Professional Documents
Culture Documents
USA History Ebook PDF
USA History Ebook PDF
HISTORY
OF
USA
Good Luck.
Aamir Mahar
www.facebook.com/Central.Superior.Services123
B) Current Scenario
Presidents of America
1. George Washington 23. Benjamin Harrison
2. John Adams 24. Grover Cleveland
3. Thomas Jefferson 25. William McKinley
4. James Madison 26. Theodore Roosevelt
5. James Monroe 27. William Howard Taft
6. John Quincy Adams 28. Woodrow Wilson
7. Andrew Jackson 29. Warren G. Harding
8. Martin Van Buren 30. Calvin Coolidge
9. William Henry Harrison 31. Herbert Hoover
10. John Tyler 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt
11. James K. Polk 33. Harry S. Truman
12. Zachary Taylor 34. Dwight D. Eisenhower
13. Millard Fillmore 35. John F. Kennedy
14. Franklin Pierce 36. Lyndon B. Johnson
15. James Buchanan 37. Richard M. Nixon
16. Abraham Lincoln 38. Gerald R. Ford
17. Andrew Johnson 39. James Carter
18. Ulysses S. Grant 40. Ronald Reagan
19. Rutherford B. Hayes 41. George H. W. Bush
20. James Garfield 42. William J. Clinton
21. Chester A. Arthur 43. George W. Bush
22. Grover Cleveland 44. Barrack Obama
THOMAS JEFFERSON
1. Thomas Jefferson described his election to the American Presidency in 1800 as
“the Second American Revolution”. Was the claim justified? Support your answer
with evidence. (2001)
2. Discuss Jefferson's decision to purchase the Louisiana Territory, and explain the
political and economic impact of this decision on the United States. (2004)
3. Thomas Jefferson was termed “a bull in the china closet” by the Federalists when
he became the President of the United States of America but his policies and
performance negated this impression. Discuss. (2009)
4. In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian democracy differ
from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? (2011)
5. Discuss Thomas Jefferson as president, politician and political theorist. (2013)
6. In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of Jackosnian democracy differ
from those of Jeffersonian? (2015)
MONROE DOCTRINE
1. Monroe Doctrine was a Charter of America’s Isolation. Still what circumstances
compelled U.S.A. to plunge into the World Wars. (2000)
2. What is Monroe Doctrine? On what occasions has it been enforced and with what
results? (2005)
3. Note: The Monroe Doctrine (2001-07)
ANDREW JACKSON
1. In what way did the philosophy and purpose of Jacksonian democracy differ from
those of the Jeffersonian democrats? (2002)
2. What are the Salient features of Andrew Jackson's Presidency and Democracy?
(2004)
3. “President Andrew Jackson was a people’s president.” Discuss. (2006)
RONALD REAGAN
1. What economic problems were faced by Ronald Reagan and how his
government dealt with economic problems? (2016)
ABRAHAM LINCOLN
1. Evaluate the Presidency of the Abraham Lincoln. (2001)
WOODROW WILSON
2. Note: Woodrow Wilson (2001)
3. Note: Wilson’s Fourteen Points (2002)
4. Woodrow Wilson had said, "We had a chance to gain the leadership for the world.
We have lost it, and soon we shall be witnessing the tragedy of it all". Comment
upon America's attitude towards Treaty of Versailles. (2004)
5. Assess the contributions of President Woodrow Wilson to the problem of world
peace and security. (2005)
6. President Woodrow Wilson said in 1917, “The world must be made safe for
democracy. Its peace must be planted upon tested foundations of political liberty.
We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion …” Discuss
what your consider to be the main reason for the United States entry into World War
I. Give reasons for your choice. (2007)
7. What were the tribulations of the USA president Woodrow Wilson in the post
WW I era to convince the other three associates to his own point of view? (2012)
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
1. Evaluate the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. (2002)
2. Note: President F D Roosevelt. (2004 - 06)
DWIGHT EISENHOWER
1. Note: Eisenhower Doctrine (2000) (2016)
RICHARD NIXON
1. Critically evaluate Richard Nixon's accomplishments and failures during his
presidency. (2012)
2. Richard Nixon had many accomplishments as well as failures as the President of
US. Critically evaluate. (2014)
