such as Rayleigh/Mie lidars,
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wind profilers have been added. NARL is administered by a Governing Council with Secretary, DOS
as the Chairman and Director, NARL as member secretary.
The Governing Council sets broad policy guidelines for NARL. A Scientific Advisory Committee
consisting of eminent scientists in the field of atmospheric science, monitors the research activities and
progress of NARL and provides future directions. NARL has now become one of the prime centers for
atmospheric research in the country and operates a state-of-the-art MST radar, Rayleigh/ Mie Lidar,
Boundary Layer Lidar, Sodium Lidar, Lower Atmospheric Wind Profiler, Sodar, Disdrometer, Optical
Rain Gauge, Dual frequency GPS receiver, Automatic Weather Station apart from regular launching of
the GPS balloon sonde.
Being relatively young, NARL‘s research activities are spearheaded by a team of young and vibrant
fulltime research scientists and students. This web site provides some salient features of the activities
and experimental facilities available for national and international collaborative research work.
Liquid Propulsion System Center (LPSC) Bengluru
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) is the centre for design, development and realisation of
liquid propulsion stages for ISRO's Launch Vehicles. Development of fluid control valves,
transducers, propellant management devices for vacuum conditions and other key components of
liquid propulsion systems are also under the purview of this centre. LPSC activities and facilities are
spread across its two campuses namely, LPSC, Valiamala, Thriruvananthapuram and LPSC,
Bengaluru, Karnataka.
LPSC, Valaimala is responsible for R&D, System Design I Engineering and Project Management
functions. The Fluid Control Components Entity and the Materials and Manufacturing Entities are
located here apart from the Earth Storable and Cryogenic Propulsion Entities, handling the core
tasks of the Centre.

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LPSC, Bengaluru is responsible for design and realisation of propulsion systems for remote sensing
and communication satellites and other scientific missions. Development and production of
transducers and sensors are all undertaken here.
Space Application Center (SAC) Ahmedabad
Space Applications Centre (SAC), is a major research and development centre of the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO). It plays a key role in realizing vision and mission of ISRO. Located at
Ahmedabad, SAC is spread across two campuses having multi-disciplinary activities.
The genesis of the centre dates back to 1966, with establishment of the Experimental Satellite
Communication Earth Station (ESCES), by late Dr. Vikram Sarabhai in Ahmedabad. It was an
experimental Earth Station and training centre where scientists and engineers of India and other
developing countries could receive training and firsthand experience in the design, development and
operations of an earth station for communications and broadcasting. Later in 1972, the different units
of ISRO in Ahmedabad pursuing research in applications of space technology were merged to form
SAC.
The core competence of the centre lies in development of space borne and air borne
instruments/payloads and their applications for national development and societal benefits. These
applications are in diverse areas and primarily meet the communication, navigation and remote sensing
needs of the country. Besides these, the centre also contributes significantly in scientific and planetary
missions of ISRO like Chandrayan-1, Mars Orbiter Mission etc.
The communication transponders developed at this centre for Indian National Satellite (INSAT) and
Geo Synchronous Satellite (GSAT) series of satellites are used by government and private sector for
VSAT, DTH, internet, broadcasting, telephony etc. These satellites are instrumental in reaching
remote parts of the country. The payloads for major navigation systems of the country - Indian
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Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) and GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation
(GAGAN) are being developed by this centre.
This centre designs and develops the optical and microware sensors for the satellites, signal and image
processing software, GIS software and many applications for Earth Observation (EO) program of
ISRO.
Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN)
The Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN), commissioned during the year 2008, at Byalalu village near
Bengaluru, forms the Ground segment for providing deep space support for India‘s Space Science
Missions like Lunar mission-Chandrayaan-1, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) etc., Indian Space Science
Data Centre (ISSDC), located at the IDSN campus, is the primary data centre for data archives of
Indian Space Science Missions.
IDSN complex comprises of Deep Space Antennas of 18 m and 32 m capable of supporting
interplanetary missions. It also houses 11 m antenna facility to support earth bound scientific missions.
The 32 m fully steerable antenna (DSN32) with beam wave-guide, operating in S and X-band and 18
m fully steerable antenna offer excellent facilities for supporting International Deep Space Missions.
The 32 m antenna was indigenously realised with the collaboration of ECIL, Hyderabad, BARC,
Mumbai and other Indian Industries.
The timing system of the antenna consists of an active Hydrogen maser for highly accurate and stable
clock. The ISSDC is designed to host the science data archives and the custodian of all the science
data from the Indian science missions and has a state-of-the-art infrastructure to cater to the needs of
planetary, interplanetary, scientific and outer space missions. This facility is built on the earthquake
resistance site. Considering the long-time preservation requirement, for catering to the needs of all
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ISRO space science missions, a hierarchical storage management is used. At present, ISSDC is
supporting MOM apart from Astro-Sat and Megha-Tropiques.
Indian Space Science Data Center (ISSDC)
The Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN), commissioned during the year 2008, at Byalalu village near
Bengaluru, forms the Ground segment for providing deep space support for India‘s Space Science
Missions like Lunar mission-Chandrayaan-1, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) etc., Indian Space Science
Data Centre (ISSDC), located at the IDSN campus, is the primary data centre for data archives of
Indian Space Science Missions.
IDSN complex comprises of Deep Space Antennas of 18 m and 32 m capable of supporting
interplanetary missions. It also houses 11 m antenna facility to support earth bound scientific missions.
The ISSDC is designed to host the science data archives and the custodian of all the science data from
the Indian science missions and has a state-of-the-art infrastructure to cater to the needs of planetary,
interplanetary, scientific and outer space missions.
ISSDC has hosted 1603 products acquired during the First Year of MOM operations in Martian Orbit
from all the five instruments of the satellite. ISSDC has the major challenges ahead to provide mission
support for the upcoming lunar mission Chandrayaan-2, Solar mission Aditya-L1 and other future
planetary and scientific missions of ISRO. To cater to the needs of a variety of missions, ISSDC has
the state-of-the-art infrastructure of Storage, Processing Servers, Communication Network and
advanced computation applications.
Vikram Sarabhai Space Center (VSSC) Thiruananthpuram
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram, is the lead centre of ISRO responsible
for the design and development of launch vehicle technology. The Centre pursues active research and
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development in the fields of aeronautics, avionics, materials, mechanisms, vehicle integration,
chemicals, propulsion, space ordnance, structures, space physics and systems reliability.
The Centre undertakes crucial responsibilities of design, manufacturing, analysis, development and
testing related to the realisation of subsystems for the different missions. These are sustained by
activities towards program.
Planning, execution and maintenance of all civil works related to the Centre is also carries out. The
Centre depends on administrative and auxiliary services for support.
VSSC has extension Centres at Valiamala housing major facilities of mechanisms, vehicle integration
and testing and at Vattiyoorkavu for the development of composites. The Ammonium Perchlorate
Experimental Plant (APEP) has been set up by VSSC at Aluva near Kochi. The major Programs at
VSSC include Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(GSLV) and Rohini Sounding Rockets as well as the development of Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle (GSLV) Mk Ill, Reusable Launch Vehicles, advanced technology vehicles, air-
breathing propulsion and critical technologies towards human spaceflight.
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) Thiruananthpuram
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) is a government-aided institute and deemed
university for the study and research of space science, located at Valiamala, Nedumangad
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. It is the first university in Asia to be solely dedicated to the study and
research of Outer space.
It was inaugurated on 14 September 2007 by G. Madhavan Nair, the then Chairman of ISRO. IIST was
set up by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) under the Department of Space, Government
of India. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, former President of India, was the Chancellor of IIST. IIST offers
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regular engineering undergraduate, postgraduate and doctorate programs with focus on space science,
technology and applications.
Envisioned to fulfill the requirements of scientists and engineers in the Indian Space Program, by
offering undergraduate and postgraduate education and research Programs in space science and
technology, the institute started functioning from the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) campus,
Thiruvananthapuram, on 14 September 2007.
It is the only institute of its kind in India, which offers a B. Tech degree in Space Technology, and
subjects exclusive to the arena of space science and technology. On 14 July 2008, the Union Human
Resource Development Ministry, on the advice of the University Grants Commission (UGC),
conferred deemed university status.
At its inception, the institute started functioning at the ATF Campus, under Vikram Sarabhai Space
Centre, Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), Kerala. A state-of-the-art residential campus built near
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre in Valiamala, Nedumangad, Thiruvananthapuram was inaugurated
by Dr. Manmohan Singh, the then Prime Minister of India on 25 August 2009. The institute started
functioning in its new campus from 15 August 2010. The seats are limited to 20 in the dual degree
program from the existing 36 in Physical Sciences. 60 students each are admitted to the Aerospace and
Avionics branches.
National Remote Sensing Center (NRSC) Hyderabad
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) at Hyderabad is responsible for remote sensing satellite data
acquisition and processing, data dissemination, aerial remote sensing and decision support for disaster
management. NRSC has a data reception station at Shadnagar near Hyderabad for acquiring data from
Indian remote sensing satellites as well as others.

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NRSC Ground station at Shadnagar acquires Earth Observation data from Indian remote-sensing
satellites as well as from different foreign satellites. NRSC is also engaged in executing remote
sensing application projects in collaboration with the users. The Aerial Services and Digital Mapping
(ASDM) Area provides end-to-end Aerial Remote Sensing services and value-added solutions for
various large-scale applications like aerial photography and digital mapping, infrastructure planning,
scanner surveys, aeromagnetic surveys, large scale base map, topographic and cadastral level mapping,
etc.
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) Dehradoon
The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing is a premier institute for research, higher education and
training in the field of Remote Sensing, Geoinformatics and GPS Technology for Natural Resources,
Environmental and Disaster Management under the Indian Department of Space, which was
established in the year 1966. It is located in the city of Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
Formerly known as Indian Photo-interpretation Institute (IPI), the Institute was founded on 21 April
1966 under the aegis of Survey of India (SOI). It was established with the collaboration of the
Government of The Netherlands on the pattern of Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth
Observation (ITC) of the University of Twente, formerly known as International Institute for
Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, Netherlands.
The Institute's building at Kalidas Road, Dehradun was inaugurated on 27 May 1972. Since its
founding, the Institute has been playing a key role in capacity building in remote sensing and geo-
informatics technology and their applications for the benefit of the user community from India and
abroad. Today, it has programs for all levels of users, i.e. mid-career professionals, researchers,
academia, fresh graduates and policy makers.

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NRSA converted into a government entity under DOS/ISRO NRSA is closely associated with various
programs of the Department of Space (DOS)/Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), in
particular, the Earth Observation Program, Disaster Management Support and other programs of
national importance. To enable NRSA to carry out its responsibilities in a more effective manner, the
Government has after careful consideration, decided to convert it into a Government entity, to be
called a National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), a Centre under DOS/ISRO, effective 1 September
2008.
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)
Originally ICMR was established as the Indian Research Fund Association in 1911 to promote
research in the field of medicine. After independence in 1949 it was renamed as ICMR. This research
institute is working under the Ministry of Health, Government of India. Its headquarters is located in
New Delhi. This institute has done research on diseases like Kovid-19, Tuberculosis, Leprosy, Kalra,
Diarrhea. The most significant achievement of this institute is that it has developed the indigenous
vaccine covaxineof Covid-19 in association with Bharat Biotech. The National Institute of Virology, a
subsidiary arm of this institute, has played an important role in the development of this vaccine.
Another vaxine of Covid is Covishield has been developed by Oxford University and British Swedish
multinational AstraZeneca. This vaccine is being produced by the Indian company Serum Institute of
India, based in Pune. The head of this company is Adar Poonawalla. The Serum Institute of India was
founded in 1966 by Cyrus Poonawalla.
Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Delhi
This institute is a premier institute of India for research related to biology. It was established in 1977
as Center for Bio-Chemical Technology. The institute has two campuses in Delhi. Since 1998, the
institute has been carrying out research related to genomic. In 2002, the institute was named as
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Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology. In 2009, a team at the institute sequenced the genome
of the wild-type zebrafish,In December 2009, scientists at IGIB performed the first re-sequencing of a
human genome in India. The indigenous ventilator was developed by the institute during the Covid-19
Pandemic.
Indian Institute of Petroleum
The Indian Institute of Petroleum was established in 1960 in New Delhi to conduct basic research
work on hydrocarbons or fossil fuels which was shifted to Uttarakhand's capital Dehradun in 1963.
The Patrolium Research Institute of France played an instrumental role in its establishment. This
institute licenses all petroleum refineries in India.
Institute of Microbial Technology
This institute was established in 1984 in Chandigarh for research and development work on
microorganisms such as bacteria virus etc. This institute conducts research related to improvement
immunity and treatment of infectious diseases. This institute has developed a drug called Streptokines
is useful to prevent blood clotting that prevents blood clots from freezing in the human body.
National Physics Laboratory
This institute was established in New Delhi on 4 January 1947. The main function of this laboratory is
to maintain the International System of Units (SI Unit) in India. During the election, the ink applied to
the finger was developed by this institute. This ink is manufactured by Mysore Paints and Varnish
Limited. This led to an accurate determination of the Indian standard time based on CGM atomic
clock and hydrogen masers. This watch is so accurate that it shows an error of one second in about 3
lakh years.
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Indian Council of Agricultural Research
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research was established in New Delhi on 16 July 1929 during the
British rule to promote research work in agriculture. It is the largest network of agricultural research
and educational institutes in the world. The Union Minister of Agriculture serves as its president.
This institute developed a vaccine for bird flu in 2006. This vaccine was developed by High Security
Animal Disease Laboratory. In 2011, the genome sequence of Tur dal (Pigeon Pea) was detected by
this institute. It is the first institute in the world to do so. In order to provide various types of
agriculture related informations to farmersKisan App was developed in 2019 by this institute in 12
Indian languages.
National Institute of Disaster Management
The National Institute of Disaster Management was established on 11 August 2004 as a training
institute on capacity building and disaster management against natural and man-made disasters. It was
granted statutory status under the National Disaster Management Act 1995. The headquarters of this
institute is located in New Delhi. The institute provides facilities like classroom, seminars halls, GIS
lab and video conferencing to facilitate training and capacity development. The institute is functioning
under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The annual meetings of the SAARC Disaster Management Center
are organized by this institution.
Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC)
The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) is an Indian autonomous scientific
society, operating under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology. C-DAC was created
in November 1988, originally as the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing Technology (C-
DACT).
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This was in response to issues purchasing supercomputers from foreign sources. After being denied a
Cray supercomputer by the United States in 1988, due to military use concerns, India started a
programme to develop an indigenous supercomputer and C-DAC was created as part of this program.
The final result of the effort was the PARAM 8000, released in 1991. It is considered to be India's first
supercomputer. The National Centre for Software Technology, Electronic Research and Development
Center and CEDTI were merged into C-DAC in 2003.
Space Technology
The purpose of space technology is to ensure the use of space in the socioeconomic development of
the nation.
INCOSPAR and ISRO
Indian Space Technology was started with establishment of Indian National Committee for Space
Research (INCOSPAR) in 1962. It was established under the Department of Atomic Energy.
INCOSPAR grew into ISRO. The Indian Space Research Organisation is the space agency of India
established on 15 August 1969 with headquarters in the city of Bengaluru.Vikram Sarabhai played
important role in establishment of INCOSPAR and ISRO. He is known as father of Indian Space
Technology. In 1972 Government of India setup a Space Commission and the Department of Space.
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS)
The Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station was established on 2st November 1963 at Thumba,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. It is currently used by ISRO for launching sounding rockets. Sounding
rockets are one or two stage solid propellant rockets used for probing the upper atmospheric regions
and for space research. Now it is called Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre.
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Satish Dhawan Space Centre or Sriharikota Range (SHAR)
Satish Dhawan Space Centre or Sriharikota Range is satellite launching centre of ISRO located at
Sriharikota in Nellore district Andhra Pradesh. The first object that was launched from Sriharikota was
RH-125 rocket. It was a two-stage rocket using a solid propellant, carrying a 7 kilograms (15 lb)
payload to 19 kilometres in altitude launched in 1971.
The first Rohini 1A was first satellite launched from Sriharikotaon 10 Aug 1979 but it was failed.
Aryabhata
Aryabhata was India's first satellite, named after the famous Indian astronomer. It was launched on 19
April 1975 from Kapustin Yar, a Russian rocket launch and development site in Astrakhan Oblast
using a Kosmos-3M launch vehicle. It was built by the ISRO.
RS-1
Rohini Series 1 was the first satellite successfully launched by the indigenous launch vehicle SLV. It
was successfully launched on 18 July 1980 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
Types of Indian Satellite Launcher Vehicles
Launchers or Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space.
Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)
The Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) project born out of the need for achieving indigenous satellite
launch capability. SLV3, India‘s first experimental launch vehicle, was capable of placing 40 kg class
payloads in Low Earth Orbit (LEO). It launched successfully placed Rohini satellite, into the orbit on
18 July 1980 from Sriharikota Range.

