Physiology laboratory • Water readily moves across

Exercises 1-4 and PhysioEx 1-4 the cell membrane through

  protein-lined channels
Exercise  1:  Cell  Water  Potential   • If the concentration of both
  sides of the cell membrane
Water Potential are not equal, there will be a
• Tendency of water to move movement of water
into or within a system (animal molecules
or plant tissue)
• Water moves from an area 1. Hypertonic
that has high water potential • Movement of water out of the
to an area with low water tissue
potential • Concentration of WATER is
• The potential energy in water greater INSIDE the cell
as well as the difference • Concentration of dissolved
between the potential in a solutes are greater outside
given water sample and pure the cell
water. Animal cell (no cell wall):
Shrink or shrivel
Two factors that affect water Plant cell (with cell wall):
potential: Plasmolysis
1. Pressure
2. Amount of solute 2. Hypotonic
• Movement of water into the
Equation: tissue
Ψsystem = Ψtotal = Ψs + Ψp + Ψm. • Concentration of dissolved
solutes are less outside the
Ψs: solute or osmotic potential; cell than inside
always a negative sign • Concentration of WATER is
Ψp: pressure potential; turgor more outside the cell
pressure; it may be -, 0 or + Animal cell (no cell wall):
Ψm : matric potential; due to water- Will burst
binding colloids in the cell; negative Plant cell (with cell wall):
in sign Turgor pressure

• Solute potential (Ψs)

decreases with increasing 3. Isotonic
solute concentration; a • Equilibrium
decrease in Ψs causes a • No net movement
decrease in the total water • Total molar concentration of
potential. the dissolved solutes are
equal
Determination of Water Potential • A 0.9% solution of NaCl
• When a tissue is placed in a (saline) is isotonic to animal
sugar solution, there is a net cells.
movement of water
 • No effect on animal and Ψs = 1.22Tc
plant cells c= the correction factor or room
temperature in K/s73K

Determination of water potential

of the plant sample
• The water potential of the
plant sample is the tendency
of the water to move in and
out of the plant sample
• Computed value
• Plant samples have cell walls

Exercise 2: Physiology of the

Nerve

Determination of solute potential The Nervous System

of extracted sap by cryoscopy • Made up of the Central
Nervous system (Brain and
Cryoscopy Spinal cord) and the
1. Examination of liquids based Peripheral Nervous System
on the principle that freezing • The main component or part
points vary according to the of the nervous system is the
amount and nature of the neuron or the nerve cell
solute
2. OSMOTIC POTENTIAL of a
solution (Based on osmotic
pressure and solute
concentration)

• The freezing point of an

aqueous solution decreases
with an increase in dissolved
solutes.

Equation:
Calculating for the solute potential:
Ψs = 1.22Tf
Parts of the Nervous
Ψs = solute potential in MPa at 0
System
Celsius
1. Cell Body
Tf= Freezing point of solution in
2. Axon
Celsius
- Nerve impulses away
from the cell body (to the
Solute Potential of extracted sap at different parts of the body)
room temperature
 3. Dendrites
- Nerve impulses toward
the cell body
• Dendrites and Axons are
covered by the myelin sheath
• Secreted by the Schwann
cells
Types of Neurons
1. Affarent Neuron or Sensory
Neuron
2. Efferent Neuron or Motor
Neuron
3. Interneuron
The Action Potential
Three Phases of the Action
Potential:
1. Resting
2. Action
3. Recovery
The resting potential is defined as
the potential difference across the
membrane of the axon when there is
no impulse is conducted; the action
potential is when an electric shock,
pH change, or a mechanical situation
stimulates a nerve. The action
potential brings about nerve
stimulation or a change in potential.
Thus in this phase, as the stimulus is
applied, an increase in the graph is
shown. Depolarization occurs, as the
inside of the axon is more positive at
this level. The recovery phase is
between the transmissions as K+
ions are returned to the inside and
the Na+ ions are returned to the
outside, actively. It comes after the
repolarization of the action potential.
• The action potential is
generated by the opening and
subsequent inactivation of
voltage-gated sodium
channels and, with a slight
delay, the opening of voltage-
gated K channels.
• When inactivated, Na ions will
not be able to enter.
• These channels will continue
to be deactivated for a
specific period of time. Thus,
during that brief time of
inactivation, action potentials
cannot pass through. This
period is called the absolute
refractory period.
• K channels help return the
voltage to the resting potential
after the action potential has
passed
• When restored, Na will be
able to go in.
• The period in which a stronger
stimulus must be applied in
order to produce an action
potential is called the relative
refectory period.
A. Nerve Function
• For every stimulus introduced
there is a response. (The
 greater the stimulus, the junction of the muscle that
greater the response) causes it to contract.
• Increase in temperature • The anesthetic has an
indicates an enhancement of INHIBITORY response.
the twitch-force as muscles • Antibiotic used in the
are activated at higher experiment: Lidocaine
temperature, and also events • The application of pressure in
that occur at the the middle causes the signal
neuromuscular junction by an to be blocked.
action potential of the nerve
cell, are all sensitive to C. Functions of the Central
temperature. Nervous System
• More Cl- atoms, more • The interaction between the
contraction occurs. (The primary parts of the central
presence of chloride that nervous system, the brain
prevents the muscle from just and the spinal cord, and their
contracting and instead effects to the physiology of
respond only to conscious the body is the main focus of
control or spinal reflexes, this experiment.
thus it is only when there is a • Decrease in the
high amount of Cl! that there responsiveness as more
is a response. The addition of of the central nervous
NaCl and HCl also show that system was destroyed.
as more Cl! ions, the more • There still remains little
the muscle will contract in movement due to the
response to conscious spinal reflexes of the frog
contraction of the muscles. left in the spinal cord even
*seen in osmotic and after destroying the brain.
chemical stimuli)
• Higher or greater voltage, D. Reflex Action in the Frog
greater response. The • The reflex indicated in this
voltage represents the example is the stretch
neurotransmitters. reflex. It is a stretch reflex
(Example: acetylcholine) or a myotatic, knee-jerk
reflex.
B. Signal Blocking • As the impulse is sent to
• Application of anesthetic and the spinal cord via the
pressure blocks the signal of sciatic nerve and
stimulus generating a SLOW immediately responds to
response or NO response. contract the muscle.
• Anesthetic: The anesthetic
applied affects the secretion E. Measurement of Compound
of the neurotransmitter Action Potential
acetylcholine! • The CAP is the summation
Acetylcholine is found at of all the axons firing.
the neuromuscular However, the CAP has a
 limit since there is only a conducting action potentials above
limited amount of axons per 50mV. More and more axons were
neuron. activated as the strength of the
stimulus increased.
Determination of threshold • However, at 170 mV, all of the
voltage and maximum Compound axons within the nerve were
Action Potential already activated. Thus CAP did
• As seen in Figure 1, the CAP not rise above 3.350mV even if
the stimulus amplitude was
amplitude failed to rise above
increased. Thus, the threshold
0mV when the stimulus
voltage of the nerve is 50mV while
amplitude is less than 50mV.
the maximum CAP is 3.350mV.
• It was only when 50mV was
applied that the CAP amplitude
started to rise. Determination of refractory period
• The CAP amplitude continued to
rise as the stimulus amplitude Interval
Stimulus
was increased. Between Second Action
Voltage
The maximum CAP amplitude Stimuli Potential?
• (mV)
(msec)
was acquired at 3.350mV when
250 20 Yes
170mV of stimulus was applied. 125 20 Yes
When the maximum CAP 60 20 No
amplitude was acquired, 60 25 No
increasing the stimulus amplitude 60 30 Yes
no longer went over the 30 30 No
maximum CAP amplitude value. 30 35 No
30 40 No
4
  30 45 Yes
15 60 Yes
CAP
 Amplitude
 (mV)
 

3
  7.5 60 Yes
2
  3.75 60 No
1
 
• The threshold voltage of the
0
 
0
  200
  400
  600
  nerve used in PhysioEx 9.0 was
-­‐1
  set at 20mV. With an interval of
Stimulus
 Amplitude
 (mV)
  250msec and 125msec, a second
action potential was produced.
Threshold voltage: Starting
Figure 1. CAP amplitude versus voltage (rising from 0)
stimulus intensity • However, when the interval was
lowered to 60msec, a second
• Nerves are governed by the all- action potential was not
or-nothing law wherein there is observed. It was only when the
no median action potential. A stimulus voltage was raised to
stimulus will either activate the 30mV that a second action
nerve or it will not. As seen in potential was observed. When
figure 1, the nerve only began the interval was further
 decreased to 30msec, it needed Determination of nerve
45mV stimulus to generate a conduction velocity
second potential.
Axon Myeli- Distance Time Conduction
• To determine the maximum Type nation from R1 between Velocity
refractory period of the nerve, the to R2 APs (m/sec)
maximum amount of stimulus, (m) (sec)
60mV, was applied. A 60mV A
Heavy 0.1 0.002 50
stimulus generated a second fiber
B
potential when the intervals were Light 0.1 0.01 10
fiber
lowered to 15msec and 7.5msec. C
However, a 60mV stimulus failed None 0.1 0.1 1
fiber
to produce a second potential at
a 3.75msec interval. • A fiber was heavily myelinated
• The inactivation of the Na and had a large diameter.
voltage-gated channels is • B fiber had a medium diameter
observable when double pulses and was lightly myelinated.
are applied to a nerve. As the • C fiber was thin and
interval is decreased, a stimulus unmyelinated.
higher than the threshold voltage • A fiber needed the least time to
is needed to produce a second travel 0.1 meters with a velocity
action potential. A higher stimulus of 50m/sec while C fiber took the
is needed since most of the Na longest in conduction and has the
channels are still recovering from slowest conduction velocity of
the previous depolarization. The 1m/sec.
absolute refractory period was • The conduction velocity is
determined by applied the heavily dependent on the
maximum amount of stimulus amount of myelination and
voltage at a 3.75msec interval. diameter of the axon.
The absolute refractory period of
• Since myelin sheaths lack
the examined nerve is 3.75msec.
voltage gated channels, they
The nerve needs more than
function by salutatory conduction,
3.75msec for the Na channels to
allowing the action potentials to
return to a resting potential. The
occur at only unmyelinated nodes
relative refractory period
of Ranvier. Action potentials
immediately follows the absolute
‘jump’ when passing through
refractory period. In the relative
myelin sheaths and generate a
refractory period, a second action
potential only on the nodes of
potential can be produced at a
Ranvier in between sheaths. This
higher stimulus.
process further accelerates the
movement of electric signals.
Somatic Senses Touch Receptors Adaptation
Tactile Localization
No. of Coins Time of
Part of Body Localization Perception
Difference 1 42.29 s
Arm 20 mm, 15 mm 2 5.49 s
Palm 8 mm, 4 mm 3 14.12 s
Over the palm 21 mm, 5 mm
Neck 15 mm, 4 mm • As seen in table 3, the
Leg 16 mm, 4 mm number of coins that have the
Cheek 10 mm, 3 mm highest time of perception is 1
Forehead 5 mm, 5 mm with 42.29 seconds and 3 coins
Nose 10 mm, 3 mm being the lowest time of
perception, 5.49 seconds. The
results show phenomenon called
• Tactile localization is the
sensory adaptation. Since most
stimulus perception at a specific
sense receptors strongly respond
part of the body (Crosskey,
to sensitive changes in its
Elithorn & Piercy, 1953). In this
surroundings, it stops reacting
part of the experiment, the result
when a particular stimuli become
shows that all first trial has
steady or constant (Lumpkin,
higher localization difference
Nelson, & Marshall, 2010). For
than the second one. This is
instance, when a person enters a
possibly because precision of
room he/she quickly adapts to the
locating the origin of the stimulus
odor of the room or touch
is connected to the stimulus
receptors stops in giving
intensity and also the receptor
information of our clothing until
density where the stimulus is
change in stimuli.
located. Also, the receptors in the
dermis are known to be not Temperature Receptors
distributed evenly, hence, the
different parts of the body such
as the arm and neck, can have Water Sensation
different ability to ascertain a Temperature
particular stimulus (Cliffors, Ice Water Sense of
Harris & Karloy, 2006). numbness
• Localization is greater the first which
time the stimulus is generated eventually
develops into a
stinging
sensation
45°C At first, there
was a stinging
sensation which
eventually stops
• Since the left hand was
placed in iced water and the right
hand in water at 45°C, the
strength of stimulus slowly
decreases until both temperature
receptors have adjusted to their
new environment.
• Change in baseline of the
receptors can be observed if both
hands were place in average
temperature water.
• This shows that temperature is
thus not absolute but relative
to the baseline created by the
previous sensory adaptation
(Paxinos, 2012).
• Moreover, a process when an
area of the body receives painful
stimulus but the other area is the
one that perceived it is called
referred pain (Evans-Martin &
Cooley, 2004). In the results,
hands soak in the ice water felt a
sense of numbness which
eventually becomes a stinging
sensation while for the hands in
the 45°C water it stings at first but
stop. The feeling of pain was
send to the other area.
Hearing
Watch tick test for auditory acuity
Distanc Distanc Differen
e from e ce
ear to where
point subject
where can
subject hear
cannot again
hear
Righ 140 120 70
t in which changes in the
Left 185 110 75
• The watch tick test was done to
analyze whether an individual
has the inability to hear high
pitched sounds. The subject
was observed to stop hearing