AMERICAN REVOLUTION
1. The American Revolution was the child of Enlightenment. Comment.
(2003)(2016)
2. Some American historians insist that the American Revolution was a social
upheaval as well as a political revolt. Discuss the social and economic results of the
Revolutionary years. (2005)
3. Some American historians insist that the American Revolution was a social
upheaval as well as a political revolt. Discuss the social and economic results of the
Revolutionary Years. (2011)
US CONSTITUTION
1. The American Constitution is a system of “Checks and Balances”. Discuss. (2001)
2. Describe the salient features of the constitution of USA. (2006)
3. Give the salient features of the Constitution of the USA. (2008)
4. What were the major flaws in the Articles of Confederation (the first constitution
of the United States of America) that led to the Philadelphia Convention and the
drafting of a new constitution? Discuss the salient features of the present constitution
of the United States of America. (2009)
5. The American Constitution is a system of “checks and balances.” Discuss. (2010)
WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
1. “The American War of Independence was a revolt against Mercantilism.” Discuss.
(2006)
2. Describe the reasons that lead to the war of Independence. What part did the
dislike of mercantilism play in this war? (2008)
3. Discuss the factors that led to the war of American Independence. Also analyze
the reasons for the growing popularity of Independence. (2010)
4. The American first war with the Britain made them independent; the second made
them a formidable power. Discuss. (2012)
5. The Declaration of Independence 1776 actually shapes the way Americans live
their lives. Discuss. (2014)
SLAVERY ISSUE
1. Critically examine the significance of the issue of Slavery in American history.
(2001)
2. One of the bitterest fruits of westward expansion was the intensification of the
slavery controversy. Do you agree with this statement? Support your answer with
specific incidents. (2002)
3. Note: Issue of Slavery in America. (2004) (2006)
USA History by Aamir Mahar 12
4. Compare and contrast the views of each of the following towards the institution of
slavery in the United States. Charles Summer, Stephen A. Douglas, Abraham
Lincoln. (2005)
COLD WAR
1. Note: Cold War (2000) (2006)
FOREIGN POLICY
2. Discuss, ‘War against Terror’ as an instrument of US foreign policy. (2002)
3. Highlight salient aspects of American foreign policy since World War II. (2005)
4. Discuss briefly the USA relations with Pakistan from the earliest time. (2006)
5. How do you think the foreign Policy of USA concerning Europe and Japan
between the two world wars can be held responsible for the World War II? (2006)
6. How has the American foreign policy strategy been altered by America’s war on
terror? How has this influenced American relation with Pakistan? (2008)
7. The U.S. foreign policy in the light of 9/11 and the War on Terror (2009)
8. Write comprehensively on the American Foreign Policy towards Pakistan in the
light of 9/11 and War on Terror. (2010)
9. Discuss American foreign policy towards Afghanistan since 9/11 and her exit
strategy. (2011)
MARSHAL PLAN
1. ‘The United States would do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of
normal economic health in the world, without which there can be no political
stability and no assured peace.’ Discuss in the light of Marshall Plan. (2002)
2. Note: The Truman Doctrine and the Marshal Plan (2009)
WAR OF 1812
1. Note: War with England 1812 (2005)
2. What developments lead to the war of 1812? How did the war increase American
prestige? (2008)
3. The American first war with the Britain made them independent; the second made
them a formidable power. Discuss. (2012)
BUSH DOCTRINE
USA History by Aamir Mahar 13
1. The Bush Doctrine is the name given to a set of foreign policy guidelines first
unveiled by President George Bush in his commencement speech to the
graduating class of West Point given on June 1, 2002. Explain with arguments.
(2007) (2016)
2. Note: The Bush doctrine (2008)
COLONIAL PERIOD
1. Describe in detail the colonial period in the history of United States of America.
(2008)