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Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)
The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) Programme was designed to augment the payload
capacity to 150 kg, thrice that of SLV-3, for Low Earth Orbits (LEO).With a lift off weight of 40
tonnes, ASLV was configured as a five stage, all-solid propellant vehicle to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
The PSLV has four stages using solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately. The first stage is one
of the largest solid rocket boosters in the world, carries 136 tons of hydroxyl-terminated
polybutadiene-bound (HTPB) propellant. The second stage is powered by a single Vikas engine and
carries 40.8 tons of Earth storeable liquid propellant – unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as
fuel and nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) as oxidizer. The PSLV was first launched on 20 September 1993.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle project was initiated in 1990 with the objective of
acquiring an Indian launch capability for geosynchronous satellites. It is a three-stage vehicle with
solid, liquid and cryogenic stages respectively. The GSLV can place approximately 5,000 kg into an
easterly low Earth orbit (LEO) or 2,500 kg into a geostationary transfer orbit.
The CE-7.5 is a cryogenic rocket engine built at the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre of Indian
Space Research Organisation to power the upper stage of its GSLV Mk-2 launch vehicle. The GS2
stage is powered by the Vikas engine. The Vikas after the name of VIKram Ambalal Sarabhai is a
family of liquid fuelled rocket engines designed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre in the
1970s.
Mark III
Mark III is a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle developed by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO). It is also referred to as the Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LVM3). Chandrayaan-2,
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lunar mission of india was launched by GSLV Mk III. It will be used to carry Gaganyaan, the first
crewed mission under Indian Human Spaceflight Program. It is powered by the CE-20 engine. It is the
first cryogenic engine developed by India which uses a gas generator, as compared to the staged
combustion engines used in GSLV.
Mangalyaan
The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also called Mangalyaan is a space probe orbiting Mars since 24
September 2014. It was launched on 5 November 2013 by ISRO. It is India's first interplanetary
mission and it made it the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after Roscosmos, NASA, and the
European Space Agency. It made India the first Asian nation to reach Martian orbit and the first nation
in the world to do so on its maiden attempt. It was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre
using PSLV C25 at on 5 November 2013. After a 298-day transit to Mars, it was inserted into Mars
orbit on 24 September 2014.
Chandrayaan-1
Chandrayaan-1 was the first Indian lunar probe under Chandrayaan program. It was launched by the
ISRO by PSLV-XL on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, at Sriharikota. The
mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor. On 14 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe
separated from the Chandrayaan orbiter and struck the South Pole in a controlled manner, making
India the fourth country to place its flag insignia on the Moon. The probe hit near the crater
Shackleton ejecting sub-surface soil that could be analysed for the presence of lunar water ice. The
location of impact was named as Jawahar Point.

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Mission Chandrayaan-2
Chandrayaan- 2 is the second lunar exploration mission developed by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO), after Chandrayaan-1. It consisted of a lunar orbiter-Vikram lander, and Pragyan
lunar rover. The main scientific objective is to map and study the variations in lunar surface
composition, as well as the location and abundance of lunar water. The spacecraft was launched from
the Satish Dhawan Space Centre on 22 July 2019 by a GSLV Mk III. The craft reached the Moon's
orbit on 20 August 2019 and began orbital positioning manoeuvres for the landing of the Vikram
lander. Vikram and the rover were scheduled to land on the near side of the Moon, in the South Polar
Region on 6 September 2019. However, the lander deviated from its intended trajectory starting at 2.1
kilometres altitude, and had lost communication when touchdown confirmation was expected.
Gaganyaan
Gaganyaan is India‘s first crewed spacecraft. The spacecraft is being designed to carry three people. In
its maiden crewed mission of ISRO a capsule will orbit the Earth at 400 km altitude for up to seven
days with a two or three-person crew on board. The crewed vehicle was originally planned to be
launched on ISRO's GSLV Mk III in December 2021, but due to Covid it has been delayed to no
earlier than 2023. This Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) manufactured crew module had its first
un-crewed experimental flight on 18 December 2014.Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO) will provide support for critical human-centric systems and technologies like
space grade food, crew healthcare, radiation measurement and protection, parachutes for the safe
recovery of the crew module and fire suppression system.
The Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (HSP) was initiated in 2007. If completed in meantime,
India will become the fourth nation to conduct independent human spaceflight after the Soviet
Union/Russia, United States and China.

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Vyommitra
Vyommitra is a female-looking humanoid robot developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation
to function on-board the Gaganyaan. Vyommitra was first unveiled on 22 January 2020 at the Human
Spaceflight and Exploration symposium in Bengaluru.
It is programmed to speak Hindi and English and perform multiple tasks. It can mimic human activity,
recognise other humans, and respond to their queries. Technically, it can perform environment control
and life support systems functions, handle switch panel operations, and give environmental air
pressure change warnings.
FEDOR
FEDOR is a Russian humanoid robot that replicates movements of a remote operator and can perform
some actions autonomously. Originally intended for rescue operations, it was sent on an experimental
mission to the International Space Station in 2019.
Kirobo
Kirobo is Japan's first robot astronaut, developed by University of Tokyo and Tomotaka Takahashi, to
accompany Koichi Wakata, the first Japanese commander of the International Space Station.
Robonaut
A robonaut is a humanoid robot, part of a development project conducted by the Dexterous Robotics
Laboratory at NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas.
Chandrayaan-3
Chandrayaan-3 is a planned third lunar exploration mission by ISRO. Chandrayaan-3 will be a
mission repeat of Chandrayaan-2 but will only include a lander and rover similar to that of
Chandrayaan-2. It will not have an orbiter. The project is planned to be launched sometime in 2022.
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A Moon landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon.
First man made object on Moon
The first human-made object to touch the Moon was the Soviet Union's Luna 2, on 13 September
1959.
First crewed mission on Moon
The United States' Apollo 11 was the first crewed mission to land on the Moon, on 20 July 1969 with
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin.
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin was a Russian pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human to journey
into outer space completed one orbit of Earth on 12 April 1961.
Lunar Polar Exploration mission (LUPEX)
The Lunar Polar Exploration mission (LUPEX) is a robotic lunar mission concept by Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) that would send a
lunar rover and lander to explore the south pole region of the Moon in 2024. JAXA is likely to provide
the under-development H3 launch vehicle and the rover, while ISRO would be responsible for the
lander.
Types of Satellites
Satellite refers to a machine that is launched into space and moves around Earth. There are four types
of satellites- Polar Satellite, Geostationary Satellites, Remote Sensing Satellite and Communication
Satellites.
Polar satellites
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Polar satellites revolve in an orbit closely follows the Earth‘s meridian lines, passing within 20 or 30
degrees of the North and South Poles once with each revolution. The Earth rotates to the east beneath
the satellite, and the satellite monitors a narrow strip running from north to south.
Polar satellite takes around an hour and a half for a full revolution. As the satellite is in orbit, the Earth
is rotating beneath it. As a result, a satellite can observe the entire Earth‘s surface over a 24-hour
period. Polar satellite is launched at a low altitude, between 200 and 1000 km above the surface, as
compared to an altitude of around 35,800 km for geostationary satellites. This means that polar
satellites can take much higher resolution images that geostationary satellites. The big drawback of a
polar satellite is that it cannot continuously communicate with or sense a single spot on the Earth‘s
surface.
Geostationary satellite
A geostationary satellite is an earth-orbiting satellite, placed at an altitude of approximately 35,800
kilometers (22,300 miles) directly over the equator, that revolves in the same direction the earth
rotates (west to east). At this altitude, one orbit takes 24 hours, the same length of time as the earth
requires to rotate once on its axis. The geostationary satellite appears motionless at a fixed position in
the sky to ground observers. There are several hundred communication satellites and several
meteorological satellites in such an orbit. The first geostationary communication satellite was Syncom
3, launched on August 19, 1964, with a Delta D launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral. The satellite, in
orbit approximately above the International Date Line, was used to telecast the 1964 Summer
Olympics in Tokyo to the United States.
Remote Sensing Satellites
The Indian Remote Sensing satellite system has one of the largest constellations of remote sensing
satellites in operation in the world today. Remote sensors collect data by detecting the energy that is
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reflected from Earth. These sensors are mounted on satellites revolving into Low Earth Orbits or Polar
Orbits. India's remote sensing is known as Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) started in 1988 with the IRS-
1A.
Some examples of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites
1. Megha-Tropiques
Megha-Tropiques is an Indo-French Joint Satellite Mission for studying the water cycle and
energy exchanges in the tropics.
2. RESOURCESAT – 1
RESOURCESAT – 1, a satellite in IRS series, was launched onboard PSLV – C5 in 2003. The
images and data are being used for advanced applications like vegetation dynamics, crop yield
estimates, disaster management support.
3. CARTOSAT – 1
CARTOSAT – 1 was launched in 2005 on board PSLV – C6. The data from Cartosat-1 is used for
the preparation of cartographic maps, cadastral mapping updation, land use and GIS applications.
4. OCEANSAT – 2
The main objectives of OCEANSAT– 2 are to study surface winds and ocean surface strata,
observation of chlorophyll concentrations, monitoring of phytoplankton blooms, study of
atmospheric aerosols and suspended sediments in the water.
5. RISAT – 2
RISAT – 2 is a Radar Imaging Satellite using an active SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) imager
with all weather capability to take images of the earth. This Satellite will enhance ISRO‘s
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capability for Disaster Management applications. India‘s first satellite with SAR and has a day-
night, all-weather monitoring capability.
6. SARAL
SARAL or Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa is a cooperative altimetry technology mission of
ISRO and CNES (Space Agency of France), was successfully launched in 2013. The overall
objectives are to assess development of operational oceanography, understanding of climate and
developing forecasting capabilities.
Sun-synchronous satellites
This type of polar orbit can be used to keep the satellite in constant sunlight, providing power to its
solar panels. Because the satellite passes over a given point at the same time each day, the angle of
surface illumination is nearly the same each time. This consistent lighting is very useful for innovative
remote sensing applications such as mapping the bottom of the sea, determining soil moisture, locating
illegal construction, predicting retail earnings by counting cars in mall parking lots, detecting oil spills,
and, of course, for spying.
Communications satellites
Communications satellites allow radio, television, and telephone transmissions to be sent live
anywhere in the world. The signals, which travel in straight lines, could not bend around the round
Earth to reach a destination far away. Because satellites are in orbit, the signals can be sent
instantaneously into space and then redirected to another satellite or directly to their destination. The
satellite can have a passive role in communications like bouncing signals from the Earth back to
another location on the Earth; on the other hand, some satellites carry electronic devices called
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transponders for receiving, amplifying, and re-broadcasting signals to the Earth. Communications
satellites are often in geostationary orbit.
Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system
The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic communication satellite
systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational communication satellites placed in Geo-
stationary orbit. Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a major revolution
in India‘s communications sector and sustained the same later. GSAT-17 joins the constellation of
INSAT System consisting 15 operational satellites, namely - INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR and
GSAT-6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 18.
The INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-bands provides
services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite newsgathering, societal applications,
weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue operations.
Few Famous Space Exploration Missions
Spacecraft Planet Agency
Apollo Moon NASA
Messenger Mercury NASA
Curiosity – Robotic Rover Mars NASA
Viking Mars NASA
Pioneer Jupiter NASA
Cassini Saturn NASA / ESA / ASI
(Italy)
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New Horizon Pluto NASA
Aditya (2017-18) Solar Corona ISRO
Rosetta Asteroids & Comets ESA (Europe)
Phoenix Collection of soil samples NASA
near the northern pole to
search for water at Mars
Mars Orbiter Mission Mars ISRO
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)
The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), with an operational name of NAVIC
(acronym for NAVigation with Indian Constellation) is an autonomous regional (not global) satellite
navigation system that provides accurate real-time positioning and timing services. It covers India and
a region extending 1,500 km around it. The system currently consists of a constellation of seven
satellites, with two additional satellites on ground as stand-by.
At present only two countries have fully functional global navigation systems
USA GPS – Global
Russia GLONASS – Global
China Beidou – Regional → Will be global by 2020
Japan Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
European Union Galileo (GNSS)

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Global Positioning System Aided Geo Augmented Navigation System (GAGAN)
GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation) developed jointly by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) and the Airport Authority of India (AAI) is more accurate than any other global
positioning system currently available.
The GAGAN's goal is to provide a navigation system to assist aircraft in accurate landing over the
Indian airspace and in the adjoining area and applicable to safety-to-life civil operations. It works with
the help of 3 Geostationary Satellites viz. GSAT-8, GSAT-10 and GSAT-15. Services of GAGAN
would also be available for the member states of the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC)
ASTROSAT
It is India‘s 1st dedicated astronomy multi-wavelength satellite, aimed at studying distant celestial
objects. ASTROSAT will observe universe in the optical, ultraviolet, low and high energy X-ray
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
ENVIRONMENT
Environment may be defined as presence of biotic and abiotic components around us. Environment is
everything that is around us. It can be living (biotic) or non-living (abiotic) things.
Ecosystem and Environment
Environment is the presence of biotic and abiotic components around us and Ecosystem is
interrelation between biotic and abiotic components of environment.
Environment and atomoshphere
An atmosphere is a mass of gases around the planet. Atomosphere is attached with the gravity of
planet. Atmosphere is a part of environment.

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Environment pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse impact
on human life and life of other living being. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or
energy, such as noise, heat or light. The components of pollution are called pollutants.
Air Pollution
Air pollution occurs when excessive quantity of pollutants including gases, particles, and biological
molecules are introduced into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies and even death to
humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may
damage the natural or built environment.
Substances emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as the leading pollutant and the worst
climate pollution. CO2 currently forms about 410 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere,
compared to about 280 ppm in pre-industrial times.
Sulfur oxides (SOx)
Sulphur dioxideis produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum
often contain sulphur compounds, and their combustion generates sulphur dioxide. Oxidation of SO2,
usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4. It causes acid rain.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and
are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome
above or a plume downwind of cities.

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Carbon monoxide (CO)
CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product of combustion of fuel such as
natural gas, coal or wood. It creates a smog type formation in the air that has been linked to many lung
diseases and disruptions to the natural environment and animals.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC)
VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. The aromatic VOCs such as benzene, toluene and
xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure.
Freon
Freon are stable, nonflammable, low toxicity gases or liquids which have generally been used as
refrigerants and as aerosol propellants. These include the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that cause ozone
depletion and HCFCs (such as chlorodifluoromethane).
Vienna Convention
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a multilateral environmental agreement
signed in 1985 that provided frameworks for international reductions in the production of
chlorofluorocarbons.
Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty designed to
protect the ozone layer. It was agreed on 26 August 1987, and entered into force on 16 September
1989.
Ammonia
It is emitted mainly by agricultural waste. Ammonia is used in manufacturing of fertilizers and many
types of medicins. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere,
ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulphur to form secondary particles.
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Fly ash
Fly ash is ejected mostly by thermal power plants and bricks plants as byproducts of coal burning
operations. Fly ash pollutes air and water and may cause heavy metal pollution in water bodies.
Fly ash affects vegetation as a result of its direct deposition on leaf surfaces or indirectly through its
deposition on soil.
Lead
It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc. It can cause nervous system
damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.
Benzene
Benzene is a natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals. Because
benzene has a high-octane number, it is an important component of gasoline. Benzene increases
the risk of cancer and other illnesses. Benzene is a notorious cause of bone marrow failure.
National Air Quality Monitoring Program
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been executing a nationwide Program of ambient air
quality monitoring known as National Air Quality Monitoring Program (NAMP).
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
The NAAQS have been revisited and revised in November 2009 for 12 pollutants, which include
sulphur dioxide (S02), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter having micron (PM10), particulate
matter having size less than 2.5 micron (PM2.5), ozone, lead, carbon monoxide (CO), arsenic, nickel,
benzene, ammonia, and benzoate.
National Air Quality Index (AQI)
It is launched by the Environment Ministry in April 2015.This initiative was taken under ‗Swachh
Bharat Abhiyan‘. It helps the common man to judge the air quality within his vicinity. There are six
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AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe. The
proposed AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM 2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb).
Electrostatic Precipitator
It is most widely way of removing particulate matter from atmosphere, which can remove over 99 per
cent particulate matter present in the exhaust from a thermal power plant.
Scrubber
A scrubber can remove gases like sulphur dioxide. In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray
of water or lime.
Bharat stage emission standards (BSES)
Bharat stage emission standards are emission standards instituted by the Government of India to
regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines. The standards and the timeline
for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change.The standards, based on European regulations were first introduced in
2000. Progressively stringent norms have been rolled out since then.
All new vehicles manufactured after the implementation of the norms have to be compliant with the
regulations.Since October 2010, Bharat Stage (BS) III norms have been enforced across the country.
In 13 major cities, Bharat Stage IV emission norms have been in place since April 2010 and it has
been enforced for entire country since April 2017. In 2016, the Indian government announced that the
country would skip the BS-V norms altogether and adopt BS-VI norms by 2020.In its recent
judgment, the Supreme Court has banned the sale and registration of motor vehicles conforming to the
emission standard Bharat Stage-IV in the entire country from 1st April 2020.On November 15, 2017
The Petroleum Ministry of India in consultation with Public Oil Marketing Companies decided to
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bring forward the date of BS-VI grade auto fuels in NCT of Delhi with effect from April 1, 2018
instead of April 1, 2020.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be visualized as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms (producers,
consumers, and decomposers) interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical
environment.
Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large forest or a sea. Forest, grassland and
desert are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are some
examples of aquatic ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be considered as man-made
ecosystems. In the ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient
cycles and energy flows.
Ecology
Ecology is the branch of science which studies the interactions among organisms and their
environment. The word "ecology" ("Ökologie") was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst
Haeckel. It is derived from to Greek words Oikos means the place of living and Logos means
scientific study.
Environment and Habitat
Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives (it refers to the address of an
organism). A single habitat may be common for more than one organism. For example, a single
aquatic habitat may support a fish, frog, crab, phytoplankton and many other kinds of organisms.
Biosphere
The biosphere is the biological habitate on earth that includes lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere.
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Components of an Ecosystem
There are two components of ecosystem – 1. Abiotic or non-living and 2. Biotic or living
components.
Abiotic Components of Ecosystem
Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living parts. Major abiotic components are as follows-
1. Light: The spectral quality of solar radiation is important for life. The UV component of the
spectrum is harmful to many organisms.
2. Rainfall: Majority of biochemical reactions take place in an aqueous medium. These biochemical
reactions are important for survival of an organism. So rainfall is an important limiting factor.
3. Temperature: Latitudinal insolation decides the temperature range of a region. A few organisms
can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of temperatures (they are called eurythermal), but, a vast
majority of them are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures (such organisms are
called stenothermal).
4. Atmosphere: 21% oxygen helps in survival of many organisms, 78% nitrogen prevents
spontaneous combustion and 0.038% carbon dioxide helps primary producers in the synthesis
of carbohydrates.
5. Organic and Inorganic compound: Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids etc. are essential for energy
transfer in the living world. Carbon, carbon dioxide, water, sulphur, nitrates, phosphates, and ions
of various metals are essential for organisms to survive.
6. Altitude: Vertical zonation of vegetation is caused due to altitude. Change in temperature with
altitude is the limiting factor.
Biotic Components
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Biotic components are the organic and living parts of environment. Major abiotic components are as
follows-
1. Primary producers – Autotrophs (self-nourishing)
The primary source of energy for almost every ecosystem on Earth is the sun. Primary producers
use energy from the sun to produce their own food in the form of glucose. Primary producers are
photosenthetic, they form glucose from corban dioxide and water in presence of sunlight. All the
green plants are example of primary producers. Primary producers are placed in the first trophic
level. They are also called autotroph.
2. Consumers — Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs (other nourishing)
Consumers are incapable of producing their own food. They depend on organic food derived from
plants, animals or both.
3. Decomposers or detrivores
They are also called Saprotrophs (decomposers or osmotrophs). A decomposer is an organism that
decomposes, or breaks down, organic material such as the remains of dead organisms (detritus).
Decomposers include bacteria and fungi. Earthworm and several organisms found in soil (such as
nematodes, and arthropods) are detritus feeders. They help in the decomposition of organic matter
and are called detrivores.
Ecotone
An ecotone is a zone where two habitates meet together. For example the mangrove forests represent
an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.
Ecological Niche
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Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem. In
nature, many species occupy the same habitat but they perform different functions. Habitat of a
species refers its ‗address‘ (i.e. where it lives) while niche shows their ―profession‖ (i.e. activities and
responses specific to the species).
Types of ecosystem
Ecosystem may by classified into two types - Natural and Artificial. Natural Ecosystem may be further
classified into two types – 1. Terrestrial Ecosystem (Biomes) 2. Aquatic Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystem
Ecosystems found on land e.g. forest, grasslands, deserts, tundra.
1. Tundra Biome
Tundra biome extends in a continuous belt below the polar ice cap and above the tree line (taiga)
in the northern hemisphere. It is found in Canada, Alaska, European Russia, Siberia and island
group of Arctic Ocean. Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens are found here and there.
Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, musk-ox, polar bear, lemming, arctic hare, and
arctic willow live in tundra region. Most of the animals have long life e.g. arctic willow has a life
span of 150 to 300 years.
2. Taiga or Boreal Biome
This type of Biom is found below the Tundra biome. The predominant vegetation is evergreen
coniferous forest. Conifers are evergreen plant species such as Spruce, fir and pine trees, etc.
Animals found in this region include Siberian tiger, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel, and
amphibians like Hyla.
3. Temperate Deciduous Biome (North Western Europe)

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The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous forest. The trees shed their leaves in
the cold season. This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost.
Shedding begins in autumn, the ‗fall‘ season. Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash,
birch, beech, and poplar.
4. Temperate Rainforest Biome
Temperate rain forests receive an annual precipitation of 200 cm, mostly due to on shore
westerlies. Precipitation occurs in the form of fog. This is a small biome in terms of area covered.
The main stretch of this habitat is along the north western coast of North America from northern
California though southern Alaska. Big coniferous trees dominate this habitat, including Douglas
fir, Western red cedar, Mountain hemlock, Western hemlock, Sitka spruce and Lodge pole pine.
In addition to the trees, mosses and lichens are very common.
5. Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees. On the highlands,
there are various species of coniferous such as pines and cypresses which are important Perennial
plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.
6. Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Region)
Parts of the world that have Mediterranean type of climate are characterized by warm, dry
summers and cool, moist winters. Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very
tall. They are, in short xerophytes (drought tolerant), a word used to describe the drought-resistant
plants in an environment deficient in moisture.
7. Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)

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Places like Cherrapunji&Mawsynram receive an annual rainfall of about 1000 cm. Teak, neem,
bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry are some of the important species found
here.
8. Savanna Biome
This type of biome has alternate wet and dry seasons similar to monsoon climate but
has considerably less annual rainfall. Also, there is no distinct rainy season like in monsoon
climate. Only two seasons – winter and summer. Rains occur in summer. The savanna landscape
is typified by tall grass and short trees. The grasslands are also called as ‗bush-veld‘. The trees
are deciduous. The elephant grass may attain a height of even 15 feet.
9. Tropical Rain Forest Biome
It is also known as ‗The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate‘, ‗and Equatorial Rainforest Climate‘.
Temperature is uniform throughout the yearIn the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense that it
is called ‗selvas‘. (Selvas - A dense tropical rainforest usually having a cloud cover (dense
canopy)). The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical
hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
Desert Biome
Deserts are regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation. There are mainly two types – hot desert
like Sahara Desertand temperatedeserts or mid-latitude deserts like the GobiDesert.
1. Hot Deserts
They include the biggest Sahara Desert , Great Australian Desert, Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert,
Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts. In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into
U.S.A. and is called by different names at different places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran,
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Californian and Mexican Deserts. In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert is
the driest of all deserts with less than 2 cm of rainfall annually.
2. Mid-Latitude Deserts
The temperate deserts are rainless because of either continentiality or rain-shadow effect.
Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateau and are at a considerable distance
from the sea. These are Ladakh, The KyzylKum, Turkestan, Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of
Central Asia, drier portions of the Great Basin Desert of the western United States and Patagonian
Deserts of Argentina etc. Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of less
than 25 cm.
Temperate Grassland Biome
Temperate Grassland Region
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions
Prairies North America (between the foothills
of the Rockies and the Great Lakes)
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay (Rain-shadow
effect)
Bush-veldt (more tropical) Northern South Africa
High Veldt (more temperate) Southern South Africa
Downs Australia - Murray-Darling basin of
southern Australia
Canterbury New Zealand

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Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystem refers to plant and animal communities occurring in water bodies. Aquatic
ecosystems are classified on the basis of salinity into following types –
1. Fresh water ecosystems
Water on land which is continuously cycling and has low salt content (always less than 5 ppt) is
known as fresh water. There are two types of fresh water ecosystems- (i) Static or still water
(Lentic) ecosystems e.g. pond, lake, bogs and swamps. (ii) Running water (Lotic) ecosystems e.g.
springs, mountain brooks, streams and rivers.
2. Marine ecosystems
The water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of sea water (i.e., 35 ppt or
above). Eg- shallow seas and open ocean.
3. Brackish water ecosystems
These water bodies have salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove
swamps and forests.
4. Estuarine Ecosystem
An estuary is a place where a river or a stream opens into the sea (mouth of the river). It is a
partially enclosed coastal area of brackish water (salinity varies between 0-35 ppt) with one or
more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea.
Mangroves
Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral (near the sea shore) forest ecosystem. These are mostly
evergreen forests that grow in sheltered low lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creeks backwaters
(coastal waters held back on land), marshes and lagoons of tropical and subtropical regions.
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Energy Flow through an Ecosystem – Trophic Levels
Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources.
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.At the first trophic level,
primary producers (plants, algae, and some bacteria) use solar energy to produce organic plant
material through photosynthesis.
Herbivoresanimals that feed solely on plantsmake up the second trophic level. Predators that eat
herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if larger predators are present, they represent still higher
trophic levels. Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break down
wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil. On average about 10 percent of net energy
production at one trophic level is passed on to the next level.
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
An ecosystem's gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total amount of organic matter that it produces
through photosynthesis.
Net primary productivity (NPP)
It describes the amount of energy that remains available for plant growth after subtracting the fraction
that plants use for respiration.
Productivity in land ecosystems generally rises with temperature up to about 30°C, after which it
declines, and is positively correlated with moisture. On land primary productivity thus is highest in
warm, wet zones in the tropics where tropical forest biomes are located. In contrast, desert scrub
ecosystems have the lowest productivity because their climates are extremely hot and dry.
Among aquatic ecosystems, algal beds and coral reefs have the highest net primary production, while
the lowest rates occur in the open due to a lack of nutrients in the illuminated surface layers.
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Food Chain
Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with repeated
eating and being eaten link is called a food chain. E.g. Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake →
Hawk/Eagle. Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. There are two types of food chains-
1. Grazing food chain
The consumers which start the food chain, utilizing the plant or plant part as their food, constitute
the grazing food chain. This food chain begins from green plants at the base and the primary
consumer is herbivore.
2. Detritus food chain
This type of food chain starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and plant bodies.
Dead organic matter or detritus feeding organisms are called detrivores or decomposer. The
detrivores are eaten by predators.
Ecological Pyramids
The pyramidal representation of trophic levels of different organisms based on their ecological
position (producer to final consumer) is called as an ecological pyramid. The primary producers
formthe base of the pyramid. The ecological pyramids are of three categories- Pyramid of numbers,
Pyramid of biomass, and Pyramid of energy or productivity.
1. Pyramid of Numbers
Pyramid of numbers represents the total number of
individuals of different species (population) at each trophic
level. Depending upon the size, the pyramid of numbers may

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not always be upright, and may even be completely inverted. It is very difficult to count all the
organisms, in a pyramid of numbers and so the pyramid of number does not completely define the
trophic structure for an ecosystem.
Number Pyramid of grassland– upright
In this pyramid, the number of individuals is decreased from lower level to higher trophic level.
This type of pyramid can be seen in grassland ecosystem and pond ecosystem. In the grassland
individual number of grasshoppers is less than that of grass. The next
energy level is primary carnivore (example – rat). The number of rats are
less than grasshopper, because, they feed on grasshopper. Number
Pyramid for aquatic ecosystem is upright. This is because the producers
are tiny phytoplankton that grow and reproduce rapidly.
Number Pyramid a plant – inverted
In this pyramid, the number of individuals is increased from lower level to higher trophic level.
E.g. Tree ecosystem.
2. Biomass Pyramid
Pyramid of biomass is usually determined by collecting all organisms occupying each trophic
level separately and measuring their dry weight. Biomass is measured in g/m2. The biomass of a
species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight.
Biomass Pyramid of grassland – Upright
For most ecosystems on land, the pyramid of biomass has a large base
of primary producers with a smaller trophic level perched on top. The
biomass of producers (autotrophs) is at the maximum. The biomass of
next trophic level i.e. primary consumers is less than the producers.
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3. Biomass Pyramid of equatic ecosystem– Inverted
In contrast, in many aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass may
assume an inverted form. Here, the pyramid of biomass has a small
base, with the consumer biomass at any instant actually exceeding the
producer biomass and the pyramid assumes inverted shape.
4. Pyramid of Energy
To compare the functional roles of the trophic levels in an
ecosystem, an energy pyramid is most suitable. An energy pyramid
represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and loss of
energy at each transfer to another trophic level.
Hence the pyramid of energy is always upward, with a large
energy base at the bottom.
Law of Ten Per cent
This law was presented by Lindeman in 1942 According to which only 10 per cent of the energy is
transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. The decrease at each subsequent trophic
level is due to two reasons- first, at each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in
respiration or used up in metabolism. Second, a part of energy is lost at each transformation, i.e. when
it moves from lower to higher trophic level as heat.

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Biodiversity
The variety of life on Earth, its biological diversity is commonly referred to as biodiversity.
Main threats to biodiversity
In modern era, however, due to human action, species and ecosystem are threatened with destruction
to an extent rarely seen in earth's history. There are six main reasons for the extinction.
1. Over Hunting
Commercial hunting, both legal and illegal, is the principal threat over the species. Hunting causes
the endangerment of many species like whales and many Africans large mammals.
2. Habitat loss/ degradation/ fragmentation
As deforestation proceeds in tropical forests, this promise to become the cause of mass extinction
caused by human activities is fulfilled.
3. Invasion of non-native species
Taking the example of Nile Perch that was the exotic species in Lake Victoria. Their
establishment causes the extinction of many native fish species in the lake. Parthenium or Gajar
grass is also known as a terrorist plant.
4. Pollution
Pollution, generally, is not a cause of extinction, but it may affect the species whose range is
extremely small and threatened by contamination.
5. Climate Change
The distribution of species is largely determined by the climate. The change in climate may
simply shift this distribution, but for a no. of reasons, plants and animals may not be able to
adjust.
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6. Domino Effect
The domino effect states that when you make a change to one behavior it will activate a chain
reaction and cause a shift in related behaviors as well. For example poisoning of dingoes (dog like
animals) in Australia causes the increase in populations of large plant eating mammals like
Kangaroos and Wallabies. Due to which the vegetative grounds are removed and that causes the
removal protection of small mammals like rodents; that results in their excessive predation by the
foxes. This creates an instability in the biodiversity of the region.
Biodiversity Conservation
―Whatever we do to protect the number and variety of plants and animals is known as biodiversity
conservation‖.
Conservation Methods:
There are two types of conservation methods namely in-situ and ex-situ conservations.
In situ conservation:
The conservation of species in their natural habitat or natural ecosystem is known as in situ
conservation. In the process, the natural surrounding or ecosystem is protected and maintained so that
all the constituent species (known or unknown) are conserved and benefited.The protection and
management of biodiversity through in situ conservation involve certain specific areas known as
protected areas which include national parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves.
1. Protected areas:
The protected areas are biogeographical areas where biological diversity along with natural and
cultural resources are protected, maintained and managed through legal and administrative
measures. In these areas, hunting, firewood collection, timber harvesting etc. are prohibited so
that the wild plants and animals can grow and multiply freely without any hindrance.
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Reserved Forests
Rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc. in reserved forests are banned unless specific
orders are issued otherwise.
2. Protected Forests
In protected areas, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to
communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly
from forest resources or products. The first reserve forest in India was Satpura National Park in
Madhya Pradesh.
Some protected areas are: Cold desert (Ladakh and Spiti), Hot desert (Thar), Saline Swampy area
(Sunderban and Rann of Kutch), Tropical moist deciduous forest (Western Ghats and north East)
etc. Protected areas include national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves. There are 37,000
protected areas throughout the world. As per World Conservation Monitoring Centre, India has
581 protected areas, national parks and sanctuaries.
National parks:
These are the small reserves meant for the protection of wild life and their natural habitats. These are
maintained by government. The area of national parks ranges between 0.04 to 3162 km. The
boundaries are well demarcated and circumscribed. The activities like grazing forestry, cultivation and
habitat manipulation are not permitted in these areas. There are about 89 national parks in India.
Some important national Parks of India are:
1. Biological Park, Nandankanan, Orissa,
2. Corbett national Park Nainital, U.P. (First national Park)
3. Koziranga national Park, Jorhat, Assam
4. Tudula national Park, Maharashtra

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5. Hazaribagh national Park, Hazaribagh, Bihar
6. Bandhavgarh national park, M.P.
7. Bandipur national park, Karnataka.
8. Kanha National Park, M.P.
9. KeibulLamjao National Park, Manipur
10. Nawgaon National Park, Maharashtra
Marine National Park
India has several marine national parks which are home to number of marine creatures including Olive
Ridley sea turtles, saltwater crocodile and a medium-sized marine mammal known as Dugong. These
are swamp or large mangroves forest in India.
1. Rani Jhansi Marine National Park
Rani Jhansi Marine National Park is located in Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.
2. Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park
Gulf of Kutch is situated on the southern shore of the Gulf of in the Jamnagar of Gujarat. It is the
first national marine park of India with 42 islands on the Jamnagar coast in the Marine National
Park.
2. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park
Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park is a national park of India on the Andaman Islands,
Situated 29 km. from Port Blair. Most of the coral reefs in the park are fringing reefs and the park is
an important breeding ground for turtles.
3. Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary
Gahirmatha is the first and the only Marine Sanctuary of Orissa, number of marvelous creatures
including Olive Ridley sea turtles migrate in huge numbers. Gahirmatha Beach separates the
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Bhitarkanika mangroves from the Bay of Bengal is the world‘s most important nesting beach for
Olive Ridley Sea Turtles.
4. Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park
Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park consist of 21 small islands and coral reefs in the Gulf of
Mannar in the Indian Ocean of Tamil Nadu. The park has a high diversity of plants and animals in
its marine and shore habitats, Dugong, a vulnerable marine mammal also found here.
5. Malvan Marine Wildlife Sanctuary
Malvan Marine Sanctuary is the only marine sanctuary is located in Malvan Taluka of Sindhudurg
district in Konkan region of Maharashtra. The Malvan Wildlife Sanctuary includes Padamged
island and other submerged rocky structures.
Sanctuaries
These are the areas where only wild animals (fauna) are present. The activities like harvesting of
timbers, collection of forest products, cultivation of lands etc. are permitted as long as these do not
interfere with the project. That is, controlled biotic interference is permitted in sanctuaries, which
allows visiting of tourists for recreation. The area under a sanctuary remains in between 0.61 to 7818
km.
Biosphere reserves
Biosphere reserves or natural reserves are multipurpose protected areas with boundaries circumscribed
by legislation. The main aim of biosphere reserve is to preserve genetic diversity in representative
ecosystems by protecting wild animals, traditional life style of inhabitant and domesticated plant/
animal genetic resources. These are scientifically managed allowing only the tourists to visit.
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Biosphere Reserves in India
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
It is an International Biosphere Reserve in the Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills ranges of South
India.The Nilgiri Sub-Cluster is a part of the Western Ghats, which was declared in 1986,a part of the
World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB)
Program in 2000 and declared as the part of World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2012. Protected
Areas under biosphere - Bandipur-Nagarhole Tiger Reserve, Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Wayanad
Wildlife Sanctuary, Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary.
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, established in 1982. It is a national park situated around the peak of
Nanda Devi (7816 m) in Uttarakhand.The National Park was inscribed a World Heritage Site by
UNESCO in 1988.Fir, birch, rhododendron and juniper are the main flora. Himalayan musk deer,
Himalayan tahr, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and rhesus macaque are found in the park.
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
In 1986, a group of 21 islets lying off the Tamil Nadu coast between Thoothukudi and Dhanushkodi
was declared the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. The park and its 10 km buffer zone were
declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1989.
The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 10,500 km² of ocean, 21 islands and the
adjoining coastline. The islets and coastal buffer zone include beaches, estuaries, and tropical dry
broadleaf forests, while the marine environments include seaweed communities, sea grass
communities, coral reefs, salt marshes and mangrove forests.117 hard coral species have been
recorded in the Gulf of Mannar. Sea turtles are frequent visitors to the gulf as are sharks, dugongs, and
dolphins.
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Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
Nokrek Biosphere Reserve is a national park located approximately 2 km from Tura Peak in West
Garo Hills district of Meghalaya. UNESCO added this National park to its list of Biosphere Reserves
in May 2009. Along with Balphakram national park, Nokrek is a hotspot of biodiversity in
Meghalaya.Nokrek has a remnant population of the red panda and important habitat of the Asian
elephant.
Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve is situated in West Bengal. It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges
Delta, and adjacent to the Sundarban Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. The delta is densely covered by
mangrove forests, and is one of the largest reserves for the Bengal tiger. It is also home to a variety of
bird, reptile and invertebrate species, including the salt-water crocodile. On 4 May 1984 it was
declared a National Park. It is a UNESCO world heritage site inscribed in 1987, and it has been
designated as a Ramsar site since 2019.
The endangered species that lives within the Sundarbans are royal Bengal tiger, saltwater crocodile,
river terrapin, olive ridley turtle, Ganges River dolphin, hawksbill turtle and mangrove horseshoe crab.
Manas Biosphere Reserve
Manas National Park or Manas Wildlife Sanctuary is a national park, UNESCO Natural World
Heritage site, a Project Tiger reserve, an elephant reserve and a biosphere reserve in Assam, India. The
park is known for its rare and endangered endemic wildlife such as the Assam roofed turtle, hispid
hare, golden langur and pygmy hog. Manas is famous for its population of the wild water buffalo.
There are two major biomes present in Manas:
The grassland biomes: pygmy hog, Indian rhinoceros (re-introduced in 2007 after extinction due to
heavy poaching during the Bodo uprising), bengal florican, wild Asian buffalo, etc.
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The forest biomes: slow loris, capped langur, wild pig, sambar, great hornbill, Malayan giant squirrel
or black giant squirrel, Chinese pangolin etc.
Similipal Biosphere Reserve
Similipal National Park is a national park and a tiger reserve in the Mayurbhanj district of Odisha.It is
part of the Similipal-Kuldiha-Hadgarh Elephant Reserve popularly known as Mayurbhanj Elephant
Reserve, which includes three protected areas — Similipal Tiger Reserve, Hadgarh Wildlife Sanctuary
and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuary.
Simlipal is home to 99 royal Bengal tigers and 432 wild elephants. Besides Simlipal is famous for
gaurs (Indian bison), chausingha, as well as an orchidarium.This reserve is part of the UNESCO
World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 2009.
Dihang-Dibang or Dehang Biosphere Reserve
Dihang-Dibang or Dehang-Debang is a biosphere reserve constituted in 1998. It is situated in
Arunachal Pradesh.The Mouling National Park and the Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary are located fully or
partly within this biosphere reserve.
The elevation in the reserve ranges up to more than 5,000 metres above sea level. An important fact
relating to this Biosphere reserve is that it has natural vegetation stretching in an unbroken sequence
from the tropics to mountain tundra. The type of vegetation found in this biosphere reserve can be
grouped as 1. Sub-tropical broad-leafed forests, 2. Sub tropical pine forest, 3. Temperate broad-leafed
forests, 4. Temperate conifer, 5. Sub-alpine woody shrub, 6. Alpine meadow(mountain Tundra), 7.
Bamboo brakes, 8. Grassland. The reserve is rich in wildlife. Rare mammals such as Mishmi takin, red
goral, musk deer (at least two sub-species), red panda, Asiatic black bear, occasional tiger and
Gongshan muntjac occur, while among birds there are the rare Sclater'smonal and Blyth's tragopan.
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Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve is a non-use conservation area and biosphere reserve in the Satpura
Range of Madhya Pradesh state.The conservation area was created in 1999 by the Indian government.
UNESCO designated it a biosphere reserve in 2009.
The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve is located within areas of Hoshangabad, Betul, and Chhindwara
Districts.It includes three wildlife conservation units: Bori Sanctuary, Pachmarhi Sanctuary and
Satpura National Park.The forests are dominated by Teak (Tectona grandis), sal (Shorearobusta), wild
mango, silver fern, jamun and arjun. Large mammal species include tigers, leopard, wild boar, gaur
(Bos gaurus), chital, sambar, and rhesus macaque. The endemic fauna includes chinkara, nilgai, wild
dogs, the Indian wolf, bison, Indian giant squirrels, and flying squirrels.
Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve
The Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve is a biosphere reserve in Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh, covering a total area of 3835.51 km2.About 68.1% of this reserve lies in the Bilaspur
district in Chhattisgarh. The other major portions of the reserve are in the Anuppur (16.20%) and
Dindori (15.70%) districts of Madhya Pradesh.
Great Rann of Kutch Biosphere Reserve
The Great Rann of Kutch is a salt marsh in the Thar Desert in the Kutch District of Gujarat. It is about
7500 km2 in area and is reputed to be one of the largest salt deserts in the world. It is the largest
Biosphere Reserve in India.The Great Rann of Kutch, along with the Little Rann of Kutch and the
Banni grasslands on its southern edge, is situated in the district of Kutch and comprises some 30,000
square kilometres between the Gulf of Kutch and the mouth of the Indus River in southern
Pakistan.From the city of Bhuj, various ecologically rich and wildlife conservation areas of the Kutch
district can be visited such as Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary, Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary, Narayan
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Sarovar Sanctuary, Kutch Bustard Sanctuary, Banni Grasslands Reserve and Chari-Dhand Wetland
Conservation Reserve.
Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve
Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve is a biosphere reserve located in Leh and Kargil districts of Ladakh
division in J&K, Spiti region of the Lahaul and Spiti district in Himachal Pradesh and a part of
Kinnaur District in Himachal Pradesh.Cold Desert has an area of 7,770 square kilometres. It includes:
Pin Valley National Park, Chandratal and SarchuKibber Wildlife Sanctuary. Among the faunal
elements, Snow Leopard, Himalayan Black Bear, Red Fox, Tibetan Wolf, Himalayan Ibex, Himalayan
Marmot, Himalayan Blue Sheep are found in the area.
Kangchenjunga Biosphere Reserve
The Kangchenjunga landscape is a complex of three distinct ecoregions: the eastern Himalayan broad-
leaved and coniferous forests, the Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows, and the Terai-Duar
savanna and grasslands.The Kangchenjunga transboundary landscape is shared by Bhutan, China,
India, and Nepal, and comprises 14 protected areas with a total of 6,032 km2
a) Nepal: Kanchenjunga Conservation Area.
b) Sikkim:Khangchendzonga National Park, Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary, FambongLho Wildlife
Sanctuary, Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary, Shingba Rhododendron
Sanctuary, Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary
c) Darjeeling:JorePokhri Wildlife Sanctuary, Singalila National Park, Senchal Wildlife Sanctuary,
Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary, Neora Valley National Park.
d) Bhutan: Torsa Strict Nature Reserve

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These protected areas are habitats for many globally significant plant species such as rhododendrons
and orchids and many endangered flagship species such as snow leopard, Asian black bear, red panda,
white-bellied musk deer, blood pheasant, and chestnut-breasted partridge.
Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve
The Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve was Established in 2001 and includes 3,500.36 km2 of which
1828 km² is in Kerala and 1672.36 km² is in Tamil Nadu.Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve became
part of World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 2016.It is composed of Neyyar, Peppara and
Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and adjoining areas of Punalur, Thiruvananthapuram Divisions and
Agasthyavanam Special Division in Kerala.
Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve includes the Indian Ecoregions of tropical wet evergreen forests,
South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, South Western Ghats montane rain forests and Shola. It
is the habitat for 2,000 varieties of medicinal plants, of which at least 50 are rare and endangered
species. Animals include the Bengal Tiger, Asian Elephant, and NilgiriTahr. Agastyamalai is also
home to the Kanikaran, one of the oldest surviving ancient tribes in the world.
Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve
The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve encompasses a large part (some 85%) of the island of Great
Nicobar, the largest of the Nicobar Islands in the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The Reserve has a total core area of approximately 885 km2, surrounded by a 12 km-wide "forest
buffer zone". In year 2013 it was included in the list of Man and Biosphere program of UNESCO to
promote sustainable development based on local community effort and sound science.
It incorporates two National parks of India, which were gazetted in 1992: the larger Campbell Bay
National Park on the northern part of the island, and Galathea National Park in the southern
interior.The reserve is home to many species of plants and animals, often endemic to the Andaman
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and Nicobars biogeographic region. Species of fauna in the reserve include: Nicobar long-tailed
macaque, saltwater crocodile, giant leatherback sea turtle, Nicobar tree shrew, reticulated python and
the giant robber crab.
Dibru-Saikhowa Biosphere Reserve
Dibru-Saikhowa National Park is a national park in Assam, located in Dibrugarh and Tinsukia
districts. It was designated a Biosphere Reserve in July 1997 with an area of 765 km2.
The park is bounded by the Brahmaputra and Lohit Rivers in the north and Dibru river in the south. It
mainly consists of moist mixed semi-evergreen forests, moist mixed deciduous forests, canebrakes and
grasslands. It is the largest salix swamp forest in north-eastern India. Originally created to help
conserve the habitat of the rare white-winged wood duck, the park is also home to other rare creatures
such as water buffalo, black-breasted parrotbill, tiger and capped langur. The park also has some eco
lodges.
Seshachalam Hills Biosphere Reserve
The Seshachalam Hills are hilly ranges part of the Eastern Ghats in southern Andhra Pradesh state, in
southeastern India.The hill ranges spread in parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh
have been designated as Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve in 2010.Tirupati, a major pilgrimage town is
located in the hills. The hills contain seven peaks namely, Anjanadri, Garudadri, Narayanadri,
Neeladri, Seshadri, Venkatadri and Vrishabhadri, the highest at about 600 m above sea level. The
seven peaks are said to represent the seven hoods of Lord Adisesha, the king of serpents in Hindu
mythology.
The Srivenkateshwara National Park is also located in these ranges. The famous Natural Arch,
Tirumala Hills is also a part of Seshachalam Hills, which dates back to the period in between Middle
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and Upper Proterozoic Eon. It has large reserves of Red Sandal wood which is used in medicines,
soaps, spiritual rituals.
Panna Biosphere Reserve
Panna National Park is a national park located in Panna and Chhatarpur districts of Madhya Pradesh. It
has an area of 542.67 km2. It was designated as Biosphere Reserve on 25 August 2011. Sal, crocodile
bark, Arjun, jamun, etc are trees present here.
The forests of Panna National Park along with Ken Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary and adjoining
territorial divisions form a significant part of the catchment area of the 406 km Ken River which runs
northeast for about 72 km through the park.The forests of Panna National Park along with Ken Gharial
Wildlife Sanctuary and adjoining territorial divisions form a significant part of the catchment area of
the 406 km (252 mi) Ken River which runs northeast for about 72 km (45 mi) through the park.
Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB programme)
In 1971, UNESCO launched a global programme to formalize the scientific interaction between man
and his natural environment. This programme is called the Man and the Biosphere Programme
(MAB). Some 120 countries have joined in by establishing 669 biosphere reserves, including 16
transboundary reserves connected by the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots are regions with high species richness and a high degree of endemism. The
British biologist Norman Myers coined the term ―biodiversity hotspot‖ in 1988.Conservation
International (CI) adopted Myers‘ hotspots and in 1996, the organization made the decision to
undertake a reassessment of the hotspots concept.
According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria:
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1. It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world‘s total) as endemics
– which is to say, it must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet.
2. It has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. (It must have 30% or less of its original
natural vegetation). In other words, it must be threatened.
The 35 biodiversity hotspots cover 2.3% of the Earth‘s land surface, yet more than 50% of the
world‘s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to these areas.
There are three hotspots in India –
1. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, 2. Indo-Burma and 3. Eastern Himalayas
Project Tiger
Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India in the year 1973 to save the endangered
species of tiger in the country.
Project Snow Leopard
Project snow leopard was launched in January 2009 with the ultimate goal of safeguarding and
conserving.It includes all the biologically important landscapes in the high altitude Himalayas in
Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
Project Elephant
Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Government of India Ministry of Environment and
Forests to provide financial and technical support of wildlife management efforts by states for their
free ranging populations of wild Asian Elephants.
Gharial and Saltwater crocodile conservation program
The Gharial and Saltwater crocodile conservation program were first implemented in Odisha in early
1975 and subsequently the Mugger conservation programme was initiated, since Odisha is having
distinction for existence of all the three species of Indian crocodilians.

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Ex-situ conservation:
Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plants and animals under
partially or wholly control-led conditions in specific areas like zoo, gardens, nurseries etc. That is, the
conservation of selected plants and animals in se-lected areas outside their natural habitat is known as
ex-situ con-servation. The stresses on living organisms due to competition for food, water, space etc.
can be avoided by ex-situ conservation there by providing conditions necessary for a secure life and
breeding. Some important areas under these conservations are: (i) Seed gene bank, (ii) Field gene
bank; (iii) Botanical gardens; (iv) Zoos.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world‘s oldest environmental
organisation. It was founded in 1948. Headquarter of IUCN is located in Gland, near Geneva, in
Switzerland. (IUCN) is an international organization (NGO) working in the field of nature
conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in data gathering and analysis,
research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying and education.
IUCN Red Data Book:
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, founded in 1964, is the world‘s most comprehensive
inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. When discussing the IUCN Red List,
the official term ―threatened‖ is a grouping of three categories- Critically Endangered, Endangered,
and Vulnerable.
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The pink pages in this publication include the critically endangered species. Green pages are used for
those species that were formerly endangered, but have now recovered to a point where they are no
longer threatened.Species are classified by the IUCN Red List into nine groups
1. Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining.
2. Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population
outside its historic range.
3. Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
Criteria
a) Reduction in population (> 90% over the last 10 years),
b) Population size (number less than 50 mature individuals),
c) Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in wild in at least 50% in their 10
years) and
d) It is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
4. Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.
5. Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild.
6. Near threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered in the near future.
7. Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category. Widespread and
abundant taxa are included in this category.
8. Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction.
9. Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.
Bird Life International
BirdLife International (formerly the International Council for Bird Preservation) is a global
partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats, and global
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biodiversity, working with people towards sustainability in the use of natural resources. It was
founded in 1922 as the International Council for Bird Preservation. It is the world's largest partnership
of conservation organisations, with over 120 partner organisations.
Convention on Biological Diversity
Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is therefore a collective responsibility
of all nations. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a step towards conserving biological
diversity or biodiversity with the involvement of the entire world.
CITES
CITES is short form of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora. CITES is also known as the Washington Convention. It is a multilateral treaty drafted as a
result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN). CITES entered into force in 1975. Its aim is to ensure that
international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the
species in the wild, and it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of
animals and plants.
TRAFFIC (The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network)
Traffic is fulform of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES). . It‘s mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the
conservation of nature. It investigates and analyses wildlife trade trends, patterns, impacts and drivers
to provide the leading knowledge base on trade in wild animals and plants. It is a joint programme
of World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and IUCN.The programme was founded in 1976, with
headquarters now located in Cambridge, United Kingdom.