the ticking watch from the right
ear at the 140cm mark and was
able to hear it again at the
120cm mark. From the left ear,
the subject stopped detecting
the sound at 185cm and was
able to hear it again at 110. The
differences of the results from
the right and left ear were 70
and 75 respectively. The
closeness of the differences
can indicate that the subject
does not have loss of hearing
high frequency sounds.
Considered as a bedside
hearing test, the watch tick test
does not provide accurate
information on what type of
hearing damage a certain
patient has developed. This
method however is a useful test
of acuity that could allow an
individual to assess himself if
he has problems in hearing
(Dillon 2006).
Auditory adaptation
Sensation
Normal Same sound for
both ears;
Scramble sound
Rubber Tubing Louder sound
Pressed
• The test in auditory adaptation
is done to observe the process
sensitivity of sensory
receptors occur in relation to
the stimulus. The subject in the
 experiment was observed to
hear a louder sound after the
release of the pressure in one
of the tubes of the stethoscope.
The ears adapt to loud
sounds as it hits the bones
located in the inner ear.
• This makes the inner bones
contract and causes the
reduction of transmission of
sound vibrations to the inner
ear. (Nevid 2014)
• In the case in the experiment,
the subject heard a louder
sound on the ear where the
tube was pressed than the
other ear where the sound went
without any obstruction. It can
be deduced that the ear
connected to the tube without
any obstruction had adapted to
the loud sound. This results to
the bones in the inner ear to
contract reducing the sound
transmission. The other ear
however, did not have the
bones in the inner ear contract
due to the prevention of sound
to reach the ear. The release of
the pressure then gave the
impression that one ear is
hearing louder than the other
because of different
contractions on each ear.
Vision
Binocular Vision and Space
Perception
The coin was initially seen at the middle of
the view during the beginning of the
experiment. When the left eye was closed,
the coin could only be seen at the right
portion and at the corner of the view. When
the right eye was closed the coin could be
viewed at the left portion of the whole view.
• The test in binocular vision
and space perception was to
observe the concept of having
two eyes producing two different
images but only processing one
image in the brain. The observer
in the experiment sees the coin in
two different places depending on
which eye is closed and sees it
as one object in one place when
both eyes are open. Sensory
correspondence explains that
binocular vision is the unification
of visual excitations from
corresponding retinal images into
a single visual image. An object
localized in one and the same
visual direction by stimulation of
the two retinas will appear as one.
Meaning the stimulus to sensory
fusion is the excitation of
corresponding elements. (Von
Noorden 1996).
Visual Acuity
As the size of the letter decreases in the
chart, the edge of each letter also gets
blurry. Specific letter look similar to each
other like letter E and F.
• The visual acuity test is used
to determine the smallest letters
one can read on the Snellen’s
chart. It is commonly used as a
routine part of an eye
examination. Visual acuity is
expressed as a fraction. The
numerator corresponds to the
distance between the chart and
the observer (usually 20 feet).
The denominator indicates the
distance at which a person with
normal eyesight could read the
same line you correctly read. The
 subjects in the experiment stated
that as the size of the letter gets
smaller, the edges of each letter
also gets blurry. Mistakes in a
line on one or two letters can still
indicate that the subject still has
vision equal to that line. (Tasman
& Jaeger 2012).
Exercise 4: Physiology of Skeletal
Muscles
• The basis of locomotion is
dependent to the overall
physiological principles of the
skeletal muscles.
• Its activities are controlled
voluntarily, but regulated
subconsciously, wherein the
stimulus is supplied by a nerve
impulse.
• Skeletal muscles are made up of
long bundles of muscle fibers,
which are large, elongated and
multinucleate cells. Muscle fibers
are comprised of sarcomeres,
which are contractile units,
responsible for the relaxation and
contraction of the muscles.
• The mechanism of muscular
function is initiated by the action
potential that is elicited from the
contact of the motor neuron and
the muscle fiber at a common
point called the neuromuscular
junction. This interaction triggers
the release of acetylcholine,
which diffuses across the
sarcolemma and eventually binds
to the motor end plate, causing
the shift in the permeability of
ions and the graded response of
the muscle.
• A twitch is defined as a muscle
contraction responding to a single
and rapid stimulus from an
isolated action potential induced
by muscle fibers.
• Muscle fatigue is a condition
that the physical performance of
muscles can temporarily decline
due to a wide range of
physiological impairments such
as the generation of insufficient
motor command and the
accumulation of specific
metabolites in myofibers.
• Multiple contractions of a muscle
produce a summation of all the
tensions that is significantly
higher than the value of a single
twitch. This summation is termed
as the tetanic contraction or
tetanus.
Pulse Stimulus
• Increase in stimulus amplitude
(V)
• An increase in V leads to a an
increase in number of motor units
thus the contraction increases.
• This shows a positive relationship
between the contraction force
and the stimulus amplitude
Continuous Stimulus
• With increasing stimulus
amplitude, there are plenty of
conditions that could be observed
depending on the intervals of the
stimulus.
• It could be unfused or fused
tetanus. Unfused or incomplete
tetanus is produced when partial
relaxation is evident.
• Fused or complete tetanus is
produced, when partial relaxation
is not present.