MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

Potential
• = Voltage difference across the different membrane at a specific point in time
• Membrane potentials caused by imbalance of charged particles across the membrane
• Outside the membrane – Positive & Inside the membrane – Negative = Cell membranes nearly always have a membrane
potential – -70mV inside
• Intracellular organelles have membrane potentials
Different Types Of Potential
• RESTING POTENTIAL = Potential across the cell membrane when no
signalling is taking place
• THRESHOLD POTENTIAL = Depends on the number, density and
properties of sodium channels
• ACTION POTENTIAL = Brief rapid reversal of potential in an excitable cell;
All-Or-None; Constant amplitude for a given cell; Encode information in their
firing frequency; “spikes”
• SYNAPTIC POTENTIAL = Small deviation from resting potential due to
signals from other cells; Several synaptic potentials can ‘summate’ to reach the
‘threshold’ for an action potential
• CONSTANT PEAK = Action potentials are All-Or-None; No matter what
stimulus caused the action potential, they are all the same height and the same
shape = Information is in the frequency of the action potentials, not their shape
• DEPOLARIZATION = Less polarized
• HYPERPOLARIZATION = More polarized
RESTING POTENTIAL
 Voltage-gated ion channels – Open in response to a change in potential which displaces
a domain which has charge to open the gate; 4 subunits each with 6 domains
 Ligand-gated ion channels – 5 subunits
Sodium / Potassium Pump
• The sodium-potassium pump = Active transport
• Pump 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in of
cell = Accounts for about -4mV of potential
POTASSIUM LEAKAGE
• Potential comes from potassium ions leaking across
membrane through ‘leak channels’
1. Pump sets up potassium and sodium ions gradients
2. Membranes are leaky to potassium ions but not to
sodium ions
3. Only potassium ions go down the gradient
4. Positive charges of potassium ions leave the cell
5. Inside of the cell goes negative
6. Voltage gradient created across from out to in the cell as
like charges repel
7. Eventually concentration gradient from in to out of cell
& voltage gradient from out to in the cell become equal
= EQUILIBRIUM POTENTIAL
ACTION POTENTIAL
Action Potential
• Neurons and muscle cells are electrically excitable = In response to stimuli, the
membrane potential changes rapidly = ACTION POTENTIAL
• In neurons, action potential moves down the axon as a nerve impulse
1. RESTING POTENTIAL = Voltage across the membrane when the cell is “at
rest” (not responding to anything and not carrying an action potential) caused by
potassium ions leaking out of the cell, taking positive charge with them – -70mV
in neurones but other cells can differ
2. THRESHOLD POTENTIAL = Voltage that fires an action potential when
membrane potential is more positive than threshold as need a certain amount of
sodium channels to open – potential below threshold then potassium channels
1. ktend to bring potential back down to resting potential & sodium channel opening
2. kcause even more depolarization
3. DEPOLARISATION = Upswing of action potential when the membrane potential is above threshold as sodium channels open and sodium floods in
– makes cell even more positive which makes more sodium channels open, etc…
4. ACTION POTENTIAL = Long range signal sent along a neuron for a momentary reversal of membrane potential – no matter how big stimulus that
triggered the action potential, peak is always the same, +40mV & All-Or-None signal where present or absent
5. REFRACTORY PERIOD = Period just after the peak of an action potential where difficult or impossible to fire another action potential as sodium
channels have now inactivated (close so can’t open until membrane goes back to resting) – make sure membrane repolarizes quickly
6. REPOLARIZATION = Phase where cell goes back to resting potential as sodium channels have closed and potassium channels have started to open
– stimulus opens potassium channels is the same that opened the sodium channels (membrane depolarization) & Potassium channels open more slowly
than sodium channels so effects only appear after action potential peak & so many more types of potassium channel than sodium channel so important
drug targets
7. HYPERPOLARISATION = Membrane gets more negative than resting potential just after action potential as potassium channels are still open (take
time to close) – just after action potential, more potassium channels open than when cell resting so derives a more negative value & as channels close,
potential returns to resting potential
• Electrochemical
equilibrium
• Self inactivation group
blocks the voltage gated
channel using affinity
when voltage gate opened
and allowed things
through then remove that
by voltage gate closing
when voltage becomes
low enough to push the
self inactivation out
• Limit to how high
frequency to get due to
refractory period
ANATOMY OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain
• Development of the anterior spinal cord
• Protected by skull/vertebrae & 3 layers of tissues
(dura  arachnoid  mater)
COMPONENT OF BRAIN
Neurone
• Neurones = computing cells & Glia = narrate and protect neurones, AXON
feed neurones, control extracellular environment (1:10 ratio) • Allows propagation of action potentials to a remote
• Neurones have widely different shapes (dendrites can look like target as quickly and as faithfully as possible
axons and vice versa) • Vary in thickness from less than 0.1 micro up to
• Neural cell membrane = Site of many types of receptor and channel 1mm
essential for shaping the action potential and the cell’s response to it • Smaller diameter means slower action potential
DENDRITE
CELL BODY (SOMA) • Input part of the cell
• Shape of a neurone is critical to its function – most are long and thin NODE OF RANVIER
• Gaps between areas • Other cells synapse onto the spines of dendrites,
• All cells have to keep up with their housekeeping, making proteins,
of myelinated axon evoking electrical signal
controlling gene expression, clearing up waste
• Allows saltatory • Result depends on many physical and
• Neurones concentrate these functions in cell body
conduction physiological features od dendrites (length,
• Find nucleus and protein-translation machinery
thickness)
• Most organelles distributed throughout the cell, even in the axon ASTROCYTE (main) -
Glial Cell
SYNAPSE • 95% of glia & • Feed the neurones
star
• Connection between neurones between an incoming axon and a 5% of neurones • Mop up waste
dendritic spine • **+EPENDYM • Make sure intercellular environment is kept constant
• In nearly all cases, involves the release of a chemical that rapidly AL CELL = OLIGODENDROCYTE – few dendritic
diffuses across to the following cell and evokes a response synthesise • Wrap a process around some neurones = Insulate them
• Neurotransmitter chemical released when action potential reaches cerebrospinal
trees
= Speed up the rate of action potential propagation
end and causing response in next cell fluid
MICROGLIA – small
MYELIN SHEATH • Immune cells of the brain
• Insulates the axon and decreases electrical capacitance glia
• Send out processes with receptors sensitive to metabolic state of neurons
• Increases speed at which action potentials travel along the axon and presence of pathogens
• May prevent “cross-talk” between adjacent axons • When activated by a suspected threat = Become mobile, secrete
AXON cytokines, engulf cells by phagocytosis
• Specialized glial cell that sends processes to an exon and wraps around them to form a myelin sheath
• Increase rate of electrical transfer, speed
BRAIN STRUCTURE 1
Sagittal Section
• BRAIN = Cerebrum + Brainstem + Cerebellum THALAMUS MIDBRAIN, PONS,
• BRAINSTEM = Midbrain + Pons + Medulla • Switching post for cerebral
cortex
MEDULLA
CEREBRA / CEREBRAL • Splits cortex and rest of
• Breathing
OBLONGATA
• Sleep/Wake
HEMISPHERE / CEREBRAL nervous station
• Low-level sensory • Motor control
CORTEX CEREBELLUM • Control pH
processing • Balance
• Motor planning PITUITARY
• Motor control
• Working memory • Brain/Hormone coordination – interaction
• Decision-making SPINAL CORD GLAND
between nervous and endocrine systems
CORPUS • Local reflexes
•CALLOSUM
2 halves of brain • Long interneurones
HYPOTHALAMUS
• Homeostasis
BRAIN STRUCTURE 2
Outside
• Cerebral cortex: SULCI (inwards fold) & GYRI (outwards fold)
• Constant between individuals – act as landmarks
• 4 major lobes: FRONTAL (decision making, rational thinking, working
memory), PARIETAL, TEMPORAL, OCCIPITAL (vision)
• Division into lobes reflects functional divisions
• Cerebellum NOT part of cerebrum
DORSOLATERAL PREFRONTAL
•CORTEX
Value-based decision
making
VENTROLATERAL PREFRONTAL PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX
• Speech • Analysis of sound stimuli
CORTEX
• Working memory
• Decision memory VISUAL CORTEX
• Analysis of visual stimuli
PREMOTOR PREFRONTAL PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
• Low level motor planning
CORTEX
• Interjoint coordination
• Strength of contraction of
individual muscles
ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY
• Valuation of choice options • Low-level analysis of sense of
• Inhibition of inappropriate behaviours AREA
touch
VENTRAL TEMPORAL CORTEX
• Object naming
• Recognition
POSTERIOR PARIETAL CORTEX
• Process information on location of body and objects in space
SPINAL CORD ANATOMY
 Has segmental organization
 Each segment corresponds to 1 area of the body (dermatome)
 Each segment has dorsal root (sensory neurones) and ventral root (motor neurones)
 Dorsal root has DR ganglion
 Covered by 3 membranes: dura, arachnoid, pla
Cross-Section Of Spinal Cord
• Internal gray matter surrounded by white matter
• Gray matter = butterfly shape – dorsal and ventral
horns; consist of cell body, dendrite, axon
• White matter = divided into columns
GREY MATTER
• Gray matter divided in 2 ways: LAYERS & NUCLEI
• REXED LAYERS = Different layers for different senses
• Some nuclei = Condensation of cell bodies and synapses
which can be allocated to specific functions (substantia
gelatinosa – pain & touch)
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 = Nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord: Nerves & Ganglia (= local mini-
processors which connect neurones by synapses) & Plexi
 Not protected by bones = Outside blood-brain barrier (= composed of capillary endothelial
cells and astrocytic end-feet) = Susceptible to toxic or mechanical shock, drugs
 Connect CNS to the body – sense organs or muscles

Taxonomy /
Hierarchy

PLEXI
• 8: coeliac ganglion of cat
PLEXI
• 10: cranial mesenteric ganglion • = Where nerves branch
• 16: stomach and reconnect
• 3:aorta • Cervical, Brachial,
Lumbar, Sacral
• Each composed of
different spinal nerves
that intersect by
connecting and branching
CRANIAL & SPINAL

 OCULOMOTOR N, III – eye movements, ciliary reflex

 TRIGEMINAL N, V – sensory & motor jaw, face
 ABDUCENS N, VI – eye movements
 FACIAL N, VII – sensory & motor facial muscles, salivary glands (parasympathetic)
 VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR N, VIII – sensory, hearing, balance
 GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL N, IX – sensory & motor, swallowing, salivation, sense at back of tongue (bitter
taste)
 VAGUS N, X – major parasympathetic outflow to chest and abdomen
 HYPOGLOSSAL N, XII – motor control of the tongue
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Sympathetic system has chain of ganglia near / next to spinal cord
 PREGANGLIONIC neurones from spinal cord to ganglion,
POSTGANGLIONIC from ganglion to target
 Sympathetic neurone merge from spinal cord  Synapse into
ganglion at same level  Other synapse from sympathetic
ganglion
 Sympathetic neurones all arise in spinal cord = Some synapse in
sympathetic ganglion at same level OR Others synapse in
sympathetic ganglion at a different level
CONTROLLING
• A control from cerebral cortex: Cerebrum has
ANS
input onto hypothalamus (low level of conscious
control)  Hypothalamus coordinates input (From
pituitary gland, cerebral cortex, subcortical
primitive structure) to concerted response 
Hypothalamus projects to dorsal brainstem nuclei
 Brainstem neurones travel down the spinal cord
(root of ANS)
Parasympathetic Innervation
• Parasympathetic: Neurones travel to straight to target & Sympathetic: Relay by chain of ganglia
• Parasympathetic & Sympathetic = For complementary actions (increase vs decrease)
• Parasympathetic neurones synapse onto LOCAL GANGLIA or onto POSTGANGLIONIC NEURONES WITHIN
TARGET TISSUE – presynaptic and post synaptic neurone silence taking place in target tissue rather than by
discrete visible ganglion in spinal cord
• Nearly all tissues that get sympathetic innervation also get parasympathetic innervation – most arterioles only
sympathetic
• Most parasympathetic innervation through vagus nerve
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
• PREPARING BODY FOR ACTION: Fight or Flight • Constricts the pupils
• Stimulates adrenal medulla: Release epinephrine and • Allows fall in outflow of CATECHOLAMINES (=
norepinephrine  Release of glucagon and insulin from the hormones, 2 important ones released from medulla are
pancreas  Increase energy release epinephrine and norepinephrine) from the adrenal medulla
• Makes digestive and other vegetative functions quiescent: Not • Increases the peristaltic activity of the gut
needed right now  Go quiet cos don’t want to waste time to • Slows the heart rate
digest food when want to run or fight • Dilates blood vessels of the skin and gut
• Pupils dilate & eyelids retract: More light to retina + Frees eye
movements
NEUROTRANSMIT
•TER
ACETYLCHOLINE acting on muscarinic acetylcholine
• Increases cardiac output: More blood to muscles and brain
receptors
• Blood vessels on skin and gut constrict: Shunt blood to
muscles = For Maximum energy
• Bronchi dilate: Increases oxygenation
NEUROTRANSMIT
• NOR-ADRENALINE acting on α and β adrenoreceptors
TER