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Cartagena Protocol
It was named in honor of Cartagena, Colombia, where negotiations were expected to conclude in
February 1999. One year later, on January 29, 2000, the Protocol was finalized and adopted in
Montreal, Canada by unanimous consent with 135 countries present. is an international agreement,
with aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms resulting from
modern biotechnology.
Nagoya Protocol
The Nagoya Protocol is a 2010 supplementary agreement to the 1992 Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD). The Nagoya Protocol is about ―Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and
Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization‖, one of the three objectives of the CBD.
It is the second Protocol to the CBD; the first is the 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
Aichi Targets
The ‗Aichi Targets‘ were adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at its Nagoya
conference. It is a short-term plan provides a set of 20 ambitious yet achievable targets, collectively
known as the Aichi Targets.
They can be divided into:
a) Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming
biodiversity across government and society.
b) Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
c) Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and
genetic diversity.
d) Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
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e) Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge
management and capacity building.
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
It is popularly known as the International Seed Treaty. It is international agreement in harmony with
the Convention on Biological Diversity. Its aims at guaranteeing food security through the
conservation, exchange and sustainable use of the world‘s plant genetic resources for food and
agriculture (PGRFA), as well as the fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use.
Wetlands
Wetlands are areas of marsh or peatland with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or saline,
including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 m. Wetlands are
transition zones (ecotone) between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.India has over 27,000 wetlands,
of which 23,000+ are inland wetlands, and around 4000 are coastal wetlands. Wetlands occupy 18.4%
of the country‘s area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.
Wetlands are indispensable for the countless benefits or ―ecosystem services‖ that they provide
humanity, ranging from freshwater supply, food and building materials, and biodiversity, to flood
control, groundwater recharge, and climate change mitigation.
National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)
NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86. Under the programme, 115 wetlands have been
identified by the MoEF which require urgent conservation and management interventions. The State
Governments/UT Administration are responsible for the management of wetlands.
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

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It is an international treaty for ‗the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands‘. It is also known as
the Convention on Wetlands. It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran. The Convention was signed
on 2nd of February 1971. The 2nd of February each year is World Wetlands Day.
There are over 2,300 Ramsar Sites on the territories of 170 Ramsar Contracting Parties across the
world. The countries with the most Sites are the United Kingdom with 170 and Mexico with 142.
Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection.
The Montreux Record
The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance
where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of
technological developments, pollution or other human interference. It is maintained as part of the
Ramsar List. The Ramsar Convention works closely with six organisations known as International
Organization Partners (IOPs). These are:
1. Birdlife International
2. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
3. International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
4. Wetlands International
5. WWF
6. International Wildlife & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
Ramsar Sites in India
As of February 2019, there are 27 Ramsar Sites in India. Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Kerala and Punjab have three wetlands each. West Bengal, Orissa and Rajasthan have two wetlands
each. Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Madhya Pradesh,
Manipur Jammu & Kashmir have one wetland each.

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Sl. Name of Site State Area (in Sq. km.)
1 Asthamudi Wetland Kerala 614
2 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 650
3 Bhoj Wetlands Madhya Pradesh 32.01
4 Chandertal Wetland (Chandra Taal) Himachal Pradesh 0.49
5 Chilka Lake Orissa 1165
6 DeeporBeel Assam 40
7 East Calcutta Wetlands West Bengal 125
8 Harike Lake Punjab 41
9 Hokera Wetland Jammu and Kashmir 13.75
10 Kanjli Lake Punjab 1.83
11 Keoladeo Ghana NP Rajasthan 28.73
12 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 901
13 Loktak Lake Manipur 266
14 Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujarat 120
15 Point Calimere Tamil Nadu 385
16 Pong Dam Himachal Pradesh 156.62
17 Lake Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh 0.2
18 Ropar Lake Punjab 13.65
19 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 2.4
20 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 240
21 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 3.73

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22 Sunderbans Wetland West Bengal 4230
23 Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu and Kashmir 3.5
24 Tsomoriri Lake Jammu and Kashmir 120
25 Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Uttar Pradesh 265.9
Narora Stretch)
26 VembanadKol Wetland Kerala 1512.5
27 Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir 189
11,121.31
Notable Ramsar Sites in India
Ramsar Site Comments
Asthamudi Wetland A natural backwater (lagoon / kayal) in Kollam district. It forms an
estuary with Sea at Neendakara (famous fishing harbour in Kerala).
Bhitarkanika The core area of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary was declared
Mangroves Bhitarkanika National Park. Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary
includes Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary. Bhitarkanika
Mangroves, a part of Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary was designated a
Ramsar Wetland of International Importance in 2002.
It is famous for its saltwater crocodiles and Olive ridley sea turtle.
Bhoj Wetlands Consists of two lakes located in the city of Bhopal. The two lakes are
the Bhojtal and the Lower Lake. It is a humanmade reservoir. The
largest bird of India, the sarus crane (Grus antigone) is found here.
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Chilka Lake Chilka Lake is a brackish water lagoon at the mouth of the Daya River.
It is the largest coastal lagoon in India. Birds from as far as the Caspian
Sea, Lake Baikal, the Aral Sea and other remote parts of Russia,
Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia, Central and Southeast Asia, Ladakh and
Himalayas come here.
In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of
international importance under the Ramsar Convention. Nalbana
Island (bird sanctuary) is the core area of the Ramsar designated
wetlands of Chilika Lake. The Irrawaddy dolphin (Vulnerable) is the
flagship species of Chilika lake. Chilka is home to the only known
population of Irrawaddy dolphins in India. It is classified as critically
endangered in five of the six other places it is known to live.
DeeporBeel It is a permanent freshwater lake, in a former channel of the
Brahmaputra River.
East Calcutta Wetlands The wetland forms an urban facility for treating the city‘s wastewater.
Keoladeo Ghana A complex of ten artificial, seasonal lagoons, varying in size, situated
National park in a densely populated region. Placed on the Montreux Record in 1990
due to ―water shortage and an unbalanced grazing regime‖.
Additionally, the invasive growth of the grass Paspalum distichum has
changed the ecological character of large areas of the site, reducing its
suitability for certain waterbird species, notably the Siberian crane.
Kolleru Lake Bird sanctuary and wildlife sanctuary. I was previously a lagoon, but
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now it is several kilometres inland due to the coastline of emergence
and delta formation.
Loktak Lake Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in the north-eastern region.
KeibulLamjao the only floating national park in the world floats over it.
Nalsarovar Bird A natural freshwater lake (a relict sea) that is the largest natural wetland
Sanctuary in the Thar Desert Biogeographic Province. Besides a few mammalian
species including the wild ass and the black buck, its migratory bird
population includes rosy pelicans, flamingoes, white storks, brahminy
ducks and herons. Thousands of migratory waterfowl flock to this
sanctuary just after the Indian monsoon season.
Point Calimere One of the last remnants of Dry Evergreen Forests.
Habitat: Dry Evergreen Forests, Mangrove & Wetlands.
Winter Migrants: Spoon Billed Sandpiper, Greater Flamingos.
Sambhar Lake The Sambhar Salt Lake, India‘s largest inland salt Lake.
A key wintering area for tens of thousands of flamingos and other birds
that migrate from northern Asia.
Tsomoriri Lake A freshwater to brackish lake lying at 4,595m above sea level.
The site is said to represent the only breeding ground outside of China
for one of the most endangered cranes, the Black-necked crane, and the
only breeding ground for Bar-headed geesein India.
The Great Tibetan Sheep or Argali and Tibetan Wild Ass (Equus kiang)
are endemic to the Tibetan plateau, of which the Changthang is the

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westernmost part.
Upper Ganga River The river provides habitat for IUCN Red-listed Ganges River
(Brijghat to Narora Dolphin and Gharials.
Stretch)
VembanadKol Longest lake of India. Largest lake of Kerala. Second largest Ramsar
Wetland Site in India after Sundarbans. It is below sea level and is famous for
exotic fish varieties and Paddy fields that are below sea level.
Wular Lake The largest freshwater lake in India.
Nutrition food and nutrients
Nutrition is defined as the processes by which an animal or plant takes in and utilises food substances.
Essential nutrients include protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, minerals and electrolytes. Normally,
85% of daily energy use is from fat and carbohydrates and 15% from protein. In humans, nutrition is
mainly achieved through the process of putting foods into our mouths, chewing and swallowing it.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the most important biomolecules that forms a major part of the living things.
Some common examples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch. Most of them have a
general formula, CnH2nOn.
Monosaccharides
A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or
ketone is called a monosaccharide. About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. Some
common examples of Monosaccharide are Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, Galactose, etc. Fructose is the
carbohydrate of fruits.
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Glucose
Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form. Glucose is the simplest carbohydrate.
Human body can absorb only to the glucose. There is no need of digestion for glucose it is already
digested food. It is the reason that it can inject directly in our blood. All the carbohydrates are
converted into glucose after digestion.
Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides.
They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the
number of monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis.
Sucroseis found from the sugarcane. Maltoseis found from Malt means food grain like wheat maize
etc. Lactose is the carbohydrate of milk.
Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called
polysaccharides. Some common examples are Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen, Gums. Plant cell walls are
made of cellulose. Paper made from plant pulp and cotton fiber is cellulosic. There are more complex
polysaccharides in nature.
Starch
Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is the most important dietary source for human
beings. High content of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables.
Cellulose
Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in plant kingdom.
It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells.

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Glycogen
The carbohydrates are stored in liver. It is known as storage food Glycogen is the polymer of glucose.
Glucose is converted in glycogen by insulin. In deficiency of insulin of glucose is not converted into
glycogen. These results increase of sugar level in blood, which is called diabetes. Similarly glycogen
in converted into glucose in presence of glucagon. Excess secretion of glucagon caused diabetes.
Insulin and Glucagon are two hormones which are produced by the Beta and Alfa cells of langerhans
islands of pancreas. Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.
Importance of Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals.
2. They form a major portion of our food. Honey has been used for a long time as an instant source
of energy in ayurvedic system of medicine.
3. Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
4. Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose which is a carbohydrate.
5. We build furniture, etc. from cellulose in the form of wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose in
the form of cotton fibre.
6. They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles, paper, lacquers and
breweries.
Amino Acids
Amino acids are organic compounds containing an amino group (NH2) and an acidic group
(COOH) as substituents on the same carbon. All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.The amino
acids, which can be synthesized in the body, are known as nonessential amino acids. On the other
hand, those which cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known
as essential amino acids.

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Proteins
Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system. Proteins are linear chains of amino
acids linked by peptide bonds. Each protein is a polymer of amino acids. Chief sources of proteins are
milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc. They occur in every part of the body and form the
fundamental basis of structure and functions of life. They are also required for growth and
maintenance of body. Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world. Ribulose bis phosphate
Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in the whole of the biosphere.
Enzymes
Enzyme is a substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms, regulating the rate at which chemical
reactions proceed without itself being altered in the process. The biological processes that occur within
all living organisms are chemical reactions, and most are regulated by enzymes. Enzymes catalyze all
aspects of cell metabolism. This includes the digestion of food, the conservation and transformation of
chemical energy; and the construction of cellular macromolecules from smaller precursors. Many
inherited human diseases, such as albinism and phenylketonuria, result from a deficiency of a
particular enzyme.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts in our diet but their deficiency
causes specific diseases. Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in our body but plants can
synthesize almost all of them, so they are considered as essential food factors.
Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluble. They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing)
tissues.B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so they are grouped together. Water
soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in urine and
cannot be stored (except vitamin B-12) in our body.

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Deficiency Diseases
A person may be getting enough food to eat, but sometimes the food may not contain a particular
nutrient. If this continues over a long period of time, the person may suffer from its deficiency.
Deficiency of one or more nutrients can cause diseases or disorders in our body. Diseases that occur
due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called deficiency diseases.
Vitamin Chemical Name Deficiency Food sources
disease(s)
Vitamin A Retinol Night blindness, Fish, liver and dairy products;
hyperkeratosis, and orange, ripe yellow fruits, leafy
keratomalacia vegetables, carrots, pumpkin,
squash (Kaddu), spinach
Vitamin B1 Thiamine Beriberi Pork, wholemeal grains, brown rice,
vegetables, potatoes, liver, eggs
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Ariboflavinosis, Dairy products, bananas, green
glossitis, angular beans, asparagus (satavari)
stomatitis
Vitamin B3 Niacin, Pellagra Meat, fish, eggs, many vegetables,
Niacinamide mushrooms, tree nuts
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid Paraesthesia Meat, broccoli, avocados
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine Anaemia Meat, vegetables, tree nuts, bananas
Vitamin B7 Biotin Dermatitis Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuts, leafy
green vegetables
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Vitamin B9 Folates, Folic Megaloblastic Leafy vegetables, pasta, bread,
acid anaemia and cereal, liver
deficiency during
pregnancy is
associated with
birth defects.
Vitamin B12 Cyanocobalamin Anaemia Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Scurvy Many fruits and vegetables, liver
Vitamin D Cholecalciferol Rickets and Eggs, liver, certain fish species such
Osteomalacia as sardines, certain mushroom
species such as shiitake
Vitamin E Tocopherols Deficiency is very Many fruits and vegetables, nuts
rare; mild and seeds, and seed oils
haemolyticanaemia
in new-born infants
Vitamin K Phylloquinone Bleeding diathesis Leafy green vegetables such as
spinach; egg yolks;
Minerals
These are inorganic nutrients that also play a key role in ensuring health and well. They include the
trace elements copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium and zinctogether with the macro
elements calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium.

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Iodine
Iodine is most important element required for development of foetus. Iodine is also important for
production of Thiroxinehormones. Goitre is a visible sign of severe iodine deficiency. Seaweed and
fish are rich sources but in many countries the addition of iodine (known as iodization) to salt is an
important source.
Iron
Iron has a number of key functions within the body. It acts as a carrier for oxygen from the lungs to
the body‘s tissues. Iron deficiency ultimately leads to iron deficiency anemia, the most common cause
of anemia. Iron‐rich foods include lentils, red meat, poultry, fish, lentils, leaf vegetables and chick.
Zinc
Zinc helps to improve immune system. It also helps with cell growth and helps heal wounds, such as
cuts. It is found innuts, such as cashews, almonds, and peanuts legumes, such as beans, split peas, and
lentils.
Potassium
Potassium helps to work muscles and nervous system properly. It is found in bananas, tomatoes,
potatoes and sweet potatoes, with skins green vegetables, such as spinach and broccoli citrus fruits,
like oranges low-fat milk and yogurt, legumes such as beans, split peas and lentils.
Calcium
The body needs calcium to maintain strong bones and to carry out many important functions. It also
helps build strong, healthy teeth. It is found in dairy products, such as milk, cheese, and yogurt canned
salmon and sardines with bones leafy green vegetables, such as broccoli.
Dietary Fibers
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Dietary fibers are also known as roughage. Roughage is mainly provided by plant products. Whole
grains and pulses, potatoes, fresh fruits and vegetables are main sources of roughage. Roughage does
not provide any nutrient to our body, but is an essential component of our food and adds to its bulk.
This helps our body get rid of undigested food.
Fats
Fat is an essential part of our diet and is important for good health. Fat has the most calories compared
to any other nutrient. Fats have many important functions in your body. They give energy, keep body
warm, build cells, protect organs, help body to absorb vitamins from foods and helps to form
hormones.
Saturated fat has a predominance of saturated fatty acids, without any double bonds, while unsaturated
fat has predominantly unsaturated acids with double bonds. Saturated fat can raise your cholesterol. It
is mostly found in animal foods, such as milk, cheese, and meat. Saturated fat is also found in tropical
oils, such as coconut oil, palm oil, and cocoa butter. Unsaturated fat helps to lower cholesterol levels.
It is also known good fat. Unsaturated fat is mainly found in vegetable oils such as safflower,
sunflower, sesame, soybean, and corn oils. The two types of unsaturated fats are omega-3 and omega-
6 fatty acids.
Human Body
Human Digestive System
Bio macro molecules (carbohydrates, proteins etc.) in food cannot be utilized by our body in their
original form. They have to be broken down and converted into simple substances (glucose, amino
acids etc.) in the digestive system. During the digestion process, Bio macro molecules like
1. carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose,
2. fats into fatty acids and glycerol,

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3. Proteins into amino acids.
This process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is called digestion.
Alimentary Canal
The food passes through a continuous canal called alimentary canal. The canal can be divided into
various compartments (1) the buccal cavity, (2) foodpipe or oesophagus, (3) stomach, (4) small
intestine, (5) large intestine ending in the rectum and (6) the anus.
Oral Cavity
The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion. Ingestion happens through mouth. The
mouth leads to the buccal cavity or oral cavity. Teeth helps in the mastication (chewing) of food. Our
mouth has the salivary glands which secrete saliva. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, also called
ptyalin, which is capable of breaking down starch into simpler sugars such as maltose and dextrin that
can be further broken down in the small intestine. About 30% of starch digestion takes place in the
mouth cavity. Salivary glands also secrete salivary lipase (a more potent form of lipase) to begin fat
digestion. Salivary lipase plays a large role in fat digestion in newborn infants as their pancreatic
lipase still needs some time to develop.
Foodpipe/Oesophagus
The swallowed food passes into the food pipe or oesophagus. The oesophagus is a thin, long tube.
Mucus in saliva helps in lubricating and adhering the masticated food particles into a bolus. The bolus
further passes down through the oesophagus by successive waves of muscular contractions
called peristalsis. The gastro-oesophageal sphincter controls the passage of food into stomach.
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Stomach
In the stomach, food undergoes chemical and mechanical digestion. Here, peristaltic contractions
(mechanical digestion) churn the bolus, which mixes with strong digestive juices that the stomach
lining cells secrete (chemical digestion).
Powerful hydrochloric acid in the stomach helps break down the bolus into a liquid called chyme. A
thick mucus layer that lines the stomach walls prevents the stomach from digesting itself.
Food is digested in the stomach for several hours. During this time, a stomach enzyme called pepsin
breaks down most of the protein in the food. Next, the chyme is slowly transported from the pylorus
(end portion of the stomach) through a sphincter and into the small intestine where further digestion
and nutrient absorption occurs.
Small intestine
The small intestine is about 20 feet (6 meters) long and has three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum. The duodenum is where most chemical digestion takes place. Here, bile from the gallbladder
and enzymes from the pancreas and intestinal walls combine with the chyme to begin the final part of
digestion.
Bile liquid is created in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile emulsifies (breaks into small
particles) lipids (fats), which aids in the mechanical digestion of fats. The pancreas and gland cells of
the small intestine secrete digestive enzymes that chemically break down complex food molecules into
simpler ones. These enzymes include trypsin (for protein digestion), amylase (for carbohydrate
digestion), and lipase (for lipid digestion). When food passes through the duodenum, digestion is
complete.
From the duodenum, chyme passes to the jejunum and ileum. Here, tiny villi (finger-like projections)
cover the walls of the small intestine. The cells that line the villi are covered with small projections
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called microvilli (brush border). These projections increase the surface area of the small intestine,
allowing the chyme to contact more of the small intestine wall. The increased contact causes more
efficient food absorption. During food absorption, food molecules enter the bloodstream through the
intestinal walls. Capillaries (microscopic blood vessels) within the villi absorb products of protein and
carbohydrate digestion. Lymph vessels (lacteals) within the villi absorb products of fat digestion and
eventually lead to the bloodstream.
From the small intestine, digested products travel to the liver, one of the body's most versatile organs.
Hepatocytes (liver cells) detoxify (filter) blood of harmful substances such as alcohol and ammonia.
And, hepatocytes store fat-soluble vitamins and excess substances such as glucose (sugar) for release
when the body requires extra energy.
Large intestine
Once food has passed through the small intestine, it is mostly undigestible material and water. It enters
the colon (large intestine), named for its wide diameter. The large intestine has six parts: the cecum,
ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum.
The large pouch-shaped cecum marks the beginning of the colon. Attached near the cecum bottom is
the vermiform (worm-like) appendix. The appendix contains lymphoid tissue and intercepts
pathogenic microorganisms that enter the digestive tract. Sometimes, fecal matter may become trapped
in the appendix, resulting in appendicitis (infection and inflammation). The other parts of the colon
absorb water and minerals from the undigested food and compact the remaining material into feces.
Defecation is the digestive process final stage: feces (undigested waste products) are carried to the
rectum through peristalsis and eliminated through the anus.

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Liver
Liver, the largest gland in the body, a spongy mass of wedge-shaped lobes that has many metabolic
and secretory functions. The liver secretes bile, a digestive fluid; metabolizes proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats; stores glycogen, vitamins, and other substances; synthesizes blood-clotting factors; removes
wastes and toxic matter from the blood; regulates blood volume; and destroys old red blood cells.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a large cream colored gland located just below the stomach. The pancreatic juice acts
on carbohydrates and proteins and changes them into simpler forms. The partly digested food now
reaches the lower part of the small intestine where the intestinal juice (succus entericus) completes the
digestion of all components of the food. The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine and endocrine)
elongated organ situated between the limbs of the ‗U‘ shaped duodenum. The exocrine portion
secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the endocrine portion secretes hormones,
insulin and glucagon.
Teeth
The oral cavity has a number of teeth and a muscular tongue. Each tooth is embedded in a socket of
jaw bone. Majority of mammals including human being forms two sets of teeth during their life, a set
of temporary milk or deciduous teeth (milk teeth) replaced by a set of permanent or adult teeth
(permanent teeth).
An adult human has 32 permanent teeth which are of four different types, namely, incisors (I), canine
(C), premolars (PM) and molars (M). Arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw in
the order I, C, PM, M is represented by a dental formula which in human is 2123/2123 (2-I,1-C,2-
PM,3-M)
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The hard chewing surface of the teeth, made up of enamel (Enamel is the hardest substance in the
human body and contains the highest percentage of minerals), helps in the mastication (chewing) of
food.
Respiration
The human respiratory system consists of a group of organs and tissues that help us to breathe. Lungs
are the primary organs of the respiratory system which help in the exchange of gases. The other main
parts of this system include a series of airways for air passages, blood vessels and the muscles that
facilitate breathing. Respiration is the chemical process where oxygen is utilized to breakdown
glucose to generate energy to carry out different cellular processes.
Respiratory System Parts and Functions
Different parts of the respiratory system and their functions are as follows-
Nose
The nose possesses a couple of exterior nostrils. Tiny hair follicles that cover the interior lining of
nostrils acts as the body‘s first line of defence against foreign pathogens. Furthermore, they provide
additional humidity for inhaled air.
Larynx
Two cartilaginous chords lay the framework for the larynx. They are situated at the point of joining
the pharynx and trachea. It is also termed as Adam‘s apple or the voice box. It is the portion which
rises and falls during swallowing of food particles. It generates sound as air passes through the hollow
in the middle.
Pharynx
The nasal chambers open up into a wide hollow space termed as the pharynx. It is a common path for
both air and food. It functions by preventing the entry of food particles into the windpipe. The
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epiglottis is an elastic cartilage, which serves as a switch between the larynx and the oesophagus by
allowing the passage of air into the airway to the lungs, and food in the gastrointestinal tract.
Trachea
The trachea or the windpipe rises below the larynx and moves down to the neck. The walls of trachea
comprise C-shaped cartilaginous rings which give hardness to the trachea and maintain it by
completely expanding. The trachea extends further down into the breastbone and splits into two
bronchi, one for each lung.
Bronchi
The trachea splits into two tubes termed as bronchi, which enter each lung individually. The bronchi
divide into secondary, tertiary, and to bronchioles, which is again further divided into small air-sacs
called the alveoli. The alveoli are minute sacs of air with thin walls and single-celled manner. It
enables the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules into or away from the bloodstream.
Lungs
Lungs are the chief centres of the respiration in humans and other vertebrates. They are located in the
thoracic cavity of the chest near the backbone and on either side of the heart. They are the pair of
large, spongy organs, mainly involved in the exchange of gases between the blood and the air.
Compared to the left lung, the right lung is quite bigger and heavier.
Types of Respiration
There are two types of respiration which we classify on the basis of the presence or absence of
oxygen-
1. Aerobic respiration
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The respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration. The
aerobic respiration involves utilization of oxygen for the breakdown of chemical bonds in glucose
to release energy in high amounts. It is the chief source of energy for plants and animals.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⟶ 6CO2+ 6H2O + Energy
All the organisms that obtain energy by aerobic respiration cannot live without the oxygen. This is
because if there is no oxygen, they cannot get energy from the food which they eat. Aerobic
respiration produces more energy because a complete breakdown of glucose occurs during
respiration by the use of oxygen.
2. Anaerobic Respiration
The respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen is anaerobic respiration. In this process,
incomplete oxidation of food material is being and produces carbon dioxide and alcohol. Beside
this other organic matter like citric acid, oxalic acid, lactic acid, etc are also produced. This
process is also known as intra-molecular Respiration. The anaerobic respiration takes place in
organisms like yeast, some bacteria, and parasitic worms. The animals and plants that can survive
and obtain energy even in the absence of oxygen are called Anaerobic.
Glucose⟶ Alcohol + CO2 +Energy
Yeast is a single-celled fungus. In yeast, a single cell represents the whole organism. Very low amount
of energy is realised in this process. Yeast respires anaerobically and during this process, yeast
converts glucose into alcohol. Therefore it is used to make alcohol bread, etc. All the organisms which
obtain energy by anaerobic respiration can live without the oxygen.
Circulatory System
The English physician, William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood. The circulatory system,
also known as the cardiovascular system, is a vast network of organs and blood vessels that acts both
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as a delivery and waste removal system for the body. Nutrients, oxygen and hormones are delivered to
every cell and as these necessities are provided, waste products such as carbon dioxide are removed.
The circulatory patterns are of two types – open or closed. Open circulatory system is found
in arthropods and molluscs in which blood pumped by the heart passes through large vessels into open
spaces or body cavities called sinuses.
Heart
The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the
circulatory system. It's located to the left of the middle of chest. An adult heart has a mass of 250–350
grams. The heart is made up of four different chambers. There are two chambers on each side of the
heart.
The right side of heart receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the
heart does the exact opposite: It receives blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the body. Running
down the middle of the heart is a thick wall of muscle called the septum. The septum's job is to
separate the left side and the right side of the heart.
One chamber is on the top and one chamber is on the bottom. The two chambers on top are called the
atria. Single is called an atrium. The atria are the chambers that fill with the blood returning to the
heart from the body and lungs. The heart has a left atrium and a right atrium. The two chambers on
the bottom are called the ventricles. The heart has a left ventricle and a right ventricle. Their job is to
squirt out the blood to the body and lungs.
Blood Circulation
Blood circulates through blood capillaries called arteries and veins, which together are called blood
vessels. These blood vessels are attached to the heart. The blood vessels that carry blood away from
the heart are called arteries. The ones that carry blood back to the heart are called veins.
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Electrocardiograph (ECG)
Electro-cardiograph is used to obtain an electrocardiogram (ECG). ECG is a graphical representation
of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle.
Blood
Blood is a liquid, which has cells of various kinds suspended in it. The fluid part of the blood is
called plasma. Blood contains Red Blood Cells (RBC), White Blood Cells (WBC) and Platelets.
Plasma
Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood. 90-92 per cent of
plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 per cent of it. Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are the
major proteins. Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood. Globulins primarily are
involved in defence mechanisms of the body. Albumins help in osmotic balance. Plasma also contains
small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3-, Cl-, etc. Glucose, amino acids, lipids, etc.,
are also present in the plasma as they are always in transit in the body. Factors for coagulation or
clotting of blood are also present in the plasma in an inactive form. Plasma without the clotting factors
is called serum.
Red Blood Cells (RBC)
Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of all the cells in blood. A healthy adult
man has, on an average, 5 million to 5.5 million of RBCs mm-3 of blood. RBCs are formed in the red
bone marrow in the adults. RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most of the mammals and are biconcave in
shape. They have a red coloured, iron containing complex protein called haemoglobin, hence the
colour and name of these cells. RBCs have an average life span of 120 days after which they are
destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

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White Blood Cells (WBC)
Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are colourless due to the lack of
haemoglobin. They are nucleated and are relatively lesser in number which averages 6000-8000 mm-3
of blood. Leucocytes are generally short lived. We have two main categories of WBCs –
granulocytes and agranulocytes. Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are different types of
granulocytes, while lymphocytes and monocytes are the agranulocytes.
Platelets
Platelets also called thrombocytes are cell fragments produced from mega karyocytes (special cells in
the bone marrow). Blood normally contains 150000-350000 platelets mm3. Platelets can release a
variety of substances most of which are involved in the coagulation or clotting of blood.
Blood Groups
In 1900-1902, K. Landsteiner
classified human blood into four
groups A, B, AB and O. The cells of
these group contain corresponding
antigens – A, B and AB except O.
That is why O is donated to any of
the groups and so is known as Universal donor. AB group is known as Universal recipient because it
can receive A, B, AB, and O blood groups.
Rh grouping
Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh), is also
observed on the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans. Such individuals are
called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen is absent are called Rh negative (Rh-ve).
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Erythroblastosis Foetalis
If the father's blood is Rh+ and the mother's blood is Rh- then the child to be born dies at the
pregnancy or short span of time after birth. Basically, this happens in the case of the second issue.
Excretory System
The process of removal of excess water and wastes produced in the cells of the living organisms is
called excretion. Waste removal is done by the blood capillaries in the kidneys.
When the blood reaches the two kidneys, it contains both useful and harmful substances. The useful
substances are absorbed back into the blood. The wastes are removed as urine. From the kidneys, the
urine goes into the urinary bladder through tube-like ureters. It is stored in the bladder and is passed
out through the urinary opening at the end of a muscular tube called urethra.
The kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra form the excretory system. An adult human being normally
passes about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours, and the urine consists of 95% water, 2.5 % urea and 2.5%
other waste products.
Endocrine Glands and Hormones
Endocrine glands lack ducts and are hence, called ductless glands. Their secretions are
called hormones. Hormone is a chemical produced by endocrine glands and released into the blood
and transported to a distantly located target organ.
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus is the part of the forebrain and it regulates a wide spectrum of body functions.It
contains several groups of neuro secretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones. These
hormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones.A hypothalamic hormone
called Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the pituitary synthesis and release of
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gonadotrophins. On the other hand, somatostatin from the hypothalamus inhibits the release of growth
hormone from the pituitary.
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is located in a body cavity called sellatursica and is attached to hypothalamus by a
stalk. It produces
1. Growth Hormone (GH)
2. Over-secretion of GH stimulates abnormal growth of the body leading to gigantism and low
secretion of GH results in stunted growth resulting in pituitary dwarfism.
3. Prolactin (PRL)
4. Prolactin regulates the growth of the mammary glands and formation of milk in them.
5. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
6. TSH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.
7. Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
8. ACTH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids from
the adrenal cortex.
9. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
10. LH and FSH stimulate gonadal activity and hence are called gonadotrophins. In males, LH
stimulates the synthesis and secretion of hormones called androgens from testis. In males, FSH
and androgens regulate spermatogenesis. In females, LH induces ovulation of fully mature
follicles (graafian follicles) and maintains the corpus luteum, formed from the remnants of the
graafian follicles after ovulation. FSH stimulates growth and development of the ovarian follicles
in females.
11. MSH acts on the melanocytes (melanin containing cells) and regulates pigmentation of the skin.
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12. Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles of our body and stimulates their contraction. In females, it
stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus at the time of child birth, and milk ejection from the
mammary gland.
13. Vasopressin acts mainly at the kidney and stimulates resorption of water and electrolytes by the
distal tubules and thereby reduces loss of water through urine (diuresis). Hence, it is also called
as Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH).
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is located on the dorsal side of forebrain. Pineal secretes a hormone called melatonin.
Melatonin plays a very important role in the regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body.
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes which are located on either side of the trachea. Both the
lobes are interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue called isthmus. The thyroid gland is
composed of follicles and stromal tissues.It synthesizes two hormones, tetra-
iodothyroxine or thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyroxine (T3).
Iodine is essential for the normal rate of hormone synthesis in the thyroid. Deficiency of iodine in our
diet results in hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland, commonly called goitre.
Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the growing baby
leading to stunted growth (cretinism), mental retardation, low intelligence quotient, abnormal skin,
deaf-mutism, etc.
Parathyroid Gland
In humans, four parathyroid glands are present on the back side of the thyroid gland, one pair each in
the two lobes of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands secrete a peptide hormone
called Parathyroid Hormone (PTH). The secretion of PTH is regulated by the circulating levels of
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calcium ions. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases the Ca++ levels in the blood. It plays a significant
role in calcium balance in the body.
Thymus
The thymus gland is a lobular structure located between lungs behind sternum on the ventral side of
aorta. The thymus plays a major role in the development of the immune system. This gland secretes
the peptide hormones called Thymosins. Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-
lymphocytes, which provide cell-mediated immunity.
Adrenal Gland
Our body has one pair of adrenal glands, one at the anterior part of each kidney. The gland is
composed of two types of tissues. The centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla, and
outside this lies the adrenal cortex.The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones called adrenaline or
epinephrine and noradrenalin or nor epinephrine. These are commonly called
as catecholamines.Adrenaline and noradrenalin are rapidly secreted in response to stress of any kind
and during emergency situations and are called emergency hormones or hormones of Fight or
Flight.These hormones increase alertness, papillary dilation, piloerection (rising of hairs), sweating
etc. Both the hormones increase the heartbeat, the strength of heart contraction and the rate of
respiration. Catecholamine also stimulates the breakdown of glycogen resulting in an increased
concentration of glucose in blood. In addition, they also stimulate the breakdown of lipids and
proteins.
Pancreas
Pancreas is a composite gland which acts as both exocrine and endocrine gland. The endocrine
pancreas consists of ‗Islets of Langerhans‘. There is about 1 to 2 million Islets of Langerhans in a
normal human pancreas representing only 1 to 2 per cent of the pancreatic tissue.
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The two main types of cells in the Islet of Langerhans are called a-cells and p-cells. The a-cells secrete
a hormone called glucagon, while the p-cells secrete insulin.
Human Neural System
The human neural system is divided into two parts
1. The central neural system (CNS)
2. The peripheral neural system (PNS)
The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord and is the site of information processing and control.
The PNS comprises of all the nerves of the body associated with the CNS (brain and spinal cord).
Peripheral Neural System (PNS)
There are two types of nerve fibers in peripheral neutral system. One is Afferent Fiber, and another is
Efferent Fiber. The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS and the
efferent fibres transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.
The PNS is divided into two divisions called somatic neural system and autonomic neural system. The
somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles while the autonomic neural
system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary organs and smooth muscles of the body.
The autonomic neural system is further classified into sympathetic neural system and parasympathetic
neural system.
Central Neural System (CNS)
The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the ‗command and
control system‘. It controls the voluntary movements, balance of the body, functioning of vital
involuntary organs (eg lungs, heart, kidneys, etc.), thermoregulation, hunger and thirst, circadian (24-
hour) rhythms of our body, activities of several endocrine glands and human behaviour. It is also the
site for processing of vision, hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, emotions and thoughts. The
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human brain is well protected by the skull. Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial
meninges consisting of an outer layer called dura mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid and
an inner layer (which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia mater.
Human Brain
The brain can be divided into three major parts (i) Fore brain (ii) Mid brain and (iii) Hind brain.
Forebrain
The forebrain consists of Cerebrum, Thalamus and Hypothalamus.
Cerebrum forms the major part of the human brain. A deep cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally
into two halves, which are termed as the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The hemispheres are
connected by a tract of nerve fibres called corpus callosum. The layer of cells which covers the
cerebral hemisphere is called cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey matter due
to its greyish appearance. The cerebrum wraps around a structure called thalamus, which is a major
coordinating centre for sensory and motor signalling. Hypothalamus lies at the base of the thalamus.
The hypothalamus contains a number of centres which control body temperature, urge for eating and
drinking. It also contains several groups of neuro secretory cells, which secrete hormones
called hypothalamic hormones.
Midbrain
The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the
hindbrain. A canal called the cerebral aqueduct passess through the midbrain. The dorsal portion of the
midbrain consists mainly of four round swellings (lobes) called corpora quadrigemina. Midbrain and
hindbrain form the brain stem.

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Hindbrain
The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the medulla oblongata). Pons
consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain. Cerebellum has very convoluted
surface in order to provide the additional space for many more neurons. The medulla of the brain is
connected to the spinal cord. The medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardiovascular
reflexes and gastric secretions.
Reproduction
Reproduction or procreation or breeding is the biological process by which new individual organisms
"offspring" are produced from their "parent" or parents. There are two modes Sexual reproduction and
Asexual reproduction by which animals reproduce.
Sexual Reproduction
This type of reproduction beginning from the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual
reproduction.
The reproductive parts in animals produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote which
develops into a new individual.The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes (singular,
testis), two sperm ducts and a penis. The testes produce the male gametes called sperms.
The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and
the uterus. Ovary produces female gametes called ova (eggs).
In human beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct by one of the ovaries every
month. Uterus is the part where development of the baby takes place. Spermand egg are haploid that is
they contain only 23 chromosomes. The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a
sperm and an ovum. Such fusion of the egg and the sperm is called fertilization. It takes place into
fallopian tube.
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Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is produced by a single
parent. The new individuals produced are genetically and physically identical to each other, i.e., they
are the clones of their parent.
In Vitro Fertilization
In vitro fertilization is the most commonly used assisted reproductive technologies (ART). In vitro
fertilization, as its name-fertilization is done by fusing ova from female donor and sperm from the
male donor outside the body under strict laboratory conditions. This results in a zygote or famously
known as a test-tube baby. After the embryo culturing, an embryo is transferred to the uterus of the
mother. This method is commonly performed in case of women with damaged or clogged Fallopian
tubes.
Skeletal System
Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. The former has a very hard
matrix due to calcium salts in it and the latter has slightly pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts. This
skeletal system can be divided into the axial and appendicular systems. In an adult body, it is mainly
composed of 206 individual bones which are organized into two main divisions- Axial skeleton and
Appendicular skeleton.
Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton runs along the body‘s central axis; therefore it is called the central core of the
human body. The axial skeleton is composed of 80 bones and it consists of:
 Skull Bone – It includes 8 cranial bones, 14 facial bones, 6 auditory ossicles, and the Hyoid
Bone.
 The bone of the Thoracic Cage – It includes 25 bones of the thorax- a breastbone and 24 ribs.
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 The bone of the Vertebral column- It includes 24 vertebrae bones, the sacrum bone, and the
coccyx bone.
Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones and it comprises of the- Pelvic girdle Upper
Limbs Lower Limbs Shoulder and Girdle or the Pectoral.
Agricultural Product Technology
Improvement in agricultural development is an essential aspect for the overall development and
growth of the country. Due to the continuous decrease in the size of agricultural land and the
continuous increase in the population, providing food for people is a big challenge. In such a situation,
it has become necessary that the use of modern and innovative technologies should be encouraged to
increase productivity in the agricultural sector and to properly manage food resources.
New technology is needed to encourage yield agriculture to an advanced stage, which uses inputs
resourcefully and diversifies into more sustainable and high-value cropping patterns. Because from
this region 65 percent of the country's rural population gets livelihood and food for the entire
population. The raw material for industrial production is obtained from the agricultural sector itself.
There have been many revolutions like Green Revolution, Evergreen Revolution, Blue Revolution,
White Revolution and Yellow Revolution for qualitative and quantitative improvement in agricultural
production in India. But to fulfill the current needs, going beyond these revolutions, there is a need to
expand many technologies in the agricultural sector.
Types of Technologies
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Technologies are often classified into three types, these are software, hardware and org-ware.
Hardware refers to physical tools, software refers to the processes, skills, knowledge and information
required in making use of technologies and org-ware means organizational technologies, it refers to
the ownership and institutional arrangements pertaining to technologies.
In the agricultural sector, hardware is exemplified by different crop varieties, software by farming
practices or research by new farming varieties and org-ware, by the local institutions that assist in the
utilization of agricultural adaptation technologies.
Technologies used in the Agricultural Sector
Various technologies have been stated as follows:
Biotechnology
Biotechnology can play a very important role in developing high yielding varieties and enabling them
to meet biological and abiotic challenges. The development of Gene Modified Crops (GMOs) in the
agricultural sector is the latest progress. The crops whose genes are changed and voluntary results are
obtained from them are called genetically modified crops. Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton is the only
GM crop allowed to be produced in India. Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) is a bacterium found in soil that
has the ability to develop a toxic protein that can kill some pests.
In India, the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) is the apex body that allows for
commercial release of GM crops. In 2002, the GEAC had allowed the commercial release of Bt
cotton. More than 95 per cent of the country‘s cotton area has since then come under Bt cotton. Use of
the unapproved GM variant can attract a jail term of 5 years and fine of Rs 1 lakh under the
Environmental Protection Act ,1989.

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Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology can be used in agriculture in many ways. It can help promote soil fertility and
balanced crop nutrition, effective weed control, distribution of agricultural chemicals, and plant-
generated symptoms due to environmental pressures and diseases.
Some of the uses of nanotechnology in agriculture are as follows - Nano fertilizer can be developed
with the help of nanotechnology which increases the productivity of crops manifold. Nanotechnology
has great potential to revolutionize food packaging. Nano polymers are used in packaging that help in
the preservation of foods. Nanoparticles based on titanium dioxide are used as antimicrobial agents.
Nano particles, such as titanium dioxide, zinc oxide and magnesium oxide, have the potential to
eradicate micro-organisms. These are less expensive and safer than metal-based nanoparticles. The
Government of India launched the Nano Mission in 2007 as a capacity building program. It is being
implemented under the Ministry of Science and Technology.
Protected Cultivation
Greenhouse cultivation farming or poly-house farming is an art of protected cultivation of
horticultural crops to improve their quality and quantity. A polyhouse or greenhouse is a transparent
structure made of glass or polyethylene where plants grow under controlled climatic conditions.
Polyhouse Cultivation has opened a new door for more production in a limited area. Polyhouse
protects crops from any adverse environment such as high humidity or high temperature. In polyhouse
farming there is a manifold increase in the production of vegetables, fruits or flowers. There is no
reduction in the natural color and quality of fruits or flowers. Crops of any season or any place can be
grown in polyhouses. Poly-houses can also be used for rainwater harvesting.

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Farm Mechanization
The agriculture sector value chain includes all the steps involved from preparation of soil to harvesting
and post-harvest processing. For every step in the production lifecycle, use of equipment enhances the
efficiency of the unit involved. Farm mechanisation not just reduces labour time and post-harvest loss
but also helps to cut down production cost in the long term. Ploughs both mould board and disc are
used for tillage. Harrows, clod crushers, levellers, and other general tillage implements are used for
Seed bed preparation. Tractor run or bullock pulled Seed drills are used for Seeding implements.
Cultivators and harrows are used for Weeding and inter culture. Threshers, combines, reaper, power
operated or wind operated or hand operated winnowers Harvesting, are used for Threshing and
Winnowing. Tube wells, pumping sets, charsa, Rahat, Dhenkali, duggalietc are Water lifting devices.
Use of Modern Irrigation Methods
Availability of water is regarded as the most essential aspect for increasing productivity in agriculture.
In India, around 78 percent water is utilized in the agricultural sector and the remaining is made use
of, for industry, drinking and other purposes. Therefore, it is essential to increase the water storage
facilities. Drip irrigation and the sprinkler are two most important modern irrigation methods used in
India.
Modernize Technology Transfer Tools
Advance technology of agriculture and high yielding variety seeds of crops are developed in
Agricultural Universities and Research Institutes. But any result of these efforts can be achieved on
the ground only when the farmers working in the fields have knowledge of the technology developed
by these institutions. Through transfer of technology, technology is transferred from one person or
institution to another person or organization. Technology transfer plays an important role in increasing
agricultural productivity.
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Gram panchayats should act as technology transfer centers for farmers. Internet and mobile phones are
important tools for imparting knowledge on new developments in agriculture, better methods of
farming and technologies. These devices are playing an important role in providing the latest
information of weather, agro-climatic conditions and prices of agricultural produce to the farmers.
Krishi Vigyan Kendras have been set up in every district of the country as a backbone of transfer of
technology.
Advanced Agricultural Technologies used in the Present Existence
Advanced agricultural technologies used in the present existence have been stated as follows-
Tractors on Autopilot
A driverless tractor is an autonomous farm vehicle that delivers a high tractive effort (or torque) at
slow speeds for the purposes of tillage and other agricultural tasks. Like other unmanned ground
vehicles, they are programmed to independently observe their position, decide speed, and avoid
obstacles such as people, animals, or objects in the field while performing their task. The tractors use
GPS and other wireless technologies to farm land without requiring a driver. They operate simply with
the aid of a supervisor monitoring the progress at a control station.
Swath Control and Variable Rate Technology
Controlled use of machines like tractors, fertilizer spreaders, seedling transplanters and boom sprayers
operated with GPS is called swath control. Whenever fertilizer applicator begins to cross an area that
was already applied with fertilizer, individual rows or small sections of rows can automatically shut
off when they cross that line. Swath control eliminates double application on end rows.‖
Precision agriculture allows farmers to reduce inputs like fertilizer or water. Variable rate technology
allows growers to do Precision agriculture. Farmers can create maps of fields, called ―prescriptions.‖
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Those maps are uploaded to a tractor or applicator‘s computer. The applicator then tailors the amount
of fertilizer applied to small segments of the field.
Telematics
Telematics is an interdisciplinary field that is concerned with the sending and receiving of
computerized information over long geographical distances. In the field of agriculture, telematics
enables agricultural stakeholders to perform vehicular and machinery monitoring in the farm and on
the road and also collect information relating to machines and equipment for purposes of analysis in
order to make decision relating to the efficient and effective use of these machines and equipment.
Livestock
Livestock has been contributing to generate productivity in the agricultural sector to a major extent.
Therefore, it is important to take care of their needs. Collars developed for livestock are helping the
individuals to keep track of their herds. It is a kind of telematics for the herds.
Mobile Technology
In the present existence, the use of mobile technology has become productive to a major extent. It is
playing an imperative part in monitoring and controlling crop irrigation systems. With using proper
equipment, a farmer is able to control his irrigation systems, instead of driving to each field. Mobiles
and computers are facilitating these processes to a large extent. Moisture censures in the ground are
able to communicate information about the levels of moisture present at certain depths in the soil. This
leads to more precise control over the water and other inputs like usage of fertilizers, insecticides,
pesticides that are applied by the irrigation pivots.
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy includes generation of power to do a number of farm tasks: pumping water for
irrigation, for livestock or for domestic use; lighting farm buildings; powering processing operations
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and others. These forms of renewable energy include solar energy, wind and water power, oil from
plants, wood from sustainable sources, other forms of biomass (plant material), and biogas (gas
produced from fermentation of manure and crop residues).
"Net metering" enables farmers to get the most out of their turbines. When a turbine produces more
power than the farm needs at that moment, the extra power flows back into the electricity system for
others to use. At the end of the month or year, the farmer pays for the net consumption or the electric
company pays for the net production.
Information Technology
The use of information technology in the agricultural sector is making available online services for
information, education and training, monitoring and consultation, diagnosis and monitoring, and
transaction and processing. E-commerce is primarily used for direct connections between local
producers, traders, retailers and suppliers.
1. Agri App
It is an online farming marketplace bringing Kisan, farming input/output, government service on
an online platform. It also provides chat option for farmers. Kisan can easily chat with an expert
of agriculture using this app.
2. Iffco Kisan App
It is a small Android app in terms of memory with an easy interface to use. This android
application provides information about the latest agriculture advice, latest mandi prices, and
various farming tips. It also provides weather forecast information. It also provides agriculture
alerts to farmers in 10 Indian languages. The farmers can easily take help of agriculture experts
using this app.
3. Agri Media Video

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App Agri Media Video App is one of the most popular in mobile apps for farmers in the video
category. It is an online marketplace bringing farmers, agriculture input/output, farming retail and
fulfillment service on an online platform. It also provides chat service for farmers to solve their
query related to agriculture with the option of upload images of infected crops. Farmers can easily
chat with agriculture expert and discuss their problems.
4. Kisan Yojana
It is another popular Android agriculture apps available for free. It provides information about all
Govt schemes to Kisan. It commutes the information gap between the rural people and Govt. It
also provides the schemes of the different relative states Government. This mobile application also
saves the time and travel expense of Kisan to reach the state Govt office is saved.
Food processing industry
Most of the agricultural products are not consumable in their original form, for which they are
processed. Wheat is converted into flour, Paddy into rice, sugarcane into jagery, Sugar, ethanol,
alcohol etc. These products can be further processed such as flour into bread. Apart from this, left over
part of crop such as risk husk can also be processed to get some useful product for e. g. Rice Bran oil,
cattle feed, Sugarcane bags‘ can be used for power cogeneration. All these processes which makes
agricultural products for consumption able is called food processing.
Hence, food processing not merely adds value to the agro products, but also increases their utility. We
know that activities in an economy are broadly divided into Agriculture, industry and Services. Food
processing Industry is the product of agriculture and Industry.
Where India stands and why food processing is important?
India Food Processing Industry is estimated at $135 billion industry which is growing at about 8%
annually. This growth rate is significantly more than agricultural growth rate which remains around
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4%. These signals indicate toward phenomenal shift toward food processing from traditional ways.
GDP by processing constitute about 10% that of agriculture. But given potential of India, this is an
underachievement.
1. India has about 26 types of different climatic conditions; 46 varieties of soils are there in India out
of total 60 types of soils worldwide. 127 ‗agro climatic zones‘ have been identified in India. Also,
Indian food is known worldwide for its unique taste and aroma.
2. India‘s regional and cultural diversity is perfectly reflected in food. Every state in India has
something unique to offer. For e. g. South Indian, Guajarati, Bengali, Rajasthani and Punjabi
delicacies are different and are admired in many parts of the world.
3. India is largest producer of Pulses, Mangoes, Banana, Milk, ginger, Buffalo meat and 2nd largest
producer of rice, wheat, potato, garlic, cashew nut, groundnut, dry onion, green peas, pumpkin,
gourds, cauliflowers, sugarcane, and tea in the world.
4. We produce 17 per cent of the global total of vegetables and 14 per cent in the case of fruits. About
40 percent of the world‘s mangoes and 30 per cent of the world‘s bananas and papayas are
produced in India.
5. Further, India has many unique things to offer such as Alphonso Mangoes and wheat of Madhya
Pradesh is uniquely protein rich.
6. Consumption patterns in India are rapidly shifting from cereals to protein rich foods and
horticulture. Also India has significant proportion of population which is under nutrition (1/3 of
population), stunted and wasted.
7. Food processing has potential to turnaround whole economy. Indian economy is still agrarian,
because about 55% population is directly dependent upon agriculture. FPI directly targets farming
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sector as it attempts to create more types of products out of single crop. This will increase demand
for farmers and hence more remunerative prices.
8. India‘s demographic dividend is much talked about and most of this lies in rural India. Indian youth
is turning away from agriculture because of low profitability. FPI is perhaps best bet to seize
opportunity of demographic dividend.
9. FPI is employment intensive industry; it can be an answer to jobless growth of past decade.
Currently, only 3 % of employment is in FPI, while in developed countries it handles 14%
population.
Supply Chain in food processing
Any product is mobilized from producer to consumer to be consumed. This route is called supply
chain. This movement involves both time and costs. Lengthier supply chains will push prices upward
and result in more wastage. In last articles regarding marketing of agro-products we came across
various government policies and institutions, which among other things, increase number of
intermediaries. Adequate storage facilities, direct farming, contract farming and negotiable warehouse
receipt system are mechanisms to streamline, strengthen and shorten the supply chain.
Apart from these issues other major interventions and investments are needed in infrastructure sector,
which is backbone of food processing industry. We have seen that India is biggest producer of
numerous fruits and vegetable. Most of these are perishable and have very low shelf life. This is the
major reason for high percentage of wastage. Their shelf life can be increased by adequate investment
in infra such as cold storage, reefer vans, radiation plants etc.
Storage of food grains in food processing
Food Corporation of India deals only in food grains and about 67 per cent of the storage capacity is
concentrated in the six major procuring states namely, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
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Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttrakhand. Several States have emerged in recent years as important states for
food grains procurement, namely, Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh presently account for 13 per cent of the current storage capacity. Under the National
Storage Policy, the bulk grain handling facilities are now being created on the Built Own Operate
(BOO) basis at identified locations in the country. Much of the problem here can be relieved by timely
offloading of stocks.
Storage of Horticulture products
India is currently having severe shortage of cold storage facilities. Significant majority of cold storage
facilities were created between 2000 and 2011, assisted to some extent by interventions from National
Horticultural Board (NHB), National Horticultural Mission (NHM), Horticulture Mission in North
East and Himalayan States, Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority
(APEDA), Ministry of Food Processing Industries and Department of Animal Husbandry & Fisheries.
Cold stores are to some extent product specific. Majority of the cold stores in India are dedicated to
potatoes. There are some that provide storages for chilies, dry fruits, spices, vegetables etc. Cold
storage for meat, fish, milk and milk products and for other commodities such as spices account for
only 1 percent of the total cold storage capacity. These cold storages are also usually smaller in
capacity. Nearly 96 per cent of cold storages are in the private sector and about 75 percent capacity of
cold storages is used to store only potatoes while another 23 per cent fall under the multi-product
category.
Upstream and downstream/ forward backward integration (in supply chain)
Food grains are produced in farms by farmers. Farmers sell out their products to the traders. Traders
supplied it to the factories for processing. In food processing industry chain of supply from farm to
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factory is called upstream chain. One the other hand processed food is supplied to the market and
cusumers who lies on downstream chain.
If PepsiCo instead of procuring potatoes (for chips) from farmers get potatoes captively from its own
lands, it will be called backward integration. On other hand if farmer puts up a processing plant for
chips, or a cold storage, this will be called forward integration.
Forward and backward integration, also called vertical integration, is common in any business and it
saves the costs associated with supply chain. Business which pursues integration strategy, earns a
competitive edge. For example Reliance Industries owns oil and exploration business, refining
business, retail outlets for petro products, and is India‘s biggest polyester manufacturer. Consequently
RIL has almost monopoly in these sectors.
In farming and food processing, vertical integration can work wonders. For this farmer needs financial
and technical support. Agriculture in India already is over employed. This with seasonal nature of
majority of farming crops gives farmers a compelling reason to get into food processing business.
Natural disasters and management
The word ‗disaster‘ means a natural or man-made hazard resulting in an event of substantial extent
causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. It
is a phenomenon that can cause damage to life and property and destroy the economic, social and
cultural life of people.
Two types of Disasters
1. Natural disaster
A natural disaster is a consequence when a natural hazard affects humans and the built
environment. Various phenomena like landslides, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods and
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cyclones are all-natural hazards that kill thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of
habitat and property each year.
2. Man Made disasters
Man-made disasters are the consequence of technological or human hazards. The examples of
manmade disasters include stampedes, fires, transport accidents, industrial accidents, oil spills and
nuclear explosions/radiation. War and deliberate attacks may also be put in this category.
Disaster Management
Disaster management‘ means a continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing,
coordinating and implementing measures which are necessary for-
1. prevention of danger or threat of any disaster;
2. Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences;
3. capacity-building;
4. Preparedness to deal with any disaster;
5. prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
6. Assessing the magnitude of effects of any disaster;
7. Evacuation, rescue and relief;
8. Rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Disaster Management in India
Natural disasters in India cause massive loss to life and property. Flash floods, cyclones, avalanches,
droughts, landslides brought on by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. Other
dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause
extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is
also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat. But
115
floods are the most common natural disaster in India. The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the
Kosi, Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though
they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilization,
but the floods can kill thousands and displace millions. Almost all of India is flood-prone, and extreme
precipitation events, such as flash floods achanakayeebadh and torrential rains musaladharversha, have
become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades, coinciding with rising
temperatures.
Disaster Management act-2005
The Disaster Management Act, 2005 came into effect on 12 December 2005. It received the assent of
The President of India on 9 January 2006. It has 11 chapters and 79 sections. The Act extends to the
whole of India. The Act provides for ‗the effective management of disasters and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto. ‗
1. The Act calls for the establishment of NDMA, with the Prime Minister of India as chairperson. The
NDMA have nine members including a Vice-Chairperson. The NDMA is responsible for ‗laying
down the policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management‘ and to ensure ‗timely and
effective response to disaster‘. It is responsible for laying ‗down guidelines to be followed by the
State Authorities in drawing up the State Plans‘.
2. The Act enjoins the Central Government to Constitute a National Executive Committee to assist the
National Authority. This committee consists of Secretaries to the Government of India in the
Ministries of home, drinking water supply, environment and forests, finance (expenditure), health,
power, agriculture, atomic energy, defense, rural development, science and technology, space,
telecommunication, urban development, and water resources, with the Home secretary serving as
the Chairperson, ex officio. The Chief of the Integrated Defense Staff of the Chiefs of Staff
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Committee is an ex officio member of the NEC. The NEC under section of the Act is responsible
for the preparation of the National Disaster Management Plan for the whole country and to ensure
that it is ‗reviewed and updated annually‘.
3. This act mandates all the State Governments to establish a State Disaster Management Authority
(SDMA) on the framework of NDMA.
4. This act also calls for the establishment of District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) whose
chair person will be the Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner of the district.
5. The Act provides for constituting a NDRF ‗for the purpose of specialist response to a threatening
disaster situation or disaster‘ under a Director General to be appointed by the Central Government.
6. The Act provides for civil and criminal liabilities for those who violate the provision of the Act.
Major hazards and their way of mitigation
Major hazards and their way of mitigation are is follows -
Earth Quakes
Faults are planes that act as source of earth quake. Movement of plates with respect to each other
releasing energy causes it. Magnitude and Intensity of earth quakes are determined by Richer scale and
modified Mercalli scale. Earth quakes are unpredictable and unpreventable. 95% of the people die due
to falling of buildings. So it is most dangerous when occur at night. Earth quakes may cause floods,
fires, landslides and huge ocean waves called Tsunamis. Poor people living in the prone areas whose
houses are mostly unable to resist the quake are more affected.
Preparing to face the hazard is the major step in disaster management. Train ourselves in basic rescue
and first aid functions and also help the survivors quickly, Retrofit the existing buildings, Use
appropriate technology in building material and also adhere to norms in new constructions and train
ourselves to respond to the situation are some of the steps to prepare for the earth quake.
117
Cyclones
Indian sub-continent is one of the six major cyclone prone areas in the world. Cyclones occur due to
warm ocean temperature, high relative humidity and atmospheric instability. During cyclones, strong
winds uproot trees, destroy power and telecommunication, terrestrial rain causes flood, high tidal
waves hit the coastal areas.
Forest along coasts acts as wind barriers. But deforestation and encroachment of coastal shelter-belt is
a threat. By destroying the mangrove forests, we are ourselves increasing the risk.Indian
Meteorological Department (IMD) does forecast and warning. They track cyclones. It is done by
INSAT satellite and cyclone detection radars. The Disaster Warning System (DWS) helps in
dissemination of warning at isolated places in local languages. In cyclonic seasons, listen to
TV/RADIO updates, identify safe shelters Keep an emergency kit, Check the perimeter for safety,
Store adequate food, keep a list of emergency numbers, Conduct mock drills. There is a no wind
period in between the cyclone. It is the eye of the cyclone. The winds are on the walls of the eye.
Floods
The major causes are blocking of river channel, Excessive rain, Narrowness of river/ change in its
course, insufficient engineering, Sea tides, Tsunamis etc. Most flood prone areas are banks of Ganga
and Brahmaputra. Eastern coastal deltaic region also cause flood. Economically and socially backward
communities are the most affected and they took long for coming back to normal life. During floods,
the availability of drinking water is the major problem faced by people. Overflow of contaminated
water from various sources with the useful water in wells, tanks etc. make them not available for
drinking and cooking purposes. It should also be made sure during floods that enough food, water and
medicines are easily available. People should be immediately transported to shelter places. People
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doing cattle rearing for livelihood are also negatively affected. So measures are needed to make sure
that these animals are also moved to safer places.
Drought
Drought causes lack of food, fodder, water and employment. Women are more affected and there will
be distressed migrations. Lack of nutrition, education and proper health, increased school dropouts and
child labor may also be seen. Based on the information given by IMD, we can make planned efforts to
conserve resources and to prevent misuse of land and water. Farmers and tribal groups are mostly
affected. Less availability of water for drinking, cooking, agriculture etc. cause decrease in production
and thereby creates unemployment.
Rain harvesting, increase vegetative cover, promote watershed programs, adopt drought resilient
varieties, use alternative crops, Capacity building of communities, encourage crop and seed insurance
scheme, Awareness generation, setting up of efficient irrigation systems also helps saving water.
Conserve natural aquifers are major steps to mitigate effects of drought.
Community planning in Disaster management
Our community can be affected by the disaster at any time. Hazards like floods, earthquakes, and
landslides can be happen without any warning but this does not mean that we should panic. What it
does mean that our community should always have a disaster plane which can respond to all our needs
of our area during emergency.
Community planning is the most effective way and integrated part of disaster management. The word
community is driven from Latin word commune whose literal meaning is ‗To work together‘. Thus
when people of a locality work together for development with a spirit of service. It is called
community development. Community may also be define as self organized network of people who
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work to full fill of common agenda our goal our cause our interest. In within simple words the work by
the local people for the local people is called community work.
Community can play effective role in disaster management because they are the first responder of any
disaster. They also have the local information which is very important in disaster management.
Community can also play important role in disaster management because it does not work for
payment. It has the spirit of service and we feeling. Traditional knowledge of the members of
community (common people and villagers) are often very important in coping with crisis. The
involvement of community in disaster management also plays important role in risk reduction. The
people of community can work in better way still in adverse conditions. An effective disaster
management cannot be imagine without the involvement of community.
It is a part of capacity building against disaster. But for the effective disaster management community
should be trained educate and involve in disaster management. There should be a planning of
community development against disaster.
We cannot assume that official help will always be available immediately after a disaster. A
community should be prepared toward together if there is a planning of community participation the
whole management could be perform successfully.
RESOURCE MAPPING
Resource mapping is integrated part of disaster management. It is considered as an effective tool of pre
disaster management and capacity building for disaster management. Resource mapping provide
strength to the disaster management. In fact resource mapping is the drafting of resources available in
a particular region or community which can be used in rescue and relief activities after disaster.
Resource mapping consist following activities

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1. Under resource mapping local geographical map is prepared for the batter management of rescue
and relief activities in those regions which are considered disaster prone. This mapping is related to
the pre disaster management. It includes mapping of hospital, clinics, Police station, Fire Brigades,
Bridges, Water resources, playing ground. In this map all roads are mention clearly with the
alternative streets and ways.
2. Resource mapping consist the mapping of main roads, service roads, streets roads, and highways so
that during disaster road jam could be prevent and crowd could be control
3. Under resource mapping emergency Phone directory of local authority is prepared which consist
phone number of the authority related to disaster management, officers of red cross, police stations,
Hospitals and Doctors, Police control room, traffic control room, Fire brigades , Blood Banks, Etc.
It is very help full to manage rescue and relief activities.
4. Under resource mapping a list of those physicalresources is prepared which can be help full in
disaster management such is first aid facilities, transportation facilities, strictures, ladders, beds in
Hospitals, Hand pumps, water tankers, generators , Focus lamps, telephone exchange, ham radio,
Alternative means of communication, public toilets, JCB, Bulldozers, Dumpers Etc. The location of
these resources also mentioned in resource mapping
5. Under resource mapping of all above information are published for people so that local people
could be connect from the authorities responsible for disaster management. It makes effective
rescue and relief activities. These informations are published through the internet print Media,
Social media, mass media.
6. Resource mapping plays very important role in disaster management. It also appreciates to the
trained and skilled peoples to work for rescue and relief. It makes convenient to the rescue and
relief. It presents a road map for disaster management.

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Rudra‘s IAS

Fundamental principles of science

Newtons Law of Motion

First Law of Motion

sometimes called inertia.

Second Law of Motion

Third Law of Motion

mathematician Blaise Pascal.

Mathematically, Hooke‘s law is commonly expressed as:

spring constant in N/m.

that helps us understand how ships float in water.

the liquid displaced by it.

Boyle in the year 1662.

above statement we can write this in the following manner:

temperature and pressure.

energy of the fluid motion, remains constant.

p + 1/2 ρ v2 + ρgh =constant

pressure, velocity and elevation.

Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation

It implies that good radiators are good absorbers.

green and the emitted colors are dominated by red color.

Newton’s Law of Cooling

its surroundings, provided the difference is small.

the difference in the temperature of the body and its surroundings.

Stefan Boltzmann Law

body‘s thermodynamic temperature. ‖

σ is Stefan‘s constant = 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2 k4

First Law of Electromagnetic Induction

circuit is closed, a current is induced which is called induced current.

1. By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.

2. By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.

3. By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field.

4. By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil.

Faraday’s Second Law of Electromagnetic Induction

rate of change of flux linkage.

fluid‘s temperature as it flows from a higher-pressure region to lower pressure. In thermodynamics,

environment. This procedure is called a throttling process or Joule–Thomson process.

Important Indian scientific research insitutes and their achievements

Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)

INCOSPAR set up the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in

1969, superseded the erstwhile INCOSPAR.

communications, weather forecasts, disaster management tools, Geographic Information Systems,

Raja Ramanna Center for Atomic Technology (RRCAT)

Construction of laboratories and houses began in May 1984.

highest energy particle accelerator in the country.

temperature sensor, surgical CO2 laser system have been developed.

Satish Dhawan Space Center (SDSC) Shriharikota

decayed on 19 August 1979.

spacecraft called Gaganyaan.

Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO)

cutting-edge defence technologies and a mission to achieve self-reliance in critical defence

effective deterrence and providing crucial leverage.

Science Organisation (DSO).

grown multi-directionally in terms of the variety of subject disciplines, number of laboratories,

made in several such technologies.

Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) Mumbai

program essential for the ambitious nuclear program of India.

power production, materials technology, electronics & instrumentation.

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) Mumbai

Colaba, Mumbai, with an affiliated campus in Serilingampally near Hyderabad.

in different parts of the country.

National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL) Tirupati

Sciences. It had its humble beginning in 1992 as the National Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere