Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Putten (2007) found that since 1987 the Dutch primary school children’s
arithmetic skills have been shown to be declining. They are making an increasing
number of mistakes with written addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Son (2005) found that there is a gap between learning goal (intended
curriculum) and problem presented in text books (potentially intended
curriculum).
Lautert and Spinillo (2004), Spinillo and Lautert (2002), Squire (2002),
Correa, Nunes and Bryant (1998), Nunes and Bryant (1996) and Silver
Shapiro and Deutsch (1993) revealed that
(i) Children ignore the reminder or suggested that it be removed from the process
of resolution, in the belief that the remaining elements are not part of divison.
(ii) Children try to distribute the remainder among some of the part or include it in
one of the parts in which the whole has been divided into ; or
cognite processes used by students in dividing fractions and the affects of use of
such process.
Kate and Judy (1998) revealed that students who are encouraged to use
invented strategies for multiplication and division based on number relationships
have a better understanding of the meaning of those operations and more
successful in extending their knowledge proportional reasoning tasks than are
those students who are taught conventional procedures exclusively .
Mulligan and Mitchelmore (1997) found that the students used 3 main
intuitive models: direct counting, repeated addition, and multiplicative operation.
A fourth model, repeated subtraction, only occurred in division problems. Results
showed that children acquire an expanding repertoire of intuitive models and that
the model they employ to solve any particular problem reflects the mathematical
structure they impose on it.
Subramanian and Singh (1996) found that the students committed six
types of mistakes in addition, eight types of mistakes in multiplication and six
types of mistakes in division. It was found that the poor concept of carrying over,
poor concept of zero, poor concept of multiplication, introvert behaviour and lack
of writing skills etc were observed as possible cause of mistakes committed by
the students.
23
Dash (1996) found that the remedial intervention in solving different types
of problems on multiplication and division was more effective, the average
performance of children after remedial instruction was significantly higher than
the same before the instruction.
Silver and Mary Lee (1994) concluded that although, some aspects of
division, such as its connection to different types of problem, its relationship to
multiplication, were fairly well understood by most of the subject in the study,
limited or flawed understanding was also noted in many different areas.
Graeber and Tirosh (1990) indicated that students of fourth and fifth
graders hold the misconceptions such as ‘multiplication always makes bigger’.
Tirosh and Graeber (1989) argued that one of the misconception that a
majority of pre-service teachers appear to hold explicitly is that in division the
quotient must be less than the dividend.
Carpenter et al. (1988); and Hart (1981) argued that children’s success
rates on various task related to such division are usually very low.
Fendel (1987) and Payne (1976) opined that Division of fraction is often
considered the most mechanical and least understood topic in elementary school.
24
Greer and Magan (1986) and Graeber, Tirosh and Glover (1989)
indicated that a substantial portion of preservice teachers have difficulty in
selecting the operation needed to solve multiplication and division problem
involving decimals.
Silver (1986) revealed that only about 35% of the sixth graders in
California was able to answer correctly to a division problem appeared on the
1983 version of the California Assessment Programme (CAP)
Bigalke, and Haseman (1978) and Padbery (1978) argued that for the
arithmetic of fractions there exists many ruels and these are more complicated
than those for natural numbers. If these rules are introduced too early, there is a
danger of their being used mechanically and without thought.
Grouws and Good (1976) suggested that the factors associated with third
and fourth grade children’s performance in solving multiplication and Division
sentences are place holder position and other aspects of sentence writing.
Yang and Li (2008) indicated that 3rd grades in Taiwan did not perform
well on each of the five number sense components and they appeared worst on
the performance of ‘Judging the reasonableness of computational results.’
Blanco and Garrote (2007) concluded that students find two types of
difficulty in dealing with inequalities. On the one hand, arithmetic is still the
fundamental referent for those students who make errors in the algebraic
procedures and, on the other, the absence of meaning is the underlying cause of
the failure to understand the concepts and the algebraic process.
individualized work with children who are falling behind in arithmetic has a
significant impact on their performance.
Dowker (2004) found out some children could remember many number
facts, but seemed to lack strategies (including suitable counting strategies) for
working out sums when they did not know the answer and some other children
could deal with single-digit arithmetic but had serious difficulty in achieving even
limited understanding of tens, units and place value.
Stewart et al. (2003) have developed strategies for dealing with classes
that include a significant number of children with mathematical difficulties and
techniques that she has used include multi-sensory teaching of mathematics,
involving motor activities.
Koy and Yeo (2003), Miles and Miles (1992), Chinn and Ashcroft (1998)
and Yeo (2003) pointed out that most dyslexic pupils have difficulty with long-
term memory for facts, working memory difficulties, sequencing difficulties and
difficulties with language, including mathematical language.
Jordan, Hanich and Kaplan (2003) concluded that the children with poor
fact mastery showed little improvement on timed number fact test in over a year,
but showed normal progress in other aspects of mathematics.
Kroes Bergen and Van Luit (2002) reported that both the math
intervention, guided versus structured instruction, improved more than the
students of the regular instruction and guided instruction appeared to be more
effective for low performing students than structured instruction and especially
for those students in regular education.
Yeo (2001) reported that while many dyslexic children have difficulties
only with those aspects of arithmetic that involves verbal memory, some dyslexic
children have more fundamental difficulties with ‘number sense’.
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Mukherjee (2001) argued that failure to take into account the children’s
intuitive, informally learned pre-school mathematics. Knowledge is likely to result
in confusion and fear in learning mathematics.
Potari and Georgiadu (2000) revealed that a mathematical task that was
considered by an adult as easy, could also be easily understood by children and
children learn mathematics through their actual involvement in variety of teaching
activities.
Jordan and Hanich (2000) found out that children with MD/RD
(Difficulties in both reading and mathematics) performed worse than NA (normal
achievement) children on all aspects of mathematics; those with MD performed
worse than NA children only on story problems.
Fei (2000), Russell and Ginsburg (1984), Siegler (1988), Geary and
Brown (1991), Ostad (1997) and Cumming and Elkins (1999) showed children
with mathematical difficulties to be more consistently weak at retrieving
arithmetical from memory than at other aspects at arithmetic.
Paria (1999) found that the main errors identified were conceptual and
computational difficulty in selected topics.
Jordan and her colleagues and Geary et al. (1999) suggested that
children with combined mathematical and reading disabilities tend to perform
badly on more aspects of mathematics than children who only have mathematical
difficulties.
Ash Craft and Hopko (1998), Fennema (1989) and Hembree (1990)
opined that many people develop anxiety about mathematics, which can be
distressing problem itself and also inhibits further progress in the subject. This is
rare in young children and become more common in adolescence.
Macaruso and Sokol (1998) found that the arithmetical difficulties were
very heterogeneous, and that factual, procedural and conceptual difficulties were
all represented.
28
Grauberg (1998) noted that pupils with language difficulties tend to have
difficulties in particular with (i) symbolic understanding (ii) organization (iii)
memory and in addition, language difficulties will directly affect the child’s
ability to benefit from oral or written instruction and to understand the language
of mathematics.
Pal et al. (1997) were found that most of the errors committed by primary
school students were due to a process of dualism.
Jordan and Montani (1997) opined that if there are differences between
specific and non-specific mathematical difficulties, they are probably in the
direction of specific difficulties being milder and less pervasive than non-specific
ones.
Fazio (1994) argued that the children with spoken languages and
communication difficulties usually have some weakness in arithmetic, but once
again some components tend to be affected much more than others
Sinha (1993) found out that the angular method was more effective than
traditional method in improving VI class students. Skill in simple addition and it
also was helpful in developing favorable attitudes towards learning mathematics.
Temple (1991) reported that one child who could carry out arithmetical
calculation procedures correctly but could not remember number facts and another
child who could remember the facts but not carryout the procedures.
Russell and Ginsburg (1984) found that the difficulties with word
problem solving, as well as with memory for facts of 9 year old children who were
described by their teachers as weak at arithmetic.
Hart (1981) and her team revealed that secondary school pupils have
many difficulties, both procedural and conceptual, with many mathematical
topics, including ratio and proportion; fraction and decimals; algebra and
problems involving area and volume.
(iii) some children appeared to have very limited understanding at first sight, but
still had a good understanding of counting techniques and principles.
Griffin and Jitendra (2008) concluded that both SBI (Scheme Based
Instruction) and GSI (general strategy instruction) improved word problem-
solving and computational skills.
Xinma (2005) indicated that age was critically important for fast growth
in mathematics achievement.
Son (2005) found that there is a gap between learning good (intended
curriculum) and problems presented in textbooks (potentially intended
curriculum) of mathematics.
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Arbaugh and Brown (2005) indicated that the high school mathematics
teachers showed growth in the way that they consider tasks and that some of the
teachers changed their pattern of task choice.
Muijs and Reynolds (2003) examined the effects of the use of learning
support assistants and results did not provide much support for he use of
classroom support assistants as a way of improving the achievement of low
achieving students, or as a means of increasing child-adult contact without
employing more teachers, and it would seem ill-advised to seek to solve teacher
shortage by replacing them with an army of learning assistants.
Baxter et al. (2001) suggested that both the organizations and task
demands of the reform classrooms presented verbal and social challenges to low
achievers that need to be addressed if those students are to benefit from reform-
based mathematics instruction.
King (1999) exposed that class size has an impact on the use of class
time, both instructional and non-instructional .
Fuchs et al. (1997) argued TFG (task focused goal treatment) students
were enjoying and benefitting from TFG, chose more challenging and a greater
variety of learning topics, and increased their effort differently.
Patel (1996) argued that the lesson idea programme in mathematics could
influence the affective behaviour of the experimental group, while it did not have
significant impact upon the behaviour of boys and girls.
Kumar (1996) concluded that less than 20% of the teachers held
positive attitude towards mathematics.
Goel (1996) found that the total no. of errors committed by children in
different grades (Class I to IV) varied significantly.
32
Confrey and Scarano (1995) showed that 10 and 11 years old exceeded
the comparative performance of 14 and 15 years old on ratio and proportion test
items.
Athappilly et al. (1983) concluded that there have not been many
detrimental effects of ‘new mathematics’ either on achievement or on attitude.
Kumar and Sini (2008) showed that brain compatible learning is more
effective than the existing method of teaching.
Chiou (2008) revealed that (i) adopting a concept mapping strategy can
significantly improve students’ learning achievement compared to using a
traditional expository teaching method and (ii) most of the students were satisfied
with using concept mapping in an advanced accounting course.
Mary and Raj (2007) found that the concept mapping method and
traditional lecture method did not make any qualitative difference.
Wolgemuth and Leech (2006) showed that FDK (Full day Kindergarten)
students demonstrated significantly higher achievements on mathematics and
reading. At the end of kindergarten than did their HDK (Half-day kindergarten)
counterparts, but that advantage disappeared quickly by the end of first grade.
Sungur and Thekkaya (2006) revealed that PBL (problem based learning)
students had higher levels of intrinsic goal orientation, task value, use of
elaboration learning strategies, critical thinking, meta cognitive self-regulation,
effort regulation, and peer learning compared with control-group students.
Isiksal and Askar (2005) concluded that the Autograph group had
significantly greater mean scores than the Traditional group, while no significant
mean difference was found between the Autograph and Excels groups, and
between the Excel and Traditional groups with respect to mathematics self-
efficacy.
35
Sahlberg and Berry (2002) concluded that there is no unanimity about the
effects of small group learning on student achievement in school mathematics; it
36
seems that it produces at least equal academic outcomes among all students
compared to more traditional methods of instruction.
Fuchs et al. (1997) indicated that irrespective of type of measure and type
of learner, students in peer tutoring classrooms demonstrated greater reading
progress.
Reddy and Ramar (1995) proved that the multimedia modular approach
did help the poor achievers in doing better in mathematics.
improve their relative class standing by the end of the retained year and in some
cases they maintain this advantage over a 2-year period. However, after 3 years
there are no differences between retained and promoted students.
Sqrensen and Hallinan (1986) showed that (a) ability grouping provided
fewer opportunities for learning than whole class instruction but greater utilization
of these opportunities (b) high ability groups provide more opportunities than low
group.
Kallison (1986) indicated no significant effect for sequence and the study
yielded a significant effect for explicit organization.
Coladarci and Gage (1984) indicated that the intervention did not effect
significant change in training –related teaching practices or end-of year student
achievement.
Sharpley et al. (1983) revealed that the fifth and sixth grade tutors
effectively increased the operational mathematics achievements of their tutees, the
increase in tutors’ and tutees mathematics achievements being significantly
greater than those of the control children.
39
Saracho (1982) argued that students who used CAI (Computer Assisted
Instruction) programme had greater achievement gains than did students who
participated in the regular classroom programme.
Sefkow and Myers (1980) suggested that the backward review effect
cannot be attributed solely, or even substantially, to a cueing or retrieval
phenomena but rather to a strengthening or integration of the memory traces at the
time of the probe.
Wilmut (1973) shown that attitudes have some effect in determining the
outcome of the project and that in a few cases the project affects the attitudes held
by the pupil.
40
(i) Since 1987 the Dutch primary school children’s arithmetic skills have
been shown to be declining.
(iii) In some classrooms, the formal teaching of the ‘division’ concept and
algorithm is based on memorized rules.
(v) Children try to distribute the remainder among some of the part or
include it in one of the parts in which the whole has been divided into.
(vi) Increase in the use of the standard algorithm of division led to many
errors
(vii) The students committed six types of mistakes in addition, eight types
of mistakes in multiplication and six types of mistakes in division.
As per the reflections of the studies cited above and as per the review of all
the other studies mentioned above the researcher planned to carry out this study
on “Developing a Strategy for Syncopating Mathematical Skills Among Primary
School Students” to see whether the new strategy developed by the researcher
significantly enhances the division skills of students in Mathematics.