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Non-Probability and Probability Sampling

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Module name/ title: Non-Probability and Probability Sampling

Paper: Communications Research

Component I: Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Biswajit Das Centre for Culture, Media
& Governance,
JamiaMilliaIslamia, Delhi
Co-Principal Investigator Dr. Durgesh Tripathi University School of Mass
Communication, Guru
Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University,
Delhi
Paper Coordinator (if Dr. Sunitha Chitrapu Social Communications
any) Media Department
(SCMSophia), Sophia-
Smt. Manorama Devi
Somani College, Mumbai
400 026
Content Writer/ Dr. Huma Parveen Dept. of Mass-
Author(s) Communication, Aligarh
Muslim University

NayeemShowkat Department of Mass

Communication, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh
Content Reviewer Prof. Biswajit Das Centre for Culture, Media
& Governance, Jamia
Millia Islamia, Delhi
Language Editor Mr. P K Satapathy Department of English,
School of Open Learning,
University of Delhi

Component II: Description of the Module

Items Description of Module

Subject Name Communication Studies
Paper Name Communications Research
Module Name/Title Non-Probability and Probability
Sampling
Module ID P2M16
Pre-requisites
Objectives
Keywords Non-Probability and Probability Sampling

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Module 17: Non-Probability and Probability Sampling

1. Introduction

Sampling is the method of selecting a representative subset of the population called

sample. Sampling makes research more accurate and economical. It’s the sampling
method which actually determines the generalizability of the research findings. In
simple words, the process of choosing a sample of the population to study is called
sampling.

For example, you wish to study newspaper reading habits among the students of
your college. It’s not possible to include all the students in your study. So, you draw a
sample of the whole population - all the students of the university.

Suppose, from a total of 500 students of your college, we have selected a sample of
50 students to trace out whether they read a newspaper or not? To calculate the
portion of students qualified to be the part of the sample, you have to divide sample
size by population size; 50/500 = 0.1 %. This reveals 10 per cent of the population is
to be studied.

One of the most asked questions is what is the best sample 100, 300, 500, 1000 or
what? Seriously speaking, numbers are not as important as the representation of the
sample. A sample should be the representative of the whole population. A sample of
10,000 could be considered a bad sample if it’s not representative of the whole
population. On the other side, a sample of 100 may be considered a good sample if
it’s the representative of the whole population. In continuation to the earlier example;
after dividing population size by sample size, (500/50= 10), we found that each
element of the sample represents 10 students of the total population.

The sample should represent the population in all the respects. So, the question
here is how to draw a sample? Through a sampling scheme, the researcher can
choose a sample drawn by assigning selection probabilities with each draw. There
are mainly two types of sampling techniques; probability sampling and non-
probability sampling.

2. Probability Sampling

In probability sampling, each sample has an equal probability of being chosen. We

can say, a probability sample is one in which each element of the population has a
known non-zero probability of selection. This method of sampling gives the
probability that our sample is representative of a population.

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For example; there are 500 students in your college. You adopt a method in which all
the 500 students of your college have an equal chance to be the participants in your
study, this is called probability sampling. In other words, to choose a sample,
probability sampling uses random sampling techniques. For example, if you had a
population of 100 people, each person would have odds of 1 out of 100 of being
chosen. In this sampling method, there is an utmost probability of a representative
sample of the whole population.

Some probability sampling methods are as follows;

Simple Random Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Multi-stage Systematic Sampling

2.1 Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a completely random method of selecting a sample in

which each element and each combination of elements in the population have an
equal probability of being selected as a part of the sample. Being one of the simplest
forms of random sampling, this method is a fair way to select a sample. As each
member of the population has an equal probability of being selected, simple random
sampling is the best-known probability sample. Even though it may not be
considered an ideal method of choosing the sample, still result obtained through this
method has high external validity or generalizability as compared to some other
method of sample selection. Simple random sampling can be done by using a
number of techniques such as:

(a) Tossing a coin.

(b) Throwing a dice.

(c) Lottery method.

(d) Blindfolded method.

Random sampling can be conducted in two ways; with and without replacement. In
case, a certain element is selected and has the chance to be selected again after the
required variables are measured is called sampling with replacement. On the other
side, in random sampling without replacement method, an element once obtained
can’t be selected again. Random sampling requires a sampling frame, that is, a list of
all the elements in the population.

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For example,let’s assume that you have to study the newspaper reading habits of
students of your college. The college has maintained a computerised record of all the
students currently enrolled (sampling frame). Now, suppose you have to draw a
sample of 100 students from this enrolment list. You have several options to draw the
sample. You will write the names of all the 500 students of your university on the
tickets and put those tickets in a hat. Then, you will close your eyes and pick one
ticket. Then, you will shake the hat again and pick another ticket. You will repeat the
method till you select the sample.

2.2 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic sampling is an improvement over the simple random sampling. This

method requires the complete information about the population. In this sampling
method, we select one unit from the sampling frame and then calculations to draw
following units are done on the basis of the interval size. Systematic sampling being
a very easy method to do, you actually choose every “nth” participant from a
complete list. Even though each element has an equal probability of selection, but
unlike as in simple random sampling, a combination of elements has different
probabilities in systematic random sampling.

For example; you choose every 5th student, roll no. wise in your class. After deciding
the sample size to be drawn, all you have to do is number the units in the population
from 1 to N. For example; your college has 500 students and you have decided to
draw a sample of 50. The interval size, as calculated above in an example is equal to
(500/50) 10. We can select a random number from 1 to 10. Suppose, we have
selected 7. Start with the 7th unit in the list, and keep on adding 10 to every new
number to get all the elements. Following the procedure, you will get a sequence of
7, 17, 27, 37… With this method of sampling, you have to be careful to avoid
periodicity, that is, an unrepresentative sample because of the periodic nature of
elements, say TV shows that appear on a certain day of the week. So if you were to
sample TV shows on every 7th day, you would only end up with TV shows from the
same day of the week.

In other words, the population must be listed in a random order and every element
must be chosen from the sequence framed, as above. One of most widely used
sampling methods, systematic random sample and simple random sample have
same error rate if the list of the population is in random order.

2.3 Stratified Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling is an improvement over systematic sampling. In this

method, the population elements are divided into strata on the basis of some
characteristics and from each of these smaller homogeneous groups draws at
random a predetermined number of units.

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Stratified random sampling can be of two types (1) proportionate stratified sampling
and (2) disproportionate stratified random sampling. When the size of the sample is
proportionate to the size of the unit, it is called proportionate stratified sampling.
When it is not proportionate to the size of the unit, it is called disproportionate
stratified sampling. Disproportionate stratified sampling depends upon considerations
involving personal judgement and convenience.

For example; you can divide the administration of your college into two subgroups;
teaching and non-teaching staff. To ensure adequate representation of each stratum
(subgroup), the sample is then drawn from each stratum randomly or systematically.
Strata are divided keeping in mind that there must be heterogeneity between the
strata and homogeneity within each stratum. In the case of stratified sampling, there
is an increase in the accuracy of the result if each stratum is more homogenous
within and heterogeneous between each other.

In an another example; Suppose, there are N number of students in your college

further divided into subpopulations of various faculties like Social Science, Arts,
Science, Engineering, Management, Medicine. It is a well-established fact that
students of different faculties have different reading habits. Hence, each faculty
would become your stratum. Now, you will divide your sample in such a way that you
have elements of all the strata. The addition of all faculties N1, N2, N3…Nx is equal
to N.

For instance, you need to draw a sample of “n” students from “N.” You will actually
choose a sample of n1 + n 2+ n3…nxequaling n from the aforementioned subgroups
N1, N2, N3…. Nx. This way, you will be able to draw a more representative sample
of the students in your college.

Even though this method of sampling enables the researcher to get more detailed
information about the subgroups of the population, there are concerns regarding the
difficulties to divide the population into strata in some cases. This method of
sampling is cardinal when a need to over-sample particular subgroup is required. For
example, you can study an equal number of girls and boys in your college despite an
inequality in the total population of girls and boys in your college.

2.4Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is one of the efficient methods of random sampling in which the
population is first divided into clusters, and then a sample is selected from the
clusters randomly. Unlike the above, in pure cluster sampling, the whole cluster is
sampled.

In contrary to stratified sampling, there should be heterogeneity within the clusters

and homogeneity between the clusters. The more homogeneity among the clusters,
lesser will be the margin of error or vice-versa. The method is mostly feasible in case
of diverse population spread over different areas.

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Not possible in case of simple random sampling, the participants with different
demographics are selected randomly from these areas. This is an economical
method and saves the time of researcher. Suppose, you want to study the average
woman’s height in India. It is not possible to get a list of everyone. In such a case,
you will divide the areas into clusters and draw a sample randomly from those
clusters.

2.5 Multi-Stage Sampling

To draw the sample, this method actually uses a combination of various techniques.
In this method, the population is divided into groups at various levels. A group within
a group, within a group and so on. The sample is finally drawn from the smallest
group among all the groups.

Suppose you want to study the coverage of The Indian Express newspaper on
gender issues for ten years from 2000 to 2010. You may break the period giving a
five-year gap and select years 2000, 2005, 2010 for the study. Then, you may further
select three months – for example, January, June and December - of the
aforementioned years for the study. You may further reduce the number of issues to
be studied and select only first two weeks of all the three months of the selected
years. You may further construct an odd-numbered week or even-numbered week
and reduce your sample size. Finally, you may select an odd-numbered week in
January and even-numbered week in June and odd-numbered week in December.
You may follow this sequence and select 63 issues of the newspaper for the study
(There may be more roughly than some 3640 issues of the newspaper published in
10 years).

3. Non-probability Sampling

Unlike probability sampling method, non-probability sampling technique uses non-

randomized methods to draw the sample. Non-probability sampling method mostly
involves judgment. Instead of randomization, participants are selected because they
are easy to access. For example; your classmates and friends have a better chance
to be part of your sample. Even though in certain cases, non-probability sampling is a
useful and convenient method of selecting a sample, the method is appropriate and
the only method available in certain cases.

One of the major shortcomings of the non-probability sampling is that the findings
established through this method lack generalizability. Even though findings obtained
through this method apply mostly to the group studied, it may be wrong to extend
these findings beyond that particular sample. Through the non-probability method,
we can study particular phenomena with a potential to generate valuable insights.
The non-probability sample is used to study existing theoretical insights or
developing new ones. This method of sampling is considered less expensive, less
complicated and easy to apply as compared to its counterpart.

Some non-probability methods of sampling are as follows:

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Convenience Sampling

Purposive Sampling

Quota Sampling

Snowball sampling

3.1 Convenience Sampling: In this type of sampling, researchers prefer participants

as per their own convenience. The researcher selects the closest live persons as
respondents. In convenience sampling, subjects who are readily accessible or
available to the researcher are selected. For example, you will choose your
classmates and friends for the study as per your convenience. In other words, in this
type of non-probability sampling method, whoever meets the researcher qualifies to
be the part of your sample. For example; people in the streets. To get the
questionnaire filled, you take the copies of your questionnaire and stand in the corner
of a street. You will give the copies of the questionnaire to people passing by you.

3.2 Purposive Sampling: In this type of sampling, the researcher chooses the
participants as per his/her own judgment, keeping back in mind the purpose of the
study. It uses the judgment of an expert in selecting cases or it selects cases with a
specific purpose in mind. This type of sampling is used in exploratory research or in
field research. With purposive sampling, the researcher hardly knows whether the
cases selected do represent the population or not. As mostly sampling problem is
being addressed with a specific plan in mind, most of the sampling methods may be
considered purposive in nature.

Purposes sampling is somewhat less costly, more readily accessible, more

convenient and select only those individual that are relevant to research design.
Besides this, there is no way to ensure that the sample is truly representative of the
population, and more emphasis is placed on the ability of the researcher to assess
the elements of the population.

For example: For studying attitude toward any national issue, a sample of
journalists, teachers and legislators may be selected for the study. They qualify to be
part of purposive sampling as they can more reasonably be expected to represent
the correct attitude than other class of people.

3.3 Quota Sampling: To understand this type of sampling, all we have to do is to

understand the literal meaning of quota. In this sampling method, we pre-plan the
number of participants in specified categories (For example; 100 literates, 100
illiterate). You select your sample according to some fixed quota. We allot shares to
different groups (for example 100 men, 100 women). This type of sampling method
may be further divided into uncontrolled quota sampling and controlled quota
sampling. In uncontrolled quota sampling, the researcher selects the sample as per
her own convenience. On the other side, some restrictions are imposed to limit
researcher’s choice in controlled quota sampling. This type of sampling is somehow

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related to stratified sampling. Make sure that the sample represents each group or
stratum of the population. Unlike the stratified sampling, the researcher in quota
sampling method selects the subjects available immediately fulfilling the criteria.

3.4 Snowball Sampling: Also called "chain referral sampling,” in this method, the
sample is actually collected in various stages. Snowball sampling which is a non-
probability sampling method is basically sociometric in nature. Although snowball
sampling is considered to be a form of accidental sampling by some, this method is
appropriate when the members of a special population are difficult to locate for
example homeless people, migrant workers etc. It begins by the collection of data
from one or more contacts usually known to the person collecting the data. At the
end of the data collection process (e.g., questionnaire, survey, or interview), the data
collector asks the respondent to provide contact information for other potential
respondents. These potential respondents are contacted, interviewed and further
asked to provide more contacts. This process goes on till the purpose of the
researcher is achieved.

According to Daniel (2012), “In a sense quota sampling combines availability

sampling and purposive sampling by targeting specific numbers of elements that
have specific characteristics.” Snowball sampling is most useful when there are very
few methods to secure a list of the population or when the population is unknowable.

4. Summary

Besides emphasizing the need for a representative sample, in this chapter, we have
examined the importance of sampling. Further, we also described various types of
probability and non-probability sampling methods at large. The paper has been
drafted to address various problems and confusions prevailing among the young
researchers about different types of sampling methods.

References

1. Andale. (June 26, 2015). Probability Sampling: Definition,Types, Advantages

and Disadvantages. Statistics How To. Retrieved
from http://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-sampling/.
2. Babbie, E. R. (n.d.). The Logic of Sampling. The Basics of Social Research.
Wadsworth Cengage Learning, pp 208.
3. Barreiro, P. L., &Albandoz, J. P. (2001). Population and sample. Sampling
techniques. MaMaEuSch† (Management Mathematics for European School).

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Retrieved
from http://optimierung.mathematik.unikl.de/mamaeusch/veroeffentlichungen/
ver_texte/sampling_en.pdf.
4. Chaudhuri, A., &Stenger, H. (2005). Survey Sampling: Theory and Methods -
2nd ed. Chapman & Hall/CRC.
5. Daniel, J. (2012). Sampling Essentials: Practical Guidelines for Making
Sampling Choices. Sage Publications, pp 103.
6. Doherty, M. (1994) Probability versus Non-Probability Sampling in Sample
Surveys, The New Zealand Statistics Review March 1994 issue, pp 21-28.
7. Fink, A. (2003) How to Sample in Surveys. 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
8. Henry, G.T. (n.d.). Practical Sampling. Sage Publications, pp 23.
9. King, R. M. Types of sampling. Advanced Research Methods. Retreived
from http://www.psyking.net/HTMLobj-3829/Types_of_Sampling.pdf.
10. Lynchi, G. (n.d.). Sampling. Retreived
from https://www.kent.ac.uk/religionmethods/documents/Sampling.pdf.
11. Wiid, J., &Diggines, C. (n.d.). Marketing Research. Juta, pp 200.
12. Zikmund, W., &Babin, B. (n.d.). Sampling Designs and Sampling Procedures.
Exploring Marketing Research. Thomson South –Western, pp 411.

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