2. Account for America's emergence as an imperialist -colonialist power after 1898.
(2004)
3. Explain the characteristics of Colonial assemblies and representative government
from 1776 to 1789. (2004)
4. Why England failed to take the initiative in the colonization of the American
continent? What factors were responsible for the British interest in establishing their
colonies in the areas that are now part of the United States of America? (2009)
5. Discuss the conditions that led Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and
New Haven Colonies to form New England Confederation in 1643. (2014)
WESTWARD EXPANSION
1. Since the Declaration of Independence Westward expansion is a story of
annexations cessions and purchases. Elaborate. (2002)
2. Since the Declaration of Independence, the Westward expansion was a story of
annexations, concession and purchases. Discuss. (2015)
FEDERALIST
1. Who were FEDERALISTS? What were their political views and economic vision
for the US? (2003)
2. Write comprehensively about the struggle between the Federalists and anti-
Federalists from 1787 to 1800 in the USA. (2006)
3. Discuss the struggle between the Federalists and anti-Federalists in America
(1787-1800). What were their respective political and economic ideas? (2010)
4. Discuss the trends and causes leading to the expansion of federal government's
power in the U.S. (2015)
GREAT DEPRESSION
1. Note: The great depression 1929 (2006)
2. Discuss in the details the causes and effects of the Great Depression on the
people and society of the United States of America. (2009) (2016)
PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT
1. Discuss the progress of the Progressive Movement in the United States between
1900 -1916. (2001)
USA History by Aamir Mahar 14
2. Note: Progressive Movement. (2004)
WATERGATE SCANDAL
1. What do you know about the Water Gate Scandal? What lesson the American
national had learnt from it? (2010)
US AS A MELTING POT
2. Americans are called ‘a Nation of Nations’ very briefly describe the different
waves of immigrants that came to the US. Has America been a ‘melting pot’ or a
‘mixing bowl’? (2003)
3. Discuss evolution of Muslim Community in the US. (2011)
US INVASION OF IRAQ
1. Evaluate the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. How far the American policymakers
remained successful in achieving their goals? (2015)
OBAMA’S ADMINISTRATION
1. Discuss US financial crises and Obama policy to put the house in order. (2011)
2. The US President can quite literally be called the President of the world. Examine
this statement in the light of the events of late 20th and early 21st centuries. (2014)
21st CENTURY
USA History by Aamir Mahar 15
1. Will the 21st century as well be an American century or will the USA be obscured
by new superpowers like China or the EU? (2012)
2. The US President can quite literally be called the President of the world. Examine
this statement in the light of the events of late 20th and early 21st centuries. (2014)
US FINANCIAL SYSTEM
1. What are the sources of government Revenues and Funds in U.S.A.? Is it true to
say that the Americans pay taxes for civilized society? (2000)
2. Trace out the grounds of augmentation of the US financial system in the post WW
II epoch. (2012)
3. What are the Sources of Revenues and Funds of Government in the U.S.? Is it true
to say that the Americans pay taxes for civic facilities? (2015)
MISCELLANEOUS
1. Describe Pan-Americanism with special reference to Latin American Republics.
(2000)
2. Evaluate briefly America’s political and military involvement in Iraq since Iran-
Iraq War. (2001)
3. Between 1877 and 1900 the American Society was transformed from being
agrarian and rural to being industrial and urban. What factors and forces helped to
bring about this change? (2003)
4. After World War-II the dominant focus of the U.S. policy had been anti-
Communism on global scale. Discuss. (2004)
5. What do you understand by ‘Manifest Destiny’? What fruits it bore in the shape of
expansion of United States? (2005)
6. Discuss the internal and external factors that led the U.S on an imperialist path at
the end of the 19th century. (2013)
7. Compare the Lockean philosophy with the American Political thought. (2015)
8. How urban life was affected in USA during two stages of Industrialization?
(2016)
SHORT NOTES
1. Note: Dollar Diplomacy (2000) (2016)
2. Note: U-2 Incident (2000) (2016)
3. Note: Waterloo Scandal (2001)
4. Note: Missouri Compromise 1820 (2002)
5. Note: New World Order (2002)
6. Note: POPULSM of the 1890s. (2003)
7. Note: The Jazz Age. (2003)
8. Note: McCarthyism (2003)
9. Note: Watergate Scandal. (2004), (2009)
10. Note: Compromise of 1850 (2005)
11. Note: Jay’s Treaty (2005)
USA History by Aamir Mahar 16
12. Note: NATO (2005)
13. Note: The Declaration of Independence(2007)
14. Note: Navigation Act of 1660(2007)
15. Note: The Scandals and controversies involving President William Jefferson
Bill Clinton (2009)
16. Note: George Washington (2010)
17. Note: The issue of slavery (2010)
18. Note: The Great Depression (2010)
19. Note: U.Z Incident (2010)
20. Note: The Atlantic Charter. (2011)
21. Note: The Monroe Doctrine (2011)
22. Note: War of 1812 (2011)
23. Note: Malcolm-X (2011)
24. Note: the beginning and the end of the cold war (2012)
25. Note: what was the Dulles Doctrine? (2012)
26. Note: the Japanese American internment (2012)
27. Note: the modern feminism in the USA (2012)
28. Note: Benjamin Franklin (2013)
29. Note: Marbury vs Madison (2013)
30. Note: Korean war (2013)
31. Note: Watergate scandal (2013)
32. Note: George Washington (2014)
33. Note: Desert Storm (2014)
34. Note: Tammany Hall (2014)
35. Note: Federal Securities (2015)
36. Note: Natural Aristocracy of Thomas Jefferson (2015)
37. Note: Monroe Doctrine (2015)
1821 Andrew Jackson's successes in Indian wars bring Florida to the United States
1821 First U.S. cathedral is consecrated in Baltimore
1821 Missouri becomes a state (after Missouri Compromise on slavery is reached)
1822 Santa Fe Trail blazed
1824 First great annual fur "rendezvous" held in West
1824 Dr. John McLoughlin establishes Fort Vancouver, Washington
1825 Mexico takes control in California
1827 First American, Jedediah Smith, struggles overland to California
1827 Mechanics Union of Trade Association formed, in Philadelphia
1828 America's first passenger railroad, which is horse-drawn, begins operation
1828 Gold discovered in northern Georgia
1830 Country's first railroad built for a steam engine begins operation in South
Carolina
1832 Black Hawk War pushes Indians west
1832 Henry R. Schoolcraft discovers source of Mississippi River: Lake Itasca, in
Minnesota
1834 Indian Territory established in present day Oklahoma
1834 Cyrus McCormic invents reaper, revolutionizing agriculture
1835 Fire destroys 600 New York City buildings
1836 Texans besieged by Mexican troops at the Alamo
1836 Seminole War begins in Florida, as Indians protest forced removal
1975 - Ella T. Grasso of Connecticut becomes first woman elected governer without
family ties
1976 - Bicentennial recognized with extensive national celebrations
1976 - Agreement makes Mariana Islands a U.S. commonwealth
1976 - Legionnaire's disease identified
1977 - First landing of Concorde SST in United States
1977 - Singer Elvis Presley dies
1977 - Trans-Alaska pipeline opens
1978 - Hannah Gray becomes president of University of Chicago, first woman to
head a major U.S. university
1979 - Three Mile Island nuclear power plant malfunctions in Pennsylvania
1980 - Ronald Reagan is elected president
1980 - First woman graduates from U.S. Military Academy at West Point
USA History by Aamir Mahar 28
1980 - Mt. St. Helens erupts in Washington; ash covers 120 square miles
1980 - Former Beatle John Lennon is shot and killed
1981 - Iran releases 52 Americans held hostage for 444 days
1981 - Reagan is shot and wounded
1981 - First space shuttle is launched
1981 - Sandra Day O'Connor is sworn in as first woman on the Supreme Court
1983 - Bomb destroys U.S. Marine headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 241
service persons
1983 - Sally Ride is first U.S. woman in space
1986 - Space shuttle Challanger explodes; six astronauts and teacher Christa
McAuliffe killed
1986 - Congressional hearings begin into Iran / Contra affair
1989 - U.S. forces invade Panama, overthrow Manuel Noriega
1989 - Largest oil spill in U.S. history at Prince William Sound, Alaska
1989 - L. Douglas Wilder of Virginia is first African-American elected governor of a
U.S. state since Reconstruction
1990 - U.S. forces reach Persian Gulf to defend area against Iraq
COLONIZATION
1607 Virginia 1620 to 30 Massachusetts
1622 New Hampshire
1626 New York
1632 Mary Land
1636 Rhodes Island
1636 Connecticut
1638 Delaware
1663 North Carolina
1663 South Carolina
1664 New Jersey
1681 Pennsylvania
1732 Georgia
MERCANTILISM
1651 Navigation Act
1660 Enumerated Act
1663 Staple Act
1673 Duty Act
1696 Enforcement Act
1733 Molasses Act
1764 Sugar Act
WAR OF INDEPENDANCE
Intolerable Act
1730-40 Great Awakening
1730-40 Albany Congress
1754-63 French Indian War
1763 Royal Proclamation
2nd Mar 1770 Boston Massacre
1773 Boston Tea Party
1774 1st Continental Conference
1775 2nd Continental Conference
4th July 1776 Declaration of Independence
1776 Common Sense
3rd Sep 1783 Treaty of Paris
GEORGES WASHINGTON
USA History by Aamir Mahar 30
May 1787 CONSTITUTION MAKING OF AMERICA
22nd Feb, 1732 Birth of Washington
1789-1801 Federalist Regime
1789-1797 George Washington‘s Presidency
1789 Judiciary Act
1791 Bill of Rights
1791 Excise Act
1791 Whisky Rebellions
1793 Genet Mission
1794 Jay’s Treaty
1794 Pinckney Treaty
THOMAS JEFFERSON
13th April 1743 Birth of Jefferson
1800 Louisiana Purchase
1801-1809 Presidency
ANDREW JACKSON
15th Mar, 1768 Birth of Jackson
DETAILED NOTES
Table of Content
1) Early America
2) Exploration of America
3) Colonization in the New Continent
4) Road to Independence
5) Mercantilism
6) Other Causes of War of Independence
7) Problems in Formation of National Government
8) Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist
USA History by Aamir Mahar 31
9) Constitution of United States of America
10) The Amendment Process
11) Salient Features of the American Constitution
12) Amendments in American Constitution
13) System of Check and Balance in American Constitution
14) George Washington (1789-1801)
15) Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)
16) The Louisiana Purchase
17) War of 1812
18) Missouri Compromise (1820)
19) Monroe Doctrine (1823)
20) Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)
21) Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865)
22) Civil War
23) Progressivism (1890-1920)
24) Woodrow Wilson (1914-1919)
25) America and World War I
26) Causes of American entry to World War I
27) 14 Points of Woodrow Wilson
28) Great Depression (1930)
29) Effects of the Great Depression Facts
30) Great Depression Facts
31) Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1932-1945)
32) The New Deal
33) New Deal Initiative
34) Government Expenditures
35) America and World War II
36) John F Kennedy (1961-1963)
37) Richard Nixon (1969-1974)
38) Nixon Watergate Scandal
39) Slavery in America
Early America
At the height of the most recent Ice Age, about 35,000 years ago, much of
the world‘s water was locked up in vast continental ice sheets. A land
bridge as much as 1,500 km wide connected Asia and North America. By
12,000 years ago, humans were living throughout much of the Western
Hemisphere. The first Americans crossed the land bridge from Asia and
were believed to have stayed in what is now Alaska for thousands of years.
They then moved south into the land that was to become the United States.
They settled along the Pacific Ocean in the Northwest, in the mountains
Others chiefly British, Dutch, French, and Spanish came later to claim the
lands and riches of what they called the ―New World.
Exploration of America
Europe towards Exploration of the New Land
Until the 15th century nobody knew that there was a continent across the
Atlantic. The first and most famous of these explorers was Christopher
Columbus whose voyage of exploration finally brought the Americans and
Europeans in contact. Columbus was born in 1447 in Genoa, Italy; he was
a son of a wool comber. He spent eight years seeking to be financed for his
trip to explore the Indies across Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus, a
Genoese sailor, believed that sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean was the
shortest sea route to Asia. Ignorant of the fact that the Western Hemisphere
USA History by Aamir Mahar 33
lay between Europe and Asia and assuming the earth's circumference to be
a third less than it actually is, he was convinced that Japan would appear
on the horizon just three thousand miles to the west. Like other seafarers of
his day.
Columbus was ready to sail for whatever country would pay for his voyage.
Either because of his arrogance (he wanted ships and crews to be provided
at no expense to himself) or ambition (he insisted on governing the lands he
discovered), he found it difficult to find a patron. He was twice rejected by
Portuguese, and the rulers of England and France were not interested. With
influential supporters at court, Columbus convinced King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella of Spain to partially underwrite his expedition. In 1492,
Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula, had fallen to
the forces of the Spanish monarchs.
Voyages of Columbus
o 1st voyage, 1492: San Salvador, The Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola
o 2nd voyage, 1493: Dominica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica
o 3rd voyage, 1498: St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Margarita, Venezuela
o 4th voyage, 1502: St. Lucia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama
Once Columbus landed in America he discovered that there were
already civilizations living in America. He named the Native of America as
Red Indians, thinking that he had landed in India and those peoples are
Indian.
Native Americans
Before Europeans there were four civilizations living in America and they
were
o Red Indians
o Mayas
o Aztecs
o Incas
John Cabot
John Cabot of Venice came five years later on a mission for the king of
England. His journey was quickly forgotten, but it provided the basis for
British claims to North America.
Name of America
After the death of Columbus in 1506, Amerigo Vespucci, another Italian
navigator, sailed extensively along the American coast and is considered to
be the first to realize that the Indies were in fact a ―New World‖ and not
part of Asia. The first map that identified known parts of the Western
Hemisphere as ―America, after Vespucci, was published in 1507.
Colonial Period
Most settlers who came to the British colonies in the 1600s were English.
Others came from The Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, France, and later
from Scotland and Northern Ireland. Some left their homelands to escape
war, political oppression, religious persecution, or a prison sentence. Some
left as servants who expected to work their way to freedom. Black Africans
were sold into slavery and arrived in shackles.
By 1690, the population was 250,000. Less than 100 years later, it had
climbed to 2.5 million. The settlers had many different reasons for coming
to America, and eventually 13 distinct colonies developed here. Differences
among the three regional groupings of colonies were even more marked.
Causes of Colonization
1. Improvement in Technology: In Europe, there occurred a rebirth of
classical learning. Columbus and other navigators lived in the time
when the creativity was vitally at the peak and navigator and mariners
were being financed to find out the shortest and safest routes to Asia.
Europeans were improving in technology from gun powder to the
sailing compass. There were also major improvements in ship
building and map makings.
Role of Blacks
The blacks were the slaves of British master and they were also the once
who were suffering from the hands of British. George Washington asked for
their help in war and promised them to be freed after the victory.
Approximately 5000 black supported America in the war.
Mercantilism
Mercantilism is economic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy
and powerful state. Adam smith coined the term "Mercantile system" to
describe the system of political economy that enriched the country by
restraining imports and encouraging exports. The goal was to achieve a
"favorable" balance of trade that would bring gold and silver into the
country, and maintain domestic employment.
Problems in Formation
USA History by Aamir Mahar 43
of
National Government
a) No Constitution
b) No common currency;
c) No national military force;
d) Little centralized control over foreign policy
e) No national system for imposing and collecting taxes.
f) Differences between Federalist and Anti-federalist.
g) Foreign Policy
h) Economic Weakness
i) Slavery
j) Powers and election of president
Anti-Federalist
1. Strong States
2. Equal Representation
3. In favor of Bill of Rights
4. Opposed Constitution because wanted more powers for state.
5. Equal distribution of wealth
Article of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation was unanimously adopted in 1781 once
Maryland agreed. Over the previous four years, it had been used by
Congress as a ―working document‖ to administer the early United States
government.
The Delegation
The delegation of 55 men met in Philadelphia headed by George
Washington. Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Dickenson
and James Madison (father of American Constitution) were the other well
known politicians in the delegation of 55 men. Where as John Jay, Tomas
Jefferson, John Adams and Thomas Paine were on a diplomatic business
trip abroad therefore they were not the part of delegation.
Connecticut Compromise
Connecticut compromise was composed by William Samuel Johnson which
allowed both plans to work together. It suggested that there should be two
houses of congress
1. House of Representative (Representation on population)
2. Senate (Equal Representation)
The compromise suggested representation on the basis of population in
―House of Representative‖ and equal representation in Senate with 2
Senators from each state. Even the Connecticut compromise was not
sufficient enough to bring constitution in working form as 9/13 states had
to ratify it. But the small farmers, New York and Virginia were not happy
with the idea until the Bill of Rights was added to the constitution.
Bill of Rights
Bill of Rights were the 1st ten amendments in the American constitution
granting rights to the ordinary people of America. Following are the
amendments if the bill:
1. Freedom of religions, speech, assembly, press and petition
USA History by Aamir Mahar 46
2. Right to possess arms
3. No quartering of soldiers during peacetime
4. No search and seizure of people‘s property
5. No criminal case to stand twice for same crime
6. Speedy trail of cases
7. Right to jury in case of 20 dollars and above
8. No excessive bails and cruel punishments
9. Rights not mentioned in constitution lies with peoples
10. Powers not mentioned in constitution will be exercised by states
The first method is for a bill to pass both houses of the legislature, by a two-
thirds majority in each. Once the bill has passed both houses, it goes on to
the states. This is the route taken by all current amendments. Because of
some long outstanding amendments, such as the 27th, Congress will
normally put a time limit (typically seven years) for the bill to be approved
as an amendment.
The Legislative Branch has the following checks over the Judicial Branch:
o Creates lower courts
o May remove judges through impeachment
o Senate approves appointments of judges
The Executive Branch has the following checks over the Judicial Branch:
o President appoints Supreme Court and other federal judges
The Judicial Branch has the following checks over the Legislative Branch:
o Courts can judge legislative acts to be unconstitutional.
Conclusion
The American system of checks and balances has worked well over the
course of America's history. Even though some huge clashes have occurred
when vetoes have been overridden or appointees have been rejected, these
occasions are rare. The system was meant to keep the three branches in
balance. Even though there have been times when one branch has risen
preeminent, overall the three branches have achieved a workable balance
with no one branch holding all the governmental power.
Domestic Achievements
1. Hamilton Financial Plan
America was going through one of the most crucial financial crisis
after its birth. In the meanwhile Alexander Hamilton was appointed
as the secretary state of treasury. He gave a comprehensive plan to
promote and stable the financial condition of America.
1) Revenue generation via taxation
2) Payment of national and state debts ($54 million State Debts)
3) Establishment of National Bank on the basis of Bank of England
4) Establishment of Uniform Currency in all states of USA
2. Whiskey Rebellion
In western Pennsylvania a group of farmers refused to pay federal
excise duty on whiskey which was a challenge to the American
constitution and the government itself. Farmers insisted they won‘t be
able to bear the burden to pay tax on the distilled whiskey from
surplus corn.
Washington responded by federalizing 15,000 men in the state militia under
the supervision of Alexander Hamilton. This led to the collapse of whiskey
rebel without any bloodshed. This act of Washington was appreciated by
the entire country.
3. Westwards Expansion
Foreign Policy
1. French Revolution
Americans had humble feeling towards France because of the French
Revolution and France was the country that supported America in the
war of independence against British but when the revolution of
France turned into violence. The American decided to be neutral and
sidelined from the internal affairs of France.
2. Citizen Genet Edmond
Genet was a French minister who came to America and asked for US
assistance in French cause as per treaty of 1778. Genet was so
outrageous with his conduct that even Jefferson approved
Washington to ask French government to remove the offending
diplomat. Once recalled by French government Genet chose to live in
USA, where he married and became a US citizen.
3. Jays Treaty
Washington sent his Chief justice on a special mission to Britain that
they should stop the offensive practice of searching and seizing
American Ships and impressing seamen in British Navy. After a year
of negotiation, John Jay brought back a treaty in which British agreed
to evacuate US post in western frontier but did not said any thing
about search and seizure of US ships.
USA History by Aamir Mahar 55
4. Proclamation of Neutrality
A war between England and France broke out. Washington referred
his cabinet whether he should remain neutral or support France in the
war. Majority of votes went in favor of neutrality as America it self
was a nascent country.
On 22nd April 1973 Washington issued Proclamation of Neutrality.
5. Pinckney Treaty
Spain was in desperate need to have good relations with America
because of tense relations with Britain. Realizing the situation,
America sent their minister Thomas Pinckney to Madrid where he
signed the “Treaty of Son Lorenzo”.
This gave Americans the access to lower Mississippi and New
Oreland.
6. XYZ affairs
The Americans were angered by the reports of US merchant ships
search and seizure by France. America sent its minister to France to
hold talks with French government. Certain French ministers known
as X, Y, and Z met the delegation from US in Paris and demanded a
large sum of bribe to enter negotiations. American Delegation refused
and returned back.
“Millions for defense but not a single cent for tribute to France” became
the slogan in America. the condition were so severe that Alexander
Hamilton demanded to wage a war against France in North America but
John Adam refused saying that the American Army and Navy was not that
powerful and neither in the position to wage war against France.
7. Convention of 1800
Napoleon came into power in 1800 and there was a threat that he
might wage a war against America. America sent another mission to
France to revive the treaty of 1778. The mission was successful this
time as napoleon too was eager to have good relations with America
and a convention was signed on 30th Sep 1800 which removed the
peril of war between the two countries.
8. Two Party System
Washington himself was appointed as a unanimous president of
America and it became a popular belief that the political parties are
not needed as nothing was mentioned about the political parties in the
constitution also. But this soon proved wrong as the debates between
federalist and anti-federalist indicated that the two party system
would emerge in America as the permanent feature of politics.
Democratic Republicans
Federalist
Bidding of Louisiana By this time, Napoleon had given up his plans for a
colonial empire. Two American representatives were therefore surprised to
find the French government willing to sell all of Louisiana, 280,000 square
miles between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains for a paltry
$15 million. Jefferson was unsure whether the United States could legally
buy the Louisiana territory because the Constitution said nothