Chapter 14

Nonlinear Materials
14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials
14.2 Belleville Washer
14.3 Planar Seal
14.4 Review
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 2

Section 14.1
Basics of Nonlinear Materials

Key Concepts • Plasticity

• Yield Criteria
• Hardening Rules
• Linear versus Nonlinear Materials
• Plasticity Models
• Elasticity
• Hyperelasticity
• Linear Elasticity
• Required Test Data
• Hyperelasticity
• Strain Energy Functions
• Plasticity
• Hyperelasticity Models
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 3

Linear/Nonlinear Materials

Stress (Force/Area)
• When the stress-stain relation of a material
is linear, it is called a linear material,
otherwise the material is called a nonlinear
material. Strain (Dimensionless)

• For an isotropic linear material, two

independent material parameters are
needed to completely define the material.
• Orthotropic and anisotropic linear elasticity
are also available in Workbench.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 4

Elastic/Plastic Materials [1] Elastic

material.

Stress (Force/Area)
• If the strain is totally recovered after
release of the stress, the behavior is
called elasticity. Strain (Dimensionless)

• On the other hand, if the strain is not

[2] Plastic
totally recoverable (i.e., there is residual material.

Stress (Force/Area)
strain after release of the stress), the
behavior is called plasticity and the
residual strain is called the plastic
strain.
Strain (Dimensionless)

[3] Plastic strain.

Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 5

Hyperelasticity
Hyperelastic
• Nonlinear non-hysteresis elasticity are characterized material.

Stress (Force/Area)
by that the stressing curve and the unstressing curve
are coincident: the energy is conserved in the cycles.
• The challenge of implementing nonlinear elastic
material models is that the strain may be as large as
100% or even 200%, such as rubber under stretching
Strain (Dimensionless)
or compression.
• Under such large strains, the stretching and
compression behaviors may not be described by the
same parameters.
• This kind of super-large deformation elasticity is
given a special name: hyperelasticity.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 6

PLASTICITY
[2] Initial yield [1] Idealized
point (or stress-strain
Idealized Stress-Strain Curve elastic limit). curve.

Stress (Force/Area)
• Plasticity behavior typically occurs in ductile
metals subject to large deformation. Plastic strain
results from slips between grains due to shear
stresses.
• A stress-strain curve is not sufficient to fully
Strain (Dimensionless)
define a plasticity behavior. There are two
additional characteristics that must be described: a [3] The stress-
[4] When the
strain relation is
stress is released,
yield criterion and a hardening rule. assumed linear
the strain
before Yield
decreases with a
point, and the
slope equal to the
initial slope is the
Young's modulus.
Young's modulus.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 7

Yield Criteria

• Workbench uses von Mises criterion as the yield criterion, that is, a stress state
reaches yield state when the von Mises stress σ e is equal to the current uniaxial
yield strength σ y′ , or

1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
σ1 − σ 2 + σ 2 − σ 3 + σ 3 − σ1 = σ y′
2

The yielding initially occurs when σ y′ = σ y , and the "current" uniaxial yield strength
•
σ y′ may change subsequently.

• If the stress state is inside the cylinder, no yielding occurs. If the stress state is on
the surface, yielding occurs. No stress state can exist outside the yield surface.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 8

σ3 This is a von Mises yield surface, which

is a cylindrical surface aligned with the
axis σ1 = σ 2 = σ 3 and with a radius of
2σ y′ , where σ y′ is the current yield
strength.

σ1 = σ 2 = σ 3

σ2

σ1
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 9

Hardening Rules

• If the stress state is on the yield surface and the stress state continues to "push" the
yield surface outward, the size (radius) or the location of the yield surface will change.
The rule that describes how the yield surface changes its size or location is called a
hardening rule.
• Kinematic hardening assumes that, when a stress state continues to "push" a yield
surface outward, the yield surface will change its location, according to the "push
direction," but preserve the size of the yield surface.
• Isotropic hardening assumes that, when a stress state continues to "push" a yield
surface, the yield surface will expand its size, but preserve the axis of the yield
surface.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 10

[1] Kinematic hardening

assumes that the difference [2] Isotropic hardening
between tensile yield assumes that the tensile
strength and the yield strength and the
compressive yield strength compressive yield strength
remain equal in
remains a constant of 2σ y . magnitude.

σ y′
2σ y
Stress

Stress
σy
σ y′

Strain Strain
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 11

Plasticity Models in Workbench

[2] To complete a
description of plasticity
model, you must include its
linear elastic properties.

[1] Plasticity models

supported in
Workbench.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 12

HYPERELASTICITY

Test Data Needed for Hyperelasticity

• In plasticity or linear elasticity, we use a stress-strain curve to describe its behavior,

and the stress-strain curve is usually obtained by a tensile test. Since only tension
behavior is investigated, other behaviors (compressive, shearing, and volumetric)
must be drawn from the tensile test data.
• When the strain is large, all the moduli (tensile, compressive, shear, and bulk) can
not assume simple relations.
• Therefore, to describe hyperelasticity behavior, we need following test data: (a) a
set of uniaxial tensile test data, (b) a set of uniaxial compressive test data, (c) a set
of shear test data, and (d) a set of volumetric test data if the material is
compressible.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 13

• It is possible that a set of test data is obtained by superposing two sets of other test
data. For example, the set of uniaxial compressive test data can be obtained by adding a
set of hydrostatic compressive test data to a set of equibiaxial tensile test data.

= +

[1] Uniaxial [2] Equibiaxial [3] Hydrostatic

compressive test. tensile test. compressive test.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 14

300

[2] Equibiaxial
240 test data.

180
Stress (psi)

[3] Shear test

data.
120

[1] Uniaxial test

60 data.

0
0 0.2 0.5 0.7
Strain (Dimensionless)
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.1 Basics of Nonlinear Materials 15

Hyperelasticity Models
in Workbench
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.2 Belleville Washer 16

Section 14.2
Belleville Washer
Stress-strain
curve of the
steel in this case.
Problem Description

280

Stress (MPa)
270

260

250
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Plastic Strain (Dimensionless)
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.2 Belleville Washer 17

40 mm

• We will compress the Belleville 22 mm 1.5 mm

spring by 1.0 mm and then

release it completely.
• A force-displacement curve will
also be plotted.
• We will examine the residual
stress after the spring is
completely released.

The Belleville washer is

made of steel, with
thickness of 1.0 mm.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.2 Belleville Washer 18

Force-versus-Displacement Curve

80

60
Compressive Force (N)

40

20

0
[1] The curve is
-20 quite different
[3] Let's explore the between loading
-40 and unloading.
residual stress at this point
-60 when the external force is
completely released.
-80
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
[2] The curve below zero force has little Displacement (mm)
practical usage. It is the force required
to pull the spring back to its original
position.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.2 Belleville Washer 19

Residual Stresses

[1] Residual equivalent stress.

[2] Residual hoop stress. The

top surface is dominated by
tension, while the bottom
surface is dominated by
compression.
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.3 Planar Seal 20

Section 14.3
Planar Seal

Problem Description 200 [2] Biaxial

test.
160

•
Stress (psi)
The seal is used in the door of a 120
[3] Shear
refrigerator. The seal is a long 80 test.
strip, and we will model it as a
40 [1] Uniaxial test.
plane strain problem.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Engineering Strain (Dimensionless)
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.3 Planar Seal 21

[4] The upper plate

1.100
is displaced 0.85" [2] Steel
downward. plate.
.800
R.200

.133
[1] Rubber
seal.
R.150
.867
R.150
R.050

.133
[3] Steel
Unit: in.
plate.
.333 .500 R.200 R.050
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.3 Planar Seal 22

Results
Chapter 14 Nonlinear Materials Section 14.3 Planar Seal 23

Force-versus-Displacement Curve