Research Methodology MBA

Established under Section 3 of the UGC Act.
1956 I Awarded Category - I by UGC
E-CONTENT
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
MBA I SEM I
Dr. Dipasha Sharma
Established under Section 3 of the UGC Act. 1956 I Awarded Category - I by UGC
Gram: Lavale, Tal: Mulshi, Dist: Pune, Maharashtra, India Pin: 412115
E-CONTENT
MBA I SEM I
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T5525 Research Methodology (MBA I SEM I)
Authors : Dr. Dipasha Sharma
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CONTENT
MODULE - 1 : Introduction to the Research Process 01
MODULE - 2 : Selecting and Framing a Research Problem 11
MODULE - 3 : Review of Literature 20
MODULE - 4 : Conceptual and Theoretical Framework 29
MODULE - 5 : Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods 35
MODULE - 6: Data Analysis and Research Report Writing 51

MODULE - 1 INTRODUCTION
TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS
STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Nature, Scope, Importance and Functions
1.4 Various types of Research Process
1.5 Self Assessment Questions
1.6 References
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to:
¡ Understand Nature, Scope, Importance of Research Process
¡ Understand Various types of Research Processes
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Research is a process of collecting and analyzing the relevant information to identify and define
opportunities and problems. The gathered information can be used to generate, refine and
evaluate issues which can be any like social issues, business issues, issues in medical domain.
The well processed information through research lead to monitor existing issues and improve
overall processes.
1.3 NATURE, SCOPE, IMPORTANCE AND FUNCTIONS

1.3.1 Nature
The nature of research is the systematic and objective
¡ identification
¡ collection
¡ analysis
¡ dissemination
¡ and use of information
For the purpose of improving decision making related to the

¡ identification and
01
¡ solution of problems and opportunities across various domains.
Note : Adapted from (Malhotra)
1.3.2 Definition of Research

It is defined as search for knowledge in a systematic and scientific manner to either answer the
existing questions or identifying new questions in the specific areas. For example you may do
research on the existing business problems and do a systematics study to identify possible and
feasible solution for it. The foremost aspect of research is that it must be done in a systematic
manner and scientific way and not based on the hunches of investigator or researcher.
Research can also be done to explore new dimensions of the specific area and emerge certain new
possible research questions or it can also be done to identify why some phenomenon exist, what
are the antecedents of the research question.
In the medical paralance, you may observe many researches being conducted to identify cure for
exiting medical issues or even to find out possibility of new diseases and require drugs. Similarly
in the social sciences, you may investigate underlying reasons of many cultural and
demographical issues or even explore some under researched areas to unearth new research
aspects.
1.3.3 Objectives of Research

The purpose of research can broadly be classified as :
1. Exploration of new insights : To understand an under researched phenomenon or
concept to gain innovative acumens into it (exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. Describing an aspect or phenomenon in a detailed manner : To describe precisely the
features of a set of individuals, situation or a group (research studies);
3. Explain why a Phenomenon occurs : determining the frequency of happening of any
issue or association between two issues (diagnostic research studies);
4. Determine What causes the change in the undermining relationship : To test a hypothesis
of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing research studies).
1.3.4 Why should you pursue Research

The motivation of research can be due to eagerness to learn novel domain and gain new insights,
passion towards specific subject, issues or it can purely be academic in nature.
1.3.5 TYPES OF RESEARCH

a. Descriptive Research : It is defined as describing an event, issue in hand as it is once it
has already happened and you cannot alter the situation. It is an Ex post facto research
which can be conducted through surveys and secondary data analysis (existing data). For
a example you would like to know which snack brand is popular in a specific
geographical region through a survey or existing data. Another example can be where
you can do a survey to identify what are the preferred destination of shopping for
youngsters. Here you majorly describe the data collected through descriptive statistics.
02
b. Analytical Research: Researcher critically analyse the available data and draws
inferences out of it. Such why the event has happened, what were the antecedents and
precedents of the events, how such events can be managed in the near future.
c. Fundamental Research : It is also known as basic or pure research as such researches
aim to formulate theory, gather and develops new fields of knowledge, coin new
concepts and conceptualize new models for studies.
d. Applied Research : It is application driven where you aim to address the reasons of
ongoing issue or research question or an immediate problem applicable to business/
society. Aim of such studies is to identify solution for the existing problems.
e. Qualitative Research : These researches use qualitative data in nature which cannot be
converted into numbers such as interviews of respondents, transcripts of interviews,
newspaper articles, other published data which is in form of words, text and exhibit
information and sentiments of respondents. Now a days social media platforms can be
used gather such huge data for example tweets of users on a given issue, Facebook post,
and you can address various business or social problems by analysing such qualitative
data.
f. Qualitative Research - These researches use qualitative data in nature which is in pure
number forms or can be converted in numbers such as data gathered on scales.
g. Problem-Identification Research - Research undertaken to help identify problems
which are not necessarily apparent on the surface and yet exist or are likely to arise in the
future. Examples: business potential, business share, image, business characteristics,
sales analysis, forecasting, and trends research.
h. Problem-Solving Research - Research undertaken to help solve specific business
problems. Examples: segmentation, product, pricing, promotion, and distribution
research.
1.4 VARIOUS TYPES OF RESEARCH PROCESS
Figure 1 - Research Process in flow chart

Source : Research Methodology, C.R. Kothari
03
1.4.1 Steps for Research :
1. Define the research problem;
2. Conduct literature survey and study of existing data
3. Frame the hypothesis;
4. Plan the research design;
5. Perform sampling design;
6. Data Collection;
7. Analyze the data;
8. Test framed hypothesis
9. Interpret and Discuss results
10. Conclusion and report writing with recommendation and suggestions
1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

¡ Long questions
1. Define Research in your own words with the suitable example.
2. Explain various types of research with relevant examples.
3. What is the process of research, explain each step with the example.
¡ Short questions
Write short notes on:
(1) Design of the research project;
(2) Ex post facto research;
(3) Motivation in research;
(4) Objectives of research;
(5) Fundamental Research and Analytical Research
¡ Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is the characteristic of research?
(a) Search for knowledge
(b) Objectivity
(c) Scientific process
(d) All the above
2. Business research is ____________.

(a) About statistical analysis
04
(b) Always complex and difficult to understand
(c) About investigating some aspect of business
(d) Not really relevant
3. Research can help business organizations to ____________.

(a) Solve business problem
(b) Take decisions.
(c) Decide strategy and plans
(d) All the above
4. Research can be used by organizations ____________.

(a) Doing business of consumer durables or nondurables
(b) Doing business of industrial products
(c) Providing services
(d) All the above
5. Research is an expensive, sophisticated process that is often beyond the reach of small
businesses with their limited budgets.
(a) True
(b) False
7. Research can be applied in which of the following functional area of business?

(a) Marketing
(b) Finance
(c) HRM
(d) All the above
8. The step-by-step process by which the research project is conducted is known as:
(a) The research process
(b) The process of describing research
(c) The process of developing research ideas
(d) The process of gathering data for a research project
9. The first step in the research process is the:

(a) Development of the research plan
05
(b) Survey of stakeholders to find if problems exist
(c) Collection of the available sources for needed information
(d) Definition of the problem
10. Which of the following is not a step in research process?

(a) Develop a research plan
(b) Define the problem
(c) Evaluate the competitor strategies
(d) Data analysis
11. In order to pursue the research, which of the following is priorly required?
(a). Developing a research design
(b). Formulating a research question
(c ).Deciding about the data analysis procedure
(d). Formulating a research hypothesis
12. How to judge the depth of any research?

(a). By research title
(b). By research duration
(c ). By research objectives
(d). By total expenditure on research
13. Research is
A. Searching again and again
B. Finding solution to any problem
C. Working in a scientific way to search for truth of any problem
D. None of the above
14. The main objective of ………….. study's to acquire knowledge

A. Exploratory
B. Descriptive
C. Diagnostic
D. Descriptive and Diagnostic
06
15 . ……………… is concerned with discovering and testing certain variables with respect
to their association or disassociation.
A. Exploratory
B. Descriptive
C. Diagnostic
D. Descriptive and diagnostic
Practice Oriented Questions :

Identify the Type of Research by reading through the attached abstracts of some of the published
research:
A.
Note - access full paper for further reading -

https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2279&context=aabfj#:~:text=countries%2
0and%20found%20that%20businesses,a%20lower%20cost%20of%20debt.
07
B.

https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/YC-10-2020-1231/full/html
Sadana, M. and Sharma, D. (2021), "How over-the-top (OTT) platforms engage young
consumers over traditional pay television service? An analysis of changing consumer
preferences and gamification", Young Consumers, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 348-367.
https://doi.org/10.1108/YC-10-2020-1231
08
C.
Note - access full paper for further reading - https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10479-

021-04189-8
Behl, A., Kumari, P.S.R., Makhija, H. et al. Exploring the relationship of ESG score and firm
value using cross-lagged panel analyses: case of the Indian energy sector. Ann Oper Res 313,
231-256 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04189-8
09
D.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10479-021-04410-8
Kumar, S., Sharma, D., Rao, S. et al. Past, present, and future of sustainable finance: insights
from big data analytics through machine learning of scholarly research. Ann Oper Res (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04410-8
1.6 REFERENCES
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International.
Malhotra, N., Nunan, D., & Birks, D. (2017). Marketing research: An applied approach. Pearson.
10
SELECTING AND FRAMING
MODULE - 2
A RESEARCH PROBLEM
STRUCTURE
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Defining Research Problem
2.4 Selecting the Research Problem
2.5 Technique Involved in Defining a Problem
2.6 Self - Assessment Questions
2.7 References

