Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

MATH 4A - Linear Algebra with Applications

Lecture 4: Parametric vector forms of solution sets

8 April 2019

Reading: §1.5,1.7,1.8 from Lay, 5th ed.

Recommended problems from §1.5: 1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 15, 17, 19, 23,
24, 26-32
Announcements: there was an issue with Problem 14 on HW03, so
I deleted it from the assignment. Also, notetaker???
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Motivation

Today we will continue our formal development from last time by

expressing solution sets of linear systems using vector notation.

First, we will consider a special class of linear systems called

homogeneous systems, and study their solution sets. Second, we
will use what we learned about homogeneous systems to study
nonhomogeneous systems.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Lecture plan
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Lightning review
There are three things that are basically the same:
1 linear systems,
2 matrices (thinking of them as augmented matrices),
3 matrix equations Ax = b (note the matrix A here is the
coefficient matrix of the associated linear system).

We have seen how to solve linear systems using reduced echelon

forms: write down the system’s augmented matrix, put it in
reduced echelon form, then solve for the basic variables in terms of
the free variables.
Today we will use our new vector notation to describe solution sets
(thus tying in bullet point 3 to the previous paragraph). This
vector description (combined with the notion of span) will give us
a better geometric understanding of solution sets. In particular, we
will be able to prove that a solution set is always a hyperplane.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Preliminary observation: Matrix-vector multiplication is

linear in the vector variable

If A is a m × n matrix, u and v are vectors in Rn , and c is a scalar,

then
1 A(u + v) = Au + Av
2 A(cv) = c(Av)

In particular, if Au = 0 and Av = 0, then A(u + v) = 0 too. This

motivates a definition.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Homogeneous systems

A system of linear equations is call homogeneous if it can be

written in the form
Ax = 0.

Every homogeneous linear system is consistent, because there is

always the solution
A0 = 0.
For this reason, we call the solution x = 0 of the homogeneous
linear system Ax = 0 the trivial solution. Any solution x 6= 0 is
called a nontrivial solution.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

When does a homogeneous system have a nontrivial

solution?

Well, we just saw Ax = 0 always has at least one solution—the

trivial one.

Thus, if the system has a nontrivial solution, it has more than one
solution. But what do we know about a linear system with more
than one solution? It must have infinitely many solutions and this
corresponds to the existence of at least one free variable.

Summarizing: the homogeneous system Ax = 0 has a nontrivial

solution if and only if the equation has at least one free variable.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

How should we understand the solution set of a

homogeneous system geometrically?

Let A be an m × n matrix and suppose v1 , v2 , . . . , vp are solutions

to the homogeneous system Ax = 0 (so Avi = 0 for all
i = 1, 2, . . . , p) and let c1 , c2 , . . . , cp be some scalars. Then,
because matrix-vector multiplication is linear:

A(c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cp vp ) = c1 (Av1 ) + c2 (Av2 ) + · · · + cp (Avp )

= c1 0 + c2 0 + · · · + cp 0
=0

Thus, the linear combination c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cp vp is also a

solution to the homogeneous system Ax = 0. In other words, every
vector in Span{v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is also a solution to the
homogeneous system.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

It’s a hyperplane through the origin!

We conclude that the set of all solutions of a homogeneous system

equals its own span. With a little more work, this implies it is a
k-dimensional hyperplane through the origin in Rn for some
0 ≤ k ≤ n.

(Later this quarter, we will determine how to compute the

dimension k in general.)
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Example 1
Let’s describe the solution set of the homogeneous linear system

3x1 + 5x2 − 4x3 = 0

−3x1 + −2x2 + 4x3 = 0
6x1 + x2 − 8x3 = 0

It’s augmented matrix is

 
3 5 −4 0
−3 −2 4 0
6 1 8 0

which can be put in the following reduced echelon form

1 0 − 34 0
 
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

iClicker 1

Does the homogeneous system with reduced echelon form

1 0 − 43 0
 
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0

have nontrivial solutions? Why?

(a) No, because it’s inconsistent
(b) No, because it has no free variables
(c) Yes, because it has a free variable
(d) Yes, because every homogeneous system has solutions
(e) IDK, I need my cofveve
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Example 1 (cont.)

Now solve for basic variables in terms of free variables:


x3 is free

x1 = 43 x3

x2 = 0


(Here’s the new part for today:) As a vector, the general solution
to the equation Ax = 0 has the form
  4  4 4
x1 3 x3 3 3
x = x2  =  0  = x3  0  = x3 v, where v =  0  .
x3 x3 1 1

The set of all such x3 v as the real number x3 varies forms a line in
R3 . The trivial solution when x3 = 0 is the point at the origin,
hence, the line goes through the origin.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Example 2

Consider the homogeneous system

10x1 − 3x2 − 2x3 = 0.

It has augmented matrix

10 −3 −2 0

which has reduced echelon form

1 −.3 −.2 0 .

This has two free variables, hence nontrivial solutions exist.

Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Example 2
Of course, the general solution is of the form
(
x2 , x3 are free
x1 = .3x2 + .2x3
(Here’s the new part for today:) We write this in vector notation as
       
x1 .3x2 + .2x3 .3x2 .2x3
x = x2  =  x2  =  x2  +  0 
x3 x3 0 x3
   
.3 .2
= x2  1  + x3  0  = x2 u + x3 v
0 1
where    
.3 .2
u =  1  and v =  0  .
0 1
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Solution sets in parametric vector form

The previous examples represent the general idea of the

“parametric vector form” of the solution set of a homogeneous
linear system.

To elaborate: if A is a m × n matrix, the homogeneous linear

system Ax = b implicitly defines its solution set, which is a
hyperplane through the origin 0 in Rn . A parametric vector form of
this solution set is an explicit description that consists of a list of
explicit vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vp (with numerical values for their
entries) that span the hyperplane, i.e. the solution set is explicitly
described by the set of all vectors

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cp vp

where the scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cp can each be any real number. (The

ci ’s come from the free variables.)
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Nonhomogeneous linear systems

Any linear system that is not homogeneous is called

nonohomogeneous.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

iClicker 2

Consider the nonhomogeneous linear system Ax = b where b 6= 0.

Suppose u, v and w are three solutions. Which of the following is
also a solution?
(a) u + v
(b) u − v
(c) −u
(d) u + v − w
(e) 0
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Answer: u + v − w

Let’s first see why the other solutions are wrong:

A(u + v) = Au + Av = b + b = 2b 6= b because b 6= 0

A(u − v) = Au − Av = b − b = 0 6= b because b 6= 0
A(−u) = −Au = −b 6= b because b 6= 0
A0 = 0 6= b because b 6= 0
So why is (d) the correct answer?

A(u + v − w) = Au + Av − Aw = b + b − b = b.

As we will see momentarily, this simple equation is responsible for

understanding the solution set of nonhomogeneous systems in
terms of homogeneous systems.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

First question: when does a nonhomogeneous system have

a solution

There’s no good answer to this that we haven’t already given in

previous classes. You just have to row reduce and check if an
echelon form is consistent or not.

In particular, nonhomgeneous systems do not have trivial solutions:

if
A0 = b,
then b = 0 so the system is homogeneous! Thus, the notion of
trivial solution only applies to homogeneous systems.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Second question: assuming a nonhomgeneous system is

consistent, how do we understand its solution set?

Let Ax = b be a nonhomogeneous system (so b 6= 0). The

associated homogeneous system is the homogeneous linear system

Ax = 0.

It turns out the solution set of the nonhomogeneous system is

closely related to the solution set of the homogeneous system, as
we will now explain.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

If Ax = b has a solution, then its solution set is parallel to

the solution set of Ax = 0
On one hand, suppose w is a solution to the equation Aw = b and
let vh be any solution to the associated homogeneous system
Ax = 0. Then

A(w + vh ) = Aw + Avh = b + 0 = b,

so w + vh is again a solution to the nonhomogeneous system

Ax = b.

On the other hand, suppose v and w are two solutions to the

nonhomogeneous system Ax = b. Then

A(v − w) = Av − Aw = b − b = 0,

so v − w is a solution to the associated homogeneous system

Ax = 0.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

More precisely

Theorem
Suppose the equation Ax = b is consistent for some given b, and
let p be any particular solution. Then the solution set of Ax = b is
the set of all vectors of the form u = p + vh , where vh is any
solution of the associated homogeneous equation Ax = 0.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Geometric interpretation

x2

Ax = b

x1

Ax = 0

p is both a Particular solution to the nonhomogeneous system

Ax = b as well as the direction in which we Parallel translate the
solution set of the associated homogeneous system Ax = 0.
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Parallel translation

x2

Ax = b
p + vh
p
vh
x1

Ax = 0
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Note that we can use any choice of p to translate, so long

as p is a solution to the system Ax = b.

x2

Ax = b
p
p + vh

x1

vh
Ax = 0
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

BEWARE!

The last several slides and the previous theorem have all operated
on an important assumption: the nonhomogeneous linear system
Ax = b is consistent.

If this system is inconsistent, then it has no solutions, so this

parallel translation stuff does not apply!
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Example 3

Let    
3 5 −4 7
A = −3 −2 4  and b = −1 .
6 1 8 −4
Let’s describe

the solution set of Ax = b. The augmented matrix is
A b , which has the reduced echelon form

1 0 − 34
 
−1
0 1 0 2
0 0 0 0
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Example 3
Hence, the set of solutions is

x3 is free

x1 = −1 + 43 x3

x2 = 2


In vector form:
−1 + 43 x3
      4
x1 −1 3
x = x2  =  2  =  2  + x3  0  = p + x3 v
x3 x3 0 1

where  4
−1 3
p= 2  and v =  0  .
0 1
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Example 3

You should compare Example 3 to Example 1, because the system

in Example 1 is the associated homogeneous system of Example 3.

The set of solutions to Example 3 is result of translating the

solutions to Example 1 by the vector
 
−1
p= 2 
0
Preliminaries Solution sets of homogeneous linear systems Solution sets of nonhomogeneous linear systems

Summary: writing a solution set of a consistent system in

parametric form

1 Begin with the usual steps:

(a) Use row reduction to put it in reduced echelon form.
(b) Express each basic variable in terms of any free variables
appearing in the equation.
2 Write a typical solution x as a vector whose entries depend on
the free variables, if any.
3 Decompose x into a linear combination of vectors (with
numeric entries) using the free variables as weights.
Note: these instructions don’t care if the system is homogeneous
or not. However, if (for some reason) you’ve already solved the
homogeneous version of a nonhomogeneous system, then all you
need to do is find one solution to the nonhomogeneous system.
Then use the Theorem from above (i.e. you just translate).