¡ Define Research Problem and understand selection of an appropriate research problem
¡ Understand Various techniques of defining research Problem
2.2 INTRODUCTION
It is being said that a well-defined research problem means that the research work is half done. It
is very important for a research to clearly define the nature and scope of research problem which
includes:
a. Identification of research questions to be addressed
b. Research objectives
c. Statement of the problem
d. Scope of the research problem
To define a research problem appropriately first you need to look at the existing studies, literature
review and secondary data available in the field to know what has already done in this area and
then go and talk to/ discuss with the relevant stakeholders, conduct interviews with industry
experts, analyze the secondary data and conduct a qualitative research. These steps allow the
researcher to define research problem clearly.
2.3 DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher observes through the
survey of existing studies, review of existing literature, analysis of available secondary data,
interviews with the experts of the field, discussion with the relevant stakeholders and/ or by
conducting qualitative research in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and
wants to obtain a solution for the same.
11
For an example, in the filed of business research, you would like to know the change in the
preference of consumers in terms of lifestyle spending specifically post-covid, then you first
need to understand the statistics, numbers, figures of sales and analyze to understand patterns,
you may need to talk to some consumers or certain businesses to know the insights or conduct
preliminary study then you can move towards definition of research problem through what
research questions you would like to address, what are your research objectives, what is the
problem statement and scope of the research.
2.4 SELECTING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Figure 2 : The problem Definition Process

Source: Malhotra, N., Nunan, D., & Birks, D. (2010). Marketing research: An applied
approach. Pearson.
A well-defined research problem always has a broad segment and then certain components/
objectives to address the statement.
Few examples of Business research Problems :
1. To determine changing paradigms of consumer preferences and purchase intentions for a
product category or segment
2. To determine the effectiveness of the current advertising campaign of a product.
3. To determine the impact of Covid on tourism sector
4. To determine change in the customer travel habits, post an incident
And then these broad statements can be further broken into addressable research questions.
However, selection of right research problem depends upon following aspects:
1. Unique - Research problem should be unique and the subject area should not be over
12
researched.
2. Implication - selected research problem should conclude and bring out meaningful
implication to the academia/ policy makers/ society/ regulators/ businesses. Findings of
the research should make contribution to the area.
3. Time and budgetary constraints - While selecting the problem, researcher must estimate
the amount of time, effort, resources and budge required to execute the study effectively
and research should have access to all such resources available to him/ her.
4. Qualification and knowledge of the researcher: researcher must be well-equipped in
terms of background , knowledge, skill set required to carry out the research?
5. Availability of right set of Data and subjects.
2.5 TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

(i) statement of the problem in a general way;
(ii) understanding the nature of the problem;
(iii) surveying the available literature
(iv) developing the ideas through discussions;
(v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

¡ Long questions
a. How do you define a research problem? Explain it with an illustration.
b. Explain various types of tasks involved in defining a research problem.
c. Explain the structure of Research problem though an example of your choice.
¡ Short questions
a. Write 4 research questions on Management issues
b. Write the characteristics of not so good research questions
c. Write features of good research questions
¡ Multiple Choice questions

1. Which of these is a precisely-defined problem definition?
(a) Why are current sales so poor?
(b) Will additional advertising have a positive impact on sales?
(c) Are we in compliance with current local pricing legislation?
(d) What per cent of adults recall an ad two days after it appeared?
13
2. Consider this research aim:
To help solve problems of absenteeism.
Which management function is the closest match?
a) Production.
b) Marketing.
c) All functions.
d) Human Resource Management.
3. Consider this research aim:

To investigate new markets
Which management function is the closest match?
a) Production.
b) Marketing.
c) All functions.
d) Human Resource Management.
4. Research is something that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic
way, thereby increasing their knowledge.
a. True
b. False
5. Research is just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose.

a. True
b. False
6. A statement of the quantitative research question should:

A. Extend the statement of purpose by specifying exactly the question (s the researcher
will address
B. Help the research in selecting appropriate participants, research methods, measures,
and materials
C. Specify the variables of interest
D. All the above
7. What are the core elements of a Research Process?

A. Introduction; Data Collection; Data Analysis; Conclusions and Recommendations
B. Executive Summary; Literature Review; Data Gathered; Conclusions; Bibliography
14
C. Research Plan; Research Data; Analysis; References
D. Introduction; Literature Review; Research Methodology; Results; Discussions
and Conclusions
8. Identifying causes of a problem and possible solution to a problem is

A. Field Study
B. Diagnostic study
C. Action study
D. Pilot study
9. Second step in problem formulation is

A. Statement of the problem
B. Understanding the nature of the problem
C. Survey
D. Discussions
10. Your colleague is confused about using the marketing research process, as he knows that
something is wrong but is not sure of the specific causes to investigate. He seems to be
having problems with ________, which is often the hardest step to take.
A. Developing the research plan
B. Determining a research approach
C. Defining the problem and research objectives
D. Selecting a research agency
15
Write down atleast 3-4 research questions by reading through the attached abstracts of some of
the published research:
A.

https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2279&context=aabfj#:~:text=countries%20
and%20found%20that%20businesses,a%20lower%20cost%20of%20debt.
16
B.

https://doi.org/10.1108/YC-10-2020-1231
17
C.

021-04189-8
231-256 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04189-8
18
D.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04410-8
2.7 REFERENCES
Mark N. K. Saunders, Philip Lewis, Adrian Thornhill, Research Methods for Business Students
8th Edition, Pearson.
19
MODULE - 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
STRUCTURE
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Process of reviewing the literature
3.4 Various methods of Literature review
3.6 References

¡ Understand process of reviewing the literature
¡ Various methods of conducting a scientific literature review
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Research Problem definition begins with the survey of existing literature. All available literature
concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be gaged and scrutinized before a definition of
the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with
relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature and dedicate
adequate time in studying of research already undertaken on related problems.
3.3 PROCESS OF REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

To initiate the review of existing literature, reviewer should follow given steps in a diligent
manner:
1. Identify the relevant bag of key words related to the research area which you would like
to study - these keywords can be collected through discussion with experts and
stakeholders
2. Identify the right source of literature and survey the genuine peer reviewed literature in
the filed - researcher should follow an authorized source and peer reviewed articles to
conduct literature survey, this can be SCOPUS, Web of Science or any other relevant
database.
3. Search keywords in the authorized database and extract relevant papers
4. Follow key research papers/ seminal papers in the area along with theoretical
perspectives and latest research work in the area.
01
20
3.3.1. Mistakes Commonly Made in Reviewing Research Literature
¡ Does not clearly relate the findings of the literature review to the researcher's own study;
¡ Does not take sufficient time to define the best descriptors and identify the best sources to
use in review literature related to one's topic;
¡ Does not consider contrary findings and alternative interpretations in synthesizing
quantitative literature. (Pp. 161-162)
¡ Does not report the search procedures that were used in the literature review;
¡ Relies on secondary sources rather than on primary sources in reviewing the literature;
¡ Uncritically accepts another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than
examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis;
¡ Reports isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them by chi-square or meta-
analytic methods; -Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research:
An introduction. Longman Publishing.
3.3.2 Research gaps- PICOS framework

¡ The gap, also considered the missing piece or pieces in the research literature, is the area
that has not yet been explored or is under-explored.
¡ Population (P): information regarding the population that is not adequately represented
in the evidence base (gender, race/ethnicity, age, etc.)
¡ Intervention (I): information regarding the specific intervention that is inadequately
included in the evidence base, the duration of the intervention, etc.
¡ Comparison ©: lack of information regarding the comparison intervention or standard
intervention
¡ Outcomes (O): information regarding outcomes of interest, organized by type of
outcome or timing of outcomes, to delineate where information is lacking
¡ Setting (S): information regarding the relevant settings for research gaps
- Robinson, K. A., Saldanha, I. J., & Mckoy, N. A. (2011). Development of a framework to
identify research gaps from systematic reviews. Journal of clinical epidemiology,
64(12), 1325-1330.
Or in other words, there can be majorly 7 types of gap in the literature which can be
utilized to frame your own research problem:
1. empirical gap - not enough empirical studies have been conducted in the area
2. knowledge gap - lack of studies contributing to the body of knowledge
3. evidence gap - lack of positive, negative or inconclusive evidences in terms of
relationship between variables
4. theoretical gap
5. population gap,
6. application or implementation gap, and
7. methodology gap
21
3.4 VARIOUS METHOD OF LITERATURE REVIEW
a. Descriptive reviews focus on the methodology, findings, and interpretation of each
reviewed study,
b. Integrative reviews attempt to find common ideas and concepts from the reviewed
material
c. SYSTEMATIC literature review -
(i) To synthesize research findings in a systematic, transparent, and reproducible way and
have been referred to as the gold standard among reviews
(ii) Identifying and critically appraising relevant research, as well as for collecting and
analyzing data from said research
d. Meta analysis - When systematic reviews analyze quantitative results in a quantitative
way, they become meta-analyses.
e. PRISMA protocol for systematic review - PRISMA is an evidence-based minimum set of
items for reporting in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. PRISMA primarily focuses
on the reporting of reviews evaluating the effects of interventions, but can also be used as
a basis for reporting systematic reviews with objectives other than evaluating
interventions. http://www.prisma-statement.org/
3.4.1 What Your Literature Review Should Include:

¡ Overview of the subject and the objective(s) of the review.
¡ Analysis of works in favor, works against, and works with neutral views on the subject.
These should be clearly divided.
¡ Explanations of the similarities and differences between the works.
¡ Comparison of different views held by other authors.
¡ Critique of the methodology.
¡ Examination of gaps in the research.
¡ Evaluation of how each study contributes to the argument in question.
¡ Conclusion that summarizes the literature review.

Long questions :
¡ Explain the Literature review process in details.
¡ Why a researcher needs to conduct survey of literature.
¡ What are the various approaches of literature review
Short Note :
Write a short note on:
a. Meta Analysis
22
b. Systematic Literature Review
c. Bibliometric Analysis
d. Critical Literature review
Multiple Choice questions:

1. Literature review is not usually concerned with helping in:
a. objective setting.
b. subsequent data collection.
c. literary appreciation.
d. research instrument design.
2. The literature review will examine:

a. only opinions.
b. only one side of the main argument.
c. all aspects of a topic.
d. only facts.
3. The starting point for a literature search is:

a. primary data.
b. tertiary data.
c. secondary data.
d. some other data.
4. Researchers need to be cautious of some material, particularly material found online.

Why ?
a. It has been used before.
b. The quality is unknown.
c. The authors name often does not appear.
d. It is too recent.
5. In order to acquaint yourself with the knowledge in the research area of interest, you are
required to:
a. Do literature review
b. Do a survey in the research area.
c. Formulate the research questions.
d. All the above.
23
6. Why do you need to review the existing literature?
A. To make sure you have a long list of references
B. Because without it, you could never reach the required word-count
C.To find out what is already known about your area of interest
D. To help in your general studying
7. Literature is a :
A. Written Record
B. Published Record
C. Unpublished Record
D. All of these
8. Which method of literature review involves a non-statistical method to present data

having the feature of systematic Method too?
A. Narrative Method
B. Systematic Method
C. Meta-Analysis Method of Literature Review
D. Meta-Synthesis Method of Literature Review
9. Literature review is not similar to

A. Annotated Bibliography
B. Abstract
C. Survey
D. All of these
10. Literature collected is reviewed and preferably arranged

A. Alphabetically
B. Chronologically
C. Randomly
D. None of these
24
Read attached screenshot of published papers and comment on the Literature review :
A.
25
B.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04410-8
26
C.

https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJOEM-12-2021-1885/full/html
Jain, R., Sharma, D., Behl, A. and Tiwari, A.K. (2022), "Investor personality as a predictor of
investment intention - mediating role of overconfidence bias and financial literacy",
International Journal of Emerging Markets, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOEM-12-2021-1885
27
D.

021-04189-8
231-256 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04189-8
3.6 REFERENCES
8th Edition, Pearson-Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An
introduction. Longman Publishing.
http://www.prisma-statement.org/
28
CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL
MODULE - 4
FRAMEWORK
STRUCTURE
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Process of designing conceptual framework
4.5 References

¡ Understand the nature and importance of conceptual and theoretical framework in a
research
¡ Understand process of developing a conceptual framework
4.2 INTRODUCTION
After conducting a detailed literature survey, research identifies gaps and initiate research
problem to address those research gaps.
Now once the researchers has defined the research problem statement, broad research questions
to be addressed, it requires further specification of precise objectives of research which should be
developed based on the conceptual and theoretical framework.
29
4.3 PROCESS OF DESIGNING CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to
challenge and extend existing knowledge, within the limits of the critical bounding assumptions.
The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study.
The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research
problem under study exists.
A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing
theory/theories that are used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must
demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your
research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the class you are taking.
The theoretical framework is not something that is found readily available in the literature. You
must review course readings and pertinent research literature for theories and analytic models
that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should
depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.
The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways.
a. An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them
critically.
b. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a
relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research
methods.
c. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address
questions of why and how. It permits you to move from simply describing a phenomenon
observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
d. Having a theory helps you to identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical
framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest. It alerts
you to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. "Theory-Building Research Methods." In Swanson R. A. and E. F.
Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice.
(San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw.
"What Theory is Not." Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.
For example, Sadana and Sharma (2021) in their study addressed the following research
problem:
How over-the-top (OTT) platforms engage young consumers over traditional pay television
service? An analysis of changing consumer preferences and gamification
To address the given research problem they followed uses and gratification (U&G) theory
perspective as the U&G theory proposes various intentions to continue the usage of any medium
or media based on the motivation, activity and selection criteria of consumers and due to these
propositions.
Based on this theoretical perspective, they formulated research questions and specific research
objectives for the study and proposed following conceptual model:
30
Figure 4 : Theoretical Model Depiction
Adapted from: Sadana, M., & Sharma, D. (2021). How over-the-top (OTT) platforms engage
young consumers over traditional pay television service? An analysis of changing consumer
preferences and gamification. Young Consumers.

Long questions
¡ Explain the need of theoretical framework in the research problem definition process.
¡ Why a researcher needs to define conceptual framework.
¡ Design a conceptual framework for a topic of your choice.
Short Note -
a. Identify prominent theories related to your topic
Multiple Choice Questions:

Q.1 The conceptual framework for the research project:
A. Contains all of the key concepts of the research project.
B. Contains the theoretical framework for the research project.
C. Contains the aim and objectives of the research.
D. Contains a description of the context for the research.
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Q.2 The conceptual framework is contained in:
A. The literature review.
B. The research methodology.
C. The analysis carried out for the research project.
D. The research statement/question.
Q. 3 As you begin your research project it is important to record your thoughts, ideas,
inspirations, contacts, references and resources:
A. Using an electronic recording device.
B. In a research diary.
C. For posterity.
D. For your research supervisor.
Q. 4 Social research is:

A. About statistical analysis.
B. About investigating some aspect of the social world.
C. Done by sociologists.
D. Always complex and difficult to understand.
Q. 5 Business research is:

A. About statistical analysis.
B. Always complex and difficult to understand.
C. About investigating some aspect of business.
D. Not really relevant.
Q.6 Social research paradigms are:

A. Different perspectives taken by social scientists on the social world.
B. Irrelevant in business research.
C. Data gathering methods.
D. Different means of analysing data.
Q. 7 The methodological framework contains:

A. All of the key concepts in the research project.
B. All of the detail on how the research was conducted.
C. The literature review.
D. Detail on the background to the research.
32
Read attached screenshot of published papers and comment on Conceptual model developed in
the paper :
A.

https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJIS-10-2020-0184/full/html
Dsouza, D. and Sharma, D. (2021), "Online food delivery portals during COVID-19 times: an
analysis of changing consumer behavior and expectations", International Journal of Innovation
Science, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 218-232. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJIS-10-2020-0184
33
B.

https://doi.org/10.1108/YC-10-2020-1231
4.5 REFERENCES
8th Edition, Pearson
Torraco, R. J. "Theory-Building Research Methods." In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III ,
editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice. (San
Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. "What
Theory is Not." Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.
34
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
MODULE - 5
RESEARCH METHODS
STRUCTURE
5.2 Introduction & Research Design Steps
5.3 Qualitative Research Methods
5.4 Quantitative Research Methods
5.7 References

¡ Understand the concept and steps of research design
¡ Understand process of Research Design
¡ Understand Qualitative research design and methods
¡ Understand Quantitative Research design and Methods
5.2 INTRODUCTION & RESEARCH DESIGN STEPS

Once Conceptual and theoretical framework is developed, researcher frame propositions and
hypothesis to test based on the theoretical lens of the study.
35
¡ Research questions (RQs) are refined statements of the specific components of the
problem.
¡ A hypothesis (H) is an unproven statement or proposition about a factor or phenomenon
that is of interest to the researcher. Often, a hypothesis is a possible answer to the
research question.
For example, Sadana and Sharma (2021) in their study addressed the following research
problem:
¡ How over-the-top (OTT) platforms engage young consumers over traditional pay
television service? An analysis of changing consumer preferences and gamification
¡ And framed following research questions:
Based on these research questions, hypotheses can be as follows:

H1 : Audience viewing behavior has positive influence on preference towards OTT.
H2 : Audience convenience lead to a positive preference towards OTT.
Once all hypotheses is framed, researcher needs to develop an overall plan to execute the testing
of these hypothesis which will address relevant research questions and lead to conclusion of
research problem.
A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the research project. It details the
procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve research
problems.
More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(I) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
36
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Components of a Research Design :

¡ Define the information needed
¡ Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phases of the research
¡ Specify the measurement and scaling procedures
¡ Construct and pretest a questionnaire (interviewing form) or an appropriate form for data
collection
¡ Specify the sampling process and sample size
¡ Develop a plan of data analysis
(a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study;
(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
(d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
In brief, research design should contain-

(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
(c) the population to be studied; and
(d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
5.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative research design is the exploratory research design which aim to gain a qualitative
understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations. In such research design, researcher
includes Small number of non-representative cases and data collection is mostly unstructured in
nature and data analysis is purely non-statistical as the data collected is in form of opinion,
images, words, text, expressions. The outcome of such research is primarily to develop an initial
understanding about the issues.
For example, Sharma et al. (2020) in their study Can policymakers push financial inclusion
through mobile telephony? A qualitative inquiry among Indian "urban poor" during
demonetization, conducted a qualitative study where they collected unstructured data in form of
open-ended interviews from the financial excluded population to understand the usage of mobile
37
phone and how it can be an instrumental to push financially excluded population in the organized
financial system.
5.3.1 Qualitative Research Procedure can be categorized into two major categories:
a. Direct (Non-disguised) - data collection is done directly and subjects are informed about
the objectives of data collection, research problem.
b. Indirect (Disguised) - data collection is done indirectly and subjects are not informed
about the objectives of data collection, research problem.
5.3.1.1. Direct (Non-disguised) research method can further be categorized in the following
data collection methods:
a. Focus Groups
b. Depth Interviews
5.3.1.2 Indirect (disguised) research method can further be categorized in the following
data collection methods:
a. Association Techniques
b. Completion Techniques
c. Construction Techniques
d. Expressive Techniques
5.3.1.3 Characteristics of Focus Groups:

Group Size - 8-12
Group Composition - Homogeneous,
Physical Setting - Relaxed, informal atmosphere
Time Duration - 1-3 hours
Recording - Use of audiocassettes and videotapes
Moderator - Observational, interpersonal, and communication
5.3.2 Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators:

1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must combine a disciplined detachment with
understanding empathy so as to generate the necessary interaction.
2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be permissive yet alert to signs that the group's
cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.
3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and stimulate intense personal
involvement.
4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must encourage respondents to be more
specific about generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete understanding.
38
5. Encouragement: The moderator must encourage unresponsive members to participate.
6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to improvise and alter the planned outline amid
the distractions of the group process.
7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion at an
intellectual as well as emotional level.
5.3.3 Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups:

a. Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem
b. Specify the Objectives of Qualitative Research
c. State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus Groups
d. Write a Screening Questionnaire
e. Develop a Moderator's Outline
f. Conduct the Focus Group Interviews
g. Review Tapes and Analyze the Data
h. Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or Action
5.3.4 Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering, Hidden Issue Questioning & Symbolic
analysis
In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product characteristics to user characteristics.
This technique allows the researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings.
In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on socially shared values but rather on personal "sore
spots;" not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal concerns.
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of objects by comparing them with
their opposites. The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are: non-usage of the
product, attributes of an imaginary "non-product," and opposite types of products.
5.3.4.1 Indirect (Disguised) -

¡ An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project
their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issues of
concern.
¡ In projective techniques, respondents are asked to interpret the behavior of others.
¡ In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents indirectly project their own
motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into the situation.
¡ In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and
asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest,
called test words, are interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral,
or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are analyzed by
calculating:
39
(1) the frequency with which any word is given as a response;
(2) the amount of time that elapses before a response is given; and
(3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word within a reasonable
period of time
¡ In sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to
complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to
mind.
A person who shops at XYZ is ______________________
A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth Avenue would be
__________________________________
ABC is most liked by _________________________
When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________
A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the respondent completes
a paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase.
In story completion, respondents are given part of a story - enough to direct attention to a
particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the conclusion in their own
words.
With a picture response, the respondents are asked to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as
well as unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives indications of that
individual's personality.
In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The
respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say in response to the
comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture
response techniques.
In expressive techniques, respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to
relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
Role playing. Respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else.
Third-person technique. The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the
respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly
expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor, colleague,
or a "typical" person.
Analysis of Qualitative Data

¡ Data reduction - Select which aspects of the data are to be emphasized, minimized, or
set aside for the project at hand.
¡ Data display - Develop a visual interpretation of the data with the use of such tools as a
diagram, chart, or matrix. The display helps to illuminate patterns and interrelationships
in the data.
¡ Conclusion drawing and verification - Consider the meaning of analyzed data and
assess its implications for the research question at hand.
40
5.4 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Quantitative research methods aim to collect quantifiable data (numerical data) and aim to
determine causal relationship, effect of one variable on another, impact of ongoing issues on the
research problems, determine the most optimistic solution of the given research problem through
empirical evidences.
Data can be collected either through primary sources or secondary sources.
¡ Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the
problem at hand. The collection of primary data involves all six steps of the business
research process.
¡ Secondary data are data that have already been collected for purposes other than the
problem at hand. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively.
5.4.1 Uses of Secondary Data

¡ Identify the problem
¡ Better define the problem
¡ Develop an approach to the problem
¡ Formulate an appropriate research design (for example, by identifying the key variables)
¡ Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses
¡ Interpret primary data more insightfully
5.4.2 Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

¡ Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data
¡ Error: Accuracy of the Data
¡ Currency: When the Data Were Collected
¡ Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the Data Were Collected
¡ Nature: The Content of the Data
¡ Dependability: Overall, How Dependable Are the Data
Examples of such data : Demographic Data, Psychographic Lifestyle Data,
Various sources of Secondary Data : Published Secondary Data sources, General Business
Sources - Indexes, Statistical Data ; Government Sources - Census Data, Other Government
Publications
5.4.3 Descriptive Research Design: Survey and Observation (Primary Data)

Criteria for Evaluating Survey Methods:
Sample Control
¡ Sample control is the ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample
effectively and efficiently.
41
Quantity of Data
¡ The ability to collect large amounts of data.
Response Rate
¡ Survey response rate is broadly defined as the percentage of the total attempted
interviews that are completed.
5.4.4 SITUATIONAL FACTORS

Control of the Data Collection Environment
¡ The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the respondent
answers the questionnaire.
Control of Field Force
¡ The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in data collection.
Potential for Interviewer Bias
¡ The extent of the interviewer's role determines the potential for bias.
Speed
¡ The total time taken for administering the survey to the entire sample.
Cost
¡ The total cost of administering the survey and collecting the data.
RESPONDENT FACTORS
Perceived Anonymity
¡ Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents' perceptions that their identities will not
be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher.
Social Desirability/Sensitive Information
¡ Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to give answers that are socially
acceptable, whether or not they are true. With some exceptions, obtaining sensitive
information is inversely related to social desirability.
Low Incidence Rate
¡ Incidence rate refers to rate of occurrence of persons eligible to participate in the study.
Respondent Control
¡ Methods that allow respondents control over the interviewing process will solicit greater
cooperation and are therefore desirable.
5.4.5 Observation Methods Structured Versus Unstructured Observation

¡ For structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and
how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventory analysis
in a store.
42
¡ In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that
seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with new toys.
¡ In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are being observed.
Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or
inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales
clerks.
¡ In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are under observation.
¡ Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes places in the environment.
For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food at Burger
King.
¡ In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is observed in an artificial environment,
such as a test kitchen.
5.4.5.1 Questionnaire Definition

¡ A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from
respondents.
¡ It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the
respondents can and will answer.
¡ A questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to become involved
in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interview.
¡ A questionnaire should minimize response error.
¡ Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A
structured question may be multiple-choice, dichotomous, or a scale.
5.4.5.2 Causal Research Design: Experimentation

Under this research design, researcher aim to identify the cause and effect relationship through
experimentation.
¡ Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are manipulated and whose
effects are measured and compared, e.g., price levels.
¡ Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response to the
independent variables or treatments is being examined, e.g., consumers or stores.
¡ Dependent variables are the variables which measure the effect of the independent
variables on the test units, e.g., sales, profits, and market shares.
¡ Extraneous variables are all variables other than the independent variables that affect the
response of the test units, e.g., store size, store location, and competitive effort.
An experimental design is a set of procedures specifying:
¡ the test units and how these units are to be divided into homogeneous subsamples,
¡ what independent variables or treatments are to be manipulated,
¡ what dependent variables are to be measured; and
¡ how the extraneous variables are to be controlled
43
5.4.5.3 Validity in Experimentation
¡ Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the independent variables or
treatments actually caused the observed effects on the dependent variables. Control of
extraneous variables is a necessary condition for establishing internal validity.
¡ External validity refers to whether the cause-and-effect relationships found in the
experiment can be generalized. To what populations, settings, times, independent
variables, and dependent variables can the results be projected?

Long questions
¡ Explain the meaning and significance of a Research design.
¡ Outline the difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods.
¡ Choose a suitable topic of your area, and design a research plan, justify which method is
relevant for your research topic Qualitative Vs Quantitative.
¡ Describe the role of Qualitative and Quantitative in research with the help of examples?
Short Note -
a. Hypotheses
b. Independent and Dependent Variable
c. Focus Group
d. Survey Method
e. Cause & Effect Relationship
1. ____________ research is the research which explores and searches information to

provide insights and understanding of the problem situation or phenomena.
(a) Exploratory
(b) Descriptive
(c) Causal
(d) None of the above
2. The purpose of ____________ research is to help in the process of developing a clear and
precise statement of the research problem rather than in providing a definitive answer.
(a) Marketing
(b) Causal
(c) Exploratory
(d) Descriptive
44
3. In an undisguised observation respondents are unaware about the fact that they are being
observed.
(a) True
(b) False
4. In a focus group:
(a) The researcher facilitates a group of people in focusing on and discussing the
phenomenon.
(b) The researcher interviews a group of people.
(c) The researcher interviews one person.
(d) The researcher photographs a group of people.
5. What is the role of the moderator in a focus group?

(a) To stimulate discussion and keep the conversation on track.
(b) To ask leading questions and dominate the discussion.
(c) To sit away from the group and observe their behaviour.
(d) To evaluate the group's performance on a particular task.
6. The depth interview is ____________ in which the interviewee is encouraged to talk

extensively.
(a) Structured Interview
(b) Focus Interview
(c) Unstructured Interview
(d) Telephonic Interview
7. Projective Techniques are embedded in depth interviews.

(a) True
(b) False
8. Which word comes to your mind when you think of 'Mercedes Benz'? This question is
example of which projective technique?
(a) Association
(b) Completion
(c) Construction
(d) Expressive
45
9. In ____________ projective techniques, individual is presented with a verbal or visual
situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitude of other people with the situation.
(a) Association
(b) Completion
(c) Construction
(d) Expressive
10. The following are the qualitative techniques used for exploratory research except:
(a) Observation
(b) Focus Group
(c) Projective Techniques
(d) Experiment
11. What is data collection?

a) Collecting the research question and objectives together
b) Gathering the information (data) which will help you address your research
question
c) Reviewing the literature review
d) Outlining how you will gather the information for your research question
12. Which of the following is a method that is commonly used in qualitative research?
a) Self-completion questionnaires
b) Surveys
c) Ethnography
d) Structured observation
13. What is meant by the term "grounded theory"?

a) Theories should be tested by rigorous scientific experiments
b) As a social researcher, it is important to keep your feet on the ground
c) Theories should be grounded in political values and biases
d) Theoretical ideas and concepts should emerge from the data
14. The flexibility and limited structure of qualitative research designs is an advantage
because:
a) The researcher does not impose any predetermined formats on the social world
b) It allows for unexpected results to emerge from the data
46
c) The researcher can adapt their theories and methods as the project unfolds
d) All of the above
15. Which of the following is not a criticism of qualitative research?

a) The studies are difficult to replicate
b) There is a lack of transparency
c) The approach is too rigid and inflexible
d) The accounts are too subjective and impressionistic

Read attached screenshot of published papers and comment on method folllowed in the paper :
A.

47
B. Research Methodology and Design

https://doi.org/10.1108/YC-10-2020-1231
48
C.
https://www.neilsonjournals.com/JIBE/JIBEpromos/Sonalietal15P.pdf
D.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pa.2451
Sharma, D., Sinha, M., & Sheorey, P. (2021). Can policymakers push financial inclusion through
mobile telephony? A qualitative inquiry among Indian "urban poor" during demonetization.
Journal of Public Affairs, 21(2), e2451.
49
5.5 REFERENCES
8th Edition, Pearson
50
DATA ANALYSIS AND
MODULE - 6
RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
STRUCTURE
6.2 Data Analysis Process
6.3 Data Analysis Methods
6.4 Qualitative Data Analysis Methods
6.5 Quantitative Data Analysis Methods
6.6 Research Report Writing Process
6.8 References

¡ Understand the concept of Data analysis process
¡ Understand process of Data analysis
¡ Understand Qualitative Data Analysis methods
¡ Understand Quantitative Data Analysis Methods
¡ Understand the process of Research Report Writing
6.2 DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline laid
down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific
study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and
analysis.
Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of
collected data so that they are amenable to analysis.
51
6.5 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS METHODS
Questionnaire Checking
A questionnaire returned from the field may be unacceptable for several reasons.
¡ Parts of the questionnaire may be incomplete.
¡ The pattern of responses may indicate that the respondent did not understand or follow
the instructions.
¡ The responses show little variance.
¡ Physically incomplete questionnaire, One or more pages are missing.
¡ The questionnaire is received after the preestablished cutoff date.
¡ The questionnaire is answered by someone who does not qualify for participation.
Editing
Treatment of Unsatisfactory Results
¡ Returning to the Field - The questionnaires with unsatisfactory responses may be
returned to the field, where the interviewers recontact the respondents.
¡ Assigning Missing Values - If returning the questionnaires to the field is not feasible, the
editor may assign missing values to unsatisfactory responses.
¡ Discarding Unsatisfactory Respondents - In this approach, the respondents with
unsatisfactory responses are simply discarded.
52
Coding
Coding means assigning a code, usually a number, to each possible response to each question.
The code includes an indication of the column position (field) and data record it will occupy.
Coding Questions
¡ Fixed field codes, which mean that the number of records for each respondent is the same
and the same data appear in the same column(s) for all respondents, are highly desirable.
¡ If possible, standard codes should be used for missing data. Coding of structured
questions is relatively simple, since the response options are predetermined.
¡ In questions that permit a large number of responses, each possible response option
should be assigned a separate column.
Guidelines for Coding Unstructured Questions:

¡ Category codes should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.
¡ Only a few (10% or less) of the responses should fall into the "other" category.
¡ Category codes should be assigned for critical issues even if no one has mentioned them.
¡ Data should be coded to retain as much detail as possible.
Data Cleaning Consistency Checks

Consistency checks identify data that are out of range, logically inconsistent, or have extreme
values.
¡ Computer packages like SPSS, SAS, EXCEL and MINITAB can be programmed to
identify out-of-range values for each variable and print out the respondent code, variable
code, variable name, record number, column number, and out-of-range value.
¡ Extreme values should be closely examined.
Data Cleaning Treatment of Missing Responses

¡ Substitute a Neutral Value - A neutral value, typically the mean response to the variable,
is substituted for the missing responses.
¡ Substitute an Imputed Response - The respondents' pattern of responses to other
questions are used to impute or calculate a suitable response to the missing questions.
¡ In casewise deletion, cases, or respondents, with any missing responses are discarded
from the analysis.
¡ In pairwise deletion, instead of discarding all cases with any missing values, the
researcher uses only the cases or respondents with complete responses for each
calculation.
Statistically Adjusting the Data Weighting

¡ In weighting, each case or respondent in the database is assigned a weight to reflect its
53
importance relative to other cases or respondents.
¡ Weighting is most widely used to make the sample data more representative of a target
population on specific characteristics.
¡ Yet another use of weighting is to adjust the sample so that greater importance is attached
to respondents with certain characteristics.
Example:
Use of Weighting for Representativeness
Years of Sample Population
Education Percentage Percentage Weight
Elementary School
0 to 7 years 2.49 4.23 1.70
8 years 1.26 2.19 1.74
High School
1 to 3 years 6.39 8.65 1.35
4 years 25.39 29.24 1.15
College
1 to 3 years 22.33 29.42 1.32
4 years 15.02 12.01 0.80
5 to 6 years 14.94 7.36 0.49
7 years or more 12.18 6.90 0.57
Totals 100.00 100.00
Selecting a Data Analysis Strategy
54
6.3 DATA ANALYSIS METHODS
Data Analysis methods purely depends upon the nature of data i.e. whether it is quantitative data
or qualitative data in nature and what is the relationship you would like to determine through
research question of the study.
6.4 QUALTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS METHODS

Qualitative data uncovers valuable insights that can be used to improve the user and customer
experience. But how exactly do you measure and analyze data that isn't quantifiable?
Qualitative data can be observed and recorded. This data type is non-numerical in nature. This
type of data is collected through methods of observations, one-to-one interviews, conducting
focus groups, and similar methods. Qualitative data in statistics is also known as categorical data
- data that can be arranged categorically based on the attributes and properties of a thing or a
phenomenon.
Qualitative data is also called categorical data since this data can be grouped according to
categories. For example, think of a student reading a paragraph from a book during one of the
class sessions. A teacher who is listening to the reading gives feedback on how the child read that
paragraph. If the teacher gives feedback based on fluency, intonation, throw of words, clarity in
pronunciation without giving a grade to the child, this is considered as an example of qualitative
data.
Qualitative data is about the emotions or perceptions of people, what they feel. In quantitative
data, these perceptions and emotions are documented. It helps the market researchers understand
the language their consumers speak and deal with the problem effectively and efficiently.
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Two Main Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis
Deductive Approach
The deductive approach involves analyzing qualitative data based on a structure that is
predetermined by the researcher. A researcher can use the questions as a guide for analyzing the
data. This approach is quick and easy and can be used when a researcher has a fair idea about the
likely responses that he/she is going to receive from the sample population.
Inductive Approach
The inductive approach, on the contrary, is not based on a predetermined structure or set ground
rules/framework. It is a more time-consuming and thorough approach to qualitative data
analysis. An inductive approach is often used when a researcher has very little or no idea of the
research phenomenon.
1. Content analysis
2. Thematic analysis
3. Narrative analysis
4. Grounded theory analysis
5. Discourse analysis
1. Content analysis
Content analysis is a research method that examines and quantifies the presence of certain words,
subjects, and concepts in text, image, video, or audio messages. The method transforms
qualitative input into quantitative data to help you make reliable conclusions about what
customers think of your brand, and how you can improve their experience and opinion.
You can conduct content analysis manually or by using tools like Lexalytics to reveal patterns in
communications, uncover differences in individual or group communication trends, and make
connections between concepts.
2. Thematic analysis
Thematic analysis helps to identify, analyze, and interpret patterns in qualitative data, and can be
done with tools like Dovetail and Thematic. While content analysis and thematic analysis seem
similar, they're different in concept: Content analysis can be applied to both qualitative and
quantitative data, and focuses on identifying frequencies and recurring words and subjects.
Thematic analysis can only be applied to qualitative data, and focuses on identifying patterns and
'themes'.
3. Narrative analysis
Narrative analysis is a method used to interpret research participants' stories-things like
testimonials, case studies, interviews, and other text or visual data-with tools like Delve and AI-
powered ATLAS.ti. Some formats narrative analysis doesn't work for are heavily-structured
interviews and written surveys, which don't give participants as much opportunity to tell their
stories in their own words.
4. Grounded theory analysis
Grounded theory analysis is a method of conducting qualitative research to develop theories by
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examining real-world data. The technique involves the creation of hypotheses and theories
through the collection and evaluation of qualitative data, and can be performed with tools like
MAXQDA and Delve. Unlike other qualitative data analysis methods, this technique develops
theories from data, not the other way round.
5. Discourse analysis
Discourse analysis is the act of researching the underlying meaning of qualitative data. It
involves the observation of texts, audio, and videos to study the relationships between the
information and its context.
In contrast to content analysis, the method focuses on the contextual meaning of language:
discourse analysis sheds light on what audiences think of a topic, and why they feel the way they
do about it.
6.5 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS METHODS

Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values of
unknown parameters of the population and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences.
Analysis may, therefore, be categorised as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
(Inferential analysis is often known as statistical analysis).
"Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study provides us
with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of
characteristics such as size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc." (Emory, pp.356). This
sort of analysis may be in respect of one variable (described as unidimensional analysis), or in
respect of two variables (described as bivariate analysis) or in respect of more than two variables
(described as multivariate analysis). In this context we work out various measures that show the
size and shape of a distribution(s) along with the study of measuring relationships between two
or more variables.
Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the
amount of correlation between two or more variables.
Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect changes in
another variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships existing between two or more
variables. This analysis can be termed as regression analysis. Causal analysis is considered
relatively more important in experimental researches, whereas in most social and business
researches our interest lies in understanding and controlling relationships between variables then
with determining causes per se and as such we consider correlation analysis as relatively more
important.
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Adapted from Pearson Education
t-test - The t test tells you how significant the differences between group means are. It lets you
know if those differences in means could have happened by chance. The t test is usually used
when data sets follow a normal distribution but you don't know the population variance. For
example, a drug company may want to test a new cancer drug to find out if it improves life
expectancy. In an experiment, there's always a control group (a group who are given a placebo, or
"sugar pill"). So while the control group may show an average life expectancy of +5 years, the
group taking the new drug might have a life expectancy of +6 years. It would seem that the drug
might work. But it could be due to a fluke. To test this, researchers would use a Student's t-test to
find out if the results are repeatable for an entire population. In addition, a t test uses a t-statistic
and compares this to t-distribution values to determine if the results are statistically significant.
However, note that you can only uses a t test to compare two means. If you want to compare three
or more means, use an ANOVA instead.
The t score is a ratio between the difference between two groups and the difference within the
groups.
Larger t scores = more difference between groups.
Smaller t score = more similarity between groups.
A t score of 3 tells you that the groups are three times as different from each other as they are
within each other. So when you run a t test, bigger t-values equal a greater probability that the
results are repeatable.
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There are three main types of t-test:
I. An Independent Samples t-test compares the means for two groups.
II. A Paired sample t-test compares means from the same group at different times (say, one
year apart).
III. A One sample t-test tests the mean of a single group against a known mean.
z-test - A z-test is a statistical test used to determine whether two population means are different
when the variances are known and the sample size is large. The test statistic is assumed to have a
normal distribution, and nuisance parameters such as standard deviation should be known in
order for an accurate z-test to be performed. A z-test is a statistical test to determine whether two
population means are different when the variances are known and the sample size is large.
¡ A z-test is a hypothesis test in which the z-statistic follows a normal distribution.
¡ A z-statistic, or z-score, is a number representing the result from the z-test.
¡ Z-tests are closely related to t-tests, but t-tests are best performed when an experiment
has a small sample size.
¡ Z-tests assume the standard deviation is known, while t-tests assume it is unknown.
The z-test is also a hypothesis test in which the z-statistic follows a normal distribution. The z-
test is best used for greater-than-30 samples because, under the central limit theorem, as the
number of samples gets larger, the samples are considered to be approximately normally
distributed. Z-tests are closely related to t-tests, but t-tests are best performed when the data
consists of a small sample size, i.e., less than 30. Also, t-tests assume the standard deviation is
unknown, while z-tests assume it is known.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is an analysis tool used in statistics that splits an observed
aggregate variability found inside a data set into two parts: systematic factors and random
factors. The systematic factors have a statistical influence on the given data set, while the random
factors do not. Analysts use the ANOVA test to determine the influence that independent
variables have on the dependent variable in a regression study. ANOVA is also called the Fisher
analysis of variance, and it is the extension of the t- and z-tests. The term became well-known in
1925, after appearing in Fisher's book, "Statistical Methods for Research Workers. It was
employed in experimental psychology and later expanded to subjects that were more complex.
Analysis of variance, or ANOVA, is a statistical method that separates observed variance data
into different components to use for additional tests. A one-way ANOVA is used for three or more
groups of data, to gain information about the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables.
The ANOVA test allows a comparison of more than two groups at the same time to determine
whether a relationship exists between them. The result of the ANOVA formula, the F statistic
(also called the F-ratio), allows for the analysis of multiple groups of data to determine the
variability between samples and within samples.
A researcher might, for example, test students from multiple colleges to see if students from one
of the colleges consistently outperform students from the other colleges. In a business
application, an R&D researcher might test two different processes of creating a product to see if
one process is better than the other in terms of cost efficiency.
The type of ANOVA test used depends on a number of factors. It is applied when data needs to be
experimental. Analysis of variance is employed if there is no access to statistical software
resulting in computing ANOVA by hand. It is simple to use and best suited for small samples.
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With many experimental designs, the sample sizes have to be the same for the various factor level
combinations.
Nonparametric statistics refers to a statistical method in which the data are not assumed to come
from prescribed models that are determined by a small number of parameters; examples of such
models include the normal distribution model and the linear regression model. Nonparametric
statistics sometimes uses data that is ordinal, meaning it does not rely on numbers, but rather on a
ranking or order of sorts. For example, a survey conveying consumer preferences ranging from
like to dislike would be considered ordinal data. Nonparametric statistics includes
nonparametric descriptive statistics, statistical models, inference, and statistical tests. The model
structure of nonparametric models is not specified a priori but is instead determined from data.
The term nonparametric is not meant to imply that such models completely lack parameters, but
rather that the number and nature of the parameters are flexible and not fixed in advance. A
histogram is an example of a nonparametric estimate of a probability distribution.
Nonparametric statistics are easy to use but do not offer the pinpoint accuracy of other statistical
models. This type of analysis is often best suited when considering the order of something, where
even if the numerical data changes, the results will likely stay the same.
In statistics, parametric statistics includes parameters such as the mean, standard deviation,
Pearson correlation, variance, etc. This form of statistics uses the observed data to estimate the
parameters of the distribution. Under parametric statistics, data are often assumed to come from
a normal distribution with unknown parameters ? (population mean) and ?2 (population
variance), which are then estimated using the sample mean and sample variance.
Examples of non-parametric test includes Mann Whitney U test, the sign test, the Wilcoxon
signed-rank test, and the Kruskal Wallis test.
Multivariate analysis which may be defined as "all statistical methods which simultaneously
analyse more than two variables on a sample of observations". Usually the following analyses
are involved when we make a reference of multivariate analysis:
(a) Multiple regression analysis: This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one
dependent variable which is presumed to be a function of two or more independent
variables. The objective of this analysis is to make a prediction about the dependent
variable based on its covariance with all the concerned independent variables.
(b) Multiple discriminant analysis: This analysis is appropriate when the researcher has a
single dependent variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or more
groups on the basis of some attribute. The object of this analysis happens to be to predict
an entity's possibility of belonging to a particular group based on several predictor
variables.
(c) Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA): This analysis is an extension of
two-way ANOVA, wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group variance is
worked out on a set of variables.
(d) Canonical analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and non-
measurable variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent
variables from their joint covariance with a set of independent variables.
Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in
order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or
conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It is mainly on the
basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and
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conclusions) is performed.
Adapted from Pearson Education
FACTOR ANALYSIS
There are several methods of factor analysis, but they do not necessarily give same results. As
such factor analysis is not a single unique method but a set of techniques. Important methods of
factor analysis are:
(i) the centroid method;
(ii) the principal components method;
(ii) the maximum likelihood method.
Before we describe these different methods of factor analysis, it seems appropriate that some
basic terms relating to factor analysis be well understood.
(i) Factor: A factor is an underlying dimension that account for several observed variables.
There can be one or more factors, depending upon the nature of the study and the number of
variables involved in it.
(ii) Factor-loadings: Factor-loadings are those values which explain how closely the variables
are related to each one of the factors discovered. They are also known as factor-variable
correlations. In fact, factor-loadings work as key to understanding what the factors mean. It is the
absolute size (rather than the signs, plus or minus) of the loadings that is important in the
interpretation of a factor.
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(iii) Communality (h2): Communality, symbolized as h2, shows how much of each variable is
accounted for by the underlying factor taken together. A high value of communality means that
not much of the variable is left over after whatever the factors represent is taken into
consideration. It is worked out in respect of each variable as under:
h2 of the ith variable = (ith factor loading of factor A)2
+ (ith factor loading of factor B)2 + …
(iv) Eigen value (or latent root): When we take the sum of squared values of factor loadings
relating to a factor, then such sum is referred to as Eigen Value or latent root. Eigen value
indicates the relative importance of each factor in accounting for the particular set of variables
being analysed.
(v) Total sum of squares: When eigen values of all factors are totalled, the resulting value is
termed as the total sum of squares. This value, when divided by the number of variables
(involved in a study), results in an index that shows how the particular solution accounts for what
all the variables taken together represent. If the variables are all very different from each other,
this index will be low. If they fall into one or more highly redundant groups, and if the extracted
factors account for all the groups, the index will then approach unity.
(vi) Rotation: Rotation, in the context of factor analysis, is something like staining a
microscope slide. Just as different stains on it reveal different structures in the tissue, different
rotations reveal different structures in the data. Though different rotations give results that
appear to be entirely different, but from a statistical point of view, all results are taken as equal,
none superior or inferior to others. However, from the standpoint of making sense of the results
of factor analysis, one must select the right rotation. If the factors are independent orthogonal
rotation is done and if the factors are correlated, an oblique rotation is made. Communality for
each variables will remain undisturbed regardless of rotation but the eigen values will change as
result of rotation.
(vii) Factor scores: Factor score represents the degree to which each respondent gets high
scores on the group of items that load high on each factor. Factor scores can help explain what the
factors mean. With such scores, several other multivariate analyses can be performed.
Time series analysis: In the context of economic and business researches, we may obtain quite
often data relating to some time period concerning a given phenomenon. Such data is labelled as
'Time Series'. More clearly it can be stated that series of successive observations of the given
phenomenon over a period of time are referred to as time series. Such series are usually the result
of the effects of one or more of the following factors:
(i) Secular trend or long-term trend that shows the direction of the series in a long period of
time. The effect of trend (whether it happens to be a growth factor or a decline factor) is
gradual, but extends more or less consistently throughout the entire period of time under
consideration. Sometimes, secular trend is simply stated as trend (or T).
(ii) Short time oscillations i.e., changes taking place in the short period of time only and such
changes can be the effect of the following factors:
(a) Cyclical fluctuations (or C) are the fluctuations as a result of business cycles and are
generally referred to as long term movements that represent consistently recurring rises
and declines in an activity.
(b) Seasonal fluctuations (or S) are of short duration occurring in a regular sequence at
specific intervals of time. Such fluctuations are the result of changing seasons. Usually
these fluctuations involve patterns of change within a year that tend to be repeated from
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year to year. Cyclical fluctuations and seasonal fluctuations taken together constitute
short-period regular fluctuations.
Structural Equation Modeling and Path Analysis

a procedure for estimating a series of dependence relationships among a set of concepts or
constructs represented by multiple measured variables and incorporated into an integrated
model.
Structural Equation Modeling: Distinctive Aspects
1. Representation of constructs as unobservable or latent factors in dependence
relationships.
2. Estimation of multiple and interrelated dependence relationships incorporated in an
integrated model.
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3. Incorporation of measurement error in an explicit manner. SEM can explicitly account
for less than perfect reliability of the observed variables, providing analyses of
attenuation and estimation bias due to measurement error.
4. Explanation of the covariance among the observed variables.
Statistics Associated with SEM

Absolute fit indices These indices measure the overall goodness-of-fit or badness-of-fit for
both the measurement and structural models.
Average variance extracted A measure used to assess convergent and discriminant validity,
which is defined as the variance in the indicators or observed variables that is explained by the
latent construct.
Chi-square difference statistic ( Dc2) A statistic used to compare two competing, nested SEM
models. It is calculated as the difference between the models' chi-square value. Its degrees of
freedom equal the difference in the models' degrees of freedom.
Communality Communality is the variance of a measured variable that is explained by its
construct.
Composite reliability (CR) It is defined as the total amount of true score variance in relation to
the total score variance.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) A technique used to estimate the measurement model. It
seeks to confirm if the number of factors (or constructs) and the loadings of observed (indicator)
variables on them conform to what is expected on the basis of theory.
Construct In SEM, a construct is a latent or unobservable concept that can be defined
conceptually but that cannot be measured directly or without error. Also called a factor, a
construct is measured by multiple indicators or observed variables.
Endogenous constructs An endogenous construct is the latent, multi-item equivalent of a
dependent variable. It is determined by constructs or variables within the model and, thus, it is
dependent on other constructs.
Estimated covariance matrix Denoted by Sk , it consists of the predicted covariances between
all observed variables based on equations estimated in SEM.
Exogenous construct An exogenous construct is the latent, multi-item equivalent of an
independent variable in traditional multivariate analysis. An exogenous construct is determined
by factors outside of the model and it cannot be explained by any other construct or variable in the
model.
First-order factor model Covariances between observed variables are explained with a single
latent factor or construct layer.
Incremental fit indices These measures assess how well a model specified by the researcher
fits relative to some alternative baseline model. Typically, the baseline model is a null model in
which all observed variables are unrelated to each other.
Measurement error It is the degree to which the observed variables do not describe the latent
constructs of interest in SEM.
Measurement model The first of two models estimated in SEM. It represents the theory that
specifies the observed variables for each construct and permits the assessment of construct
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validity.
Modification index An index calculated for each possible relationship that is not freely
estimated but is fixed. The index shows the improvement in the overall model ?2 if that path was
freely estimated.
Nested model A model is nested within another model if it has the same number of constructs
and variables and can be derived from the other model by altering relationships, as by adding or
deleting relationships.
Nonrecursive model A structural model that contains feedback loops or dual dependencies.
Parsimony fit indices The parsimony fit indices are designed to assess fit in relation to model
complexity and are useful in evaluating competing models. These are goodness-of-fit measures
and can be improved by a better fit or by a simpler, less complex model that estimates fewer
parameters.
Parsimony ratio Is calculated as the ratio of degrees of freedom used by the model to the total
degrees of freedom available.
Path analysis A special case of SEM with only single indicators for each of the variables in the
causal model. In other words, path analysis is SEM with a structural model, but no measurement
model.
Path diagram A graphical representation of a model showing the complete set of relationships
amongst the constructs. Dependence relationships are portrayed by straight arrows and
correlational relationships by curved arrows.
Residuals In SEM, the residuals are the differences between the observed and estimated
covariance matrices.
Recursive model A structural model that does not contain any feedback loops or dual
dependencies.
Sample covariance matrix Denoted by S, it consists of the variances and covariances for the
observed variables.
Second-order factor model There are two levels or layers. A second-order latent construct
causes multiple first-order latent constructs, which in turn cause the observed variables. Thus,
the first-order constructs now act as indicators or observed variables for the second order factor.
Squared multiple correlations Similar to communality, these values denote the extent to
which an observed variable's variance is explained by a latent construct or factor.
Standardized residuals Used as a diagnostic measure of model fit, these are residuals, each
divided by its standard error.
Structural error Structural error is the same as an error term in regression analysis. In the case
of completely standardized estimates, squared multiple correlation is equal to 1 - the structural
error.
Structural model The second of two models estimated in SEM. It represents the theory that
specifies how the constructs are related to each other, often with multiple dependence
relationships.
Structural relationship Dependence relationship between an endogenous construct and
another exogenous or endogenous construct.
Unidimensionality A notion that a set of observed variables represent only one underlying
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construct. All cross-loadings are zero.
Exogenous and Endogenous Constructs

Exogenous constructs are the latent, multi-item equivalent of independent variables. They use a
variate (linear combination) of measures to represent the construct, which acts as an independent
variable in the model.
Multiple measured variables (X) represent the exogenous constructs .
Endogenous constructs are the latent, multi-item equivalent to dependent variables. These
constructs are theoretically determined by factors within the model.
Multiple measured variables (Y) represent the endogenous constructs .
SEM Models
Models can be represented visually with a path diagram.
Dependence relationships are represented with single-headed straight arrows.
Correlational (covariance) relationships are represented with two-headed curved arrows.
Steps in SEM
Step 1: Define the Individual Constructs
Step 2: Specify the Measurement Model
Step 3: Assess Measurement Model Reliability and Validity
Step 4: Specify the Structural Model
Step 5: Assess Structural Model Validity
Step 6: Draw Conclusions and Make Recommendations
6.6 RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

Post data analysis, the last and the most important part of the research includes the writing of the
whole process which is known as research report writing.
For the following reasons, the report and its presentation are important parts of the business
research project:
1. They are the tangible products of the research effort.
2. Management decisions are guided by the report and the presentation.
3. The involvement of many business managers in the project is limited to the written report
and the oral presentation.
4. Management's decision to undertake business research in the future or to use the
particular research supplier again will be influenced by the perceived usefulness of the
report and the presentation.
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The Report Preparation and Presentation Process
Report Format
I. Title page
II. Letter of transmittal
III. Letter of authorization
IV. Table of contents
V. List of tables
VI. List of graphs
VII. List of appendices
VIII. List of exhibits
IX. Executive summary
a. Major findings
b. Conclusions
c. Recommendations
X. Problem definition
a. Background to the problem
b. Statement of the problem
XI. Approach to the problem
XII. Research design
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a) Type of research design
b) Information needs
c) Data collection from secondary sources
d) Data collection from primary sources
e) Scaling techniques
f) Questionnaire development and pretesting
g) Sampling techniques
h) Fieldwork
XIII. Data analysis
a) Methodology
b) Plan of data analysis
XIV. Results
XV. Limitations and caveats
XVI. Conclusions and recommendations
XVII. Exhibits
a) Questionnaires and forms
b) Statistical output
c) Lists
Report Writing
¡ Readers. A report should be written for a specific reader or readers: the business
managers who will use the results.
¡ Easy to follow. The report should be easy to follow. It should be structured logically and
written clearly.
¡ Presentable and professional appearance. The look of a report is important.
¡ Objective. Objectivity is a virtue that should guide report writing. The rule is, "Tell it
like it is."
¡ Reinforce text with tables and graphs. It is important to reinforce key information in the
text with tables, graphs, pictures, maps, and other visual devices.
¡ Terse. A report should be terse and concise. Yet, brevity should not be achieved at the
expense of completeness.
Guidelines for Tables

¡ Title and number. Every table should have a number (1a) and title (1b).
¡ Arrangement of data items. The arrangement of data items in a table should emphasize
the most significant aspect of the data.
¡ Basis of measurement. The basis or unit of measurement should be clearly stated (3a).
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¡ Leaders, rulings, spaces. Leaders, dots or hyphens used to lead the eye horizontally,
impart uniformity and improve readability (4a). Instead of ruling the table horizontally
or vertically, white spaces (4b) are used to set off data items. Skipping lines after
different sections of the data can also assist the eye. Horizontal rules (4c) are often used
after the headings.
¡ Explanations and comments: Headings, stubs, and footnotes. Designations placed over
the vertical columns are called headings (5a). Designations placed in the left-hand
column are called stubs (5b). Information that cannot be incorporated in the table should
be explained by footnotes (5c).
¡ Sources of the data. If the data contained in the table are secondary, the source of data
should be cited (6a).
Reading the Research Report

¡ Addresses the Problem - The problem being addressed should be clearly identified and
the relevant background information provided.
¡ The research design should be clearly described in non-technical terms.
¡ Execution of the Research Procedures - The reader should pay special attention to the
manner in which the research procedures were executed.
¡ Numbers and statistics reported in tables and graphs should be examined carefully by the
reader.
¡ Interpretation and Conclusions - The interpretation of the basic results should be
differentiated from the results per se. Any conclusions or recommendations made
without a specification of the underlying assumptions or limitations should be treated
cautiously by the reader.
¡ Generalizability - It is the responsibility of the researcher to provide evidence regarding
the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the findings.
¡ Disclosure - The reader should carefully examine whether the spirit in which the report
was written indicates an honest and complete disclosure of the research procedures and
results.

Long questions
1. "Processing of data implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation". Describe in
brief these four operations pointing out the significance of each in context of research
study.
2. Write a brief note on different types of analysis of data pointing out the significance of
each.
3. What do you mean by multivariate analysis? Explain how it differs from bivariate
analysis.
4. How will you differentiate between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics?
5. Describe the important statistical measures often used to summaries the survey/research
data.
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6. Write a brief essay on "Factor analysis" particularly pointing out its merits and
limitations.
7. Name the important multivariate techniques and explain the important characteristic of
each one of such techniques.
8. Explain Qualitative Data Analysis methods with suitable research problem.
Short Note -
a. Explain Non-parametric data
b. t-test with example
c. z-test with appropriate research question
d. ANOVA with appropriate research question
e. Structural equation modelling
f. The techniques of writing report
g. Characteristics of a good research report;
Multiple choice questions :

Q.1 Which technique is generally followed when the population is finite?
A. Systematic Sampling Technique
B. Purposive Sampling Technique
C. Area Sampling Technique
D. None of the above
Q 2. Which one is called non-probability sampling?

A. Quota sampling
B. Cluster sampling
C. Systematic sampling
D. Stratified random sampling
Q 3. The ___ scale measurement has a natural zero.

A. Ratio
B. Nominal
C. Ordinal
D. Interval
Q 4. Cluster sampling, stratified sampling and systematic sampling are types of

A. Direct sampling
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B. Indirect sampling
C. Random sampling
D. Non random sampling
Q 5. A complete list of all the sampling units is called:

A. Sampling design
B. Sampling frame
C. Population frame
D. Cluster
Q 6. The split-half method is used as a test of:

A. Stability
B. Internal reliability
C. Inter-observer consistency
D. External validity
Q 7. What is a sampling unit?

A. The population.
B. The basic unit containing the elements of the population to be sampled.
C. All the individual elements of the final sample, drawn together.
D. The method used to collect the sample.
Q 8. Which of the following is not a non-random sampling method?

A. Cluster sampling
B. Quota sampling
C. Convenience sampling
D. Accidental sampling
Q 9. When one examines the entire population instead of a subgroup of the population, this is
called a ____________
A. Sampling
B. Census
C. Population
D. Bias
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Q 10. A ______ is a subset of a _________.
A. Sample, population
B. Population, sample
C. Statistic, parameter
D. Parameter, statistic
Q 11. Random sampling is also called _____________.

A. Availability sampling
B. Probation sampling
C. Probability sampling
D. Prospect sampling
Q 12. Scale in which the respondent directly compares two or more objects and makes choices
among them is
A. Ranking Scale
B. Rating Scale
C. Graphic Scale
D. None of these
Q. 13 Formulation of hypothesis may NOT be required in:

(A) Survey method
(B) Historical studies
(C) Experimental studies
(D) Normative studies
Q.14 Field-work based research is classified as:

(A) Empirical
(B) Historical
(C) Experimental
(D) Biographical
Q.15 Which of the following sampling method is appropriate to study the prevalence of AIDS
amongst male and female in India in 1976, 1986, 1996 and 2006?
(A) Cluster sampling
(B) Systematic sampling
(C) Quota sampling
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(D) Stratified random sampling
Q.16 When a research problem is related to heterogeneous population, the most suitable
sampling method is:
(A) Cluster Sampling
(B) Stratified Sampling
(C) Convenient Sampling
(D) Lottery Method
Q.17 The process not needed in experimental research is:

(A) Observation
(B) Manipulation and replication
(C) Controlling
(D) Reference collection
Q.18 We use Factorial Analysis:

(A) To know the relationship between two variables
(B) To test the Hypothesis
(C) To know the difference between two variables
(D) To know the difference among the many variables
Q. 19 Coding in qualitative research requires _____________.

a. Pre-testing the code book.
b. Verifying the coded data.
c. Developing themes.
d. Developing a code book
Q.20 'Please circle you main mode of transport to university: 1: Walk, 2: Bicycle, 3: Bus; 4:
Train; 5: Car, 6: Other'. This question is _________.
a. An open ended quantitative question.
b. A closed categorical question.
c. An open ended qualitative question.
d. None of the above
73
Q.21 Observations, interviews and questionnaires are ways to collect primary data.
a. True
b. False
Q.22 An unstructured interview is ___________ .

a. Rigid in its contents.
b. Closed in questions and question order.
c. Predetermined in its structure.
d. Flexible in the questions and how they are worded.
Q.23 In quantitative research the sample should be unbiased and representative of the
population.
a. True
b. False
Q. 24 In a survey of hospital out-patients' views about the quality of service they receive from a
hospital, researchers wanted to canvas an equal amount of women and men. During one
particular week 200 women and 200 men were asked to fill in a questionnaire. What
method of sampling is this?
a. Systematic sampling.
b. Cluster sampling.
c. Expert sampling.
d. Quota sampling
Q.25 The quality of the whole study is effected by _____________.

a. Each step of the research process.
b. How the findings are communicated.
c. The clarity of the research report.
d. All of the above
Q.26 The use of statistical procedures will reinforce the validity of the conclusion in
quantitative research.
a. True
b. False
74
Q. 27 Research findings are communicated differently in qualitative and quantitative research.
a. True
b. False
Q.28 Before starting to write a report it is advisable to develop ____________.

a. A model.
b. A theme.
c. An outline.
d. A chapter
Q.30 The first chapter of the report should be entitled ____________.

a. Conclusion.
b. Results.
c. Introduction.
d. Methodology

Read attached screenshot of published papers and comment on the Tools & Techniques used :
A.
75
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pa.2451
B.
76
C.
77
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJOEM-12-2021-1885/full/html
Jain, R., Sharma, D., Behl, A. and Tiwari, A.K. (2022), "Investor personality as a predictor of
investment intention - mediating role of overconfidence bias and financial literacy",
International Journal of Emerging Markets, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOEM-12-2021-1885
78
D.

79
E.
80
https://doi.org/10.1108/YC-10-2020-1231
F.
6.8 REFERENCES
C. William Emory, Business Research Methods, p. 356.
3 Jagdish N. Sheth, "The Multivariate Revolution in Marketing Research", Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 35, No. 1
(Jan. 1971), pp. 13-19.
* Readers are referred
81
T5525
MBA I SEM I
ISBN: 978-93-95877-02-2
SYMBIOSIS INTERNATIONAL (DEEMED UNIVERSITY)

Gram: Lavale, Tal: Mulshi, Dist: Pune, Maharashtra, India Pin: 412115

Research Methodology MBA

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Research Methodology MBA

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Established under Section 3 of the UGC Act.

1956 I Awarded Category - I by UGC

Chancellor : Prof. Dr. S B Mujumdar (M.Sc. Ph.D.)

Programme Coordinator - Management Programmes

Self-Learning Material: E-Content

Authors : Dr. Dipasha Sharma

Editor & Reviewer : Dr Anugamini Priya Srivastava

Copy Right © Registrar, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune

Layout and Designing : Neha Creations, Pune 411030

MODULE - 1 : Introduction to the Research Process 01

MODULE - 2 : Selecting and Framing a Research Problem 11

MODULE - 3 : Review of Literature 20

MODULE - 4 : Conceptual and Theoretical Framework 29

MODULE - 5 : Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods 35

MODULE - 6: Data Analysis and Research Report Writing 51

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1.3 NATURE, SCOPE, IMPORTANCE AND FUNCTIONS

For the purpose of improving decision making related to the

1.3.2 Definition of Research

1.3.3 Objectives of Research

1.3.4 Why should you pursue Research

1.3.5 TYPES OF RESEARCH

1.4 VARIOUS TYPES OF RESEARCH PROCESS

Figure 1 - Research Process in flow chart

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

¡ Multiple Choice Questions

2. Business research is ____________.

3. Research can help business organizations to ____________.

4. Research can be used by organizations ____________.

7. Research can be applied in which of the following functional area of business?

9. The first step in the research process is the:

10. Which of the following is not a step in research process?

12. How to judge the depth of any research?

14. The main objective of ………….. study's to acquire knowledge

Practice Oriented Questions :

Note - access full paper for further reading -

Note - access full paper for further reading -

Note - access full paper for further reading - https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10479-

Note - access full paper for further reading -

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2.3 DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM

2.4 SELECTING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Figure 2 : The problem Definition Process

2.5 TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM

2.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

¡ Multiple Choice questions

3. Consider this research aim:

5. Research is just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose.

6. A statement of the quantitative research question should:

7. What are the core elements of a Research Process?

8. Identifying causes of a problem and possible solution to a problem is

9. Second step in problem formulation is

Note - access full paper for further reading -

Note - access full paper for further reading -

Note - access full paper for further reading - https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10479-

Note - access full paper for further reading -

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

3.3 PROCESS OF REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

3.3.2 Research gaps- PICOS framework

3.4.1 What Your Literature Review Should Include:

3.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice questions:

2. The literature review will examine:

3. The starting point for a literature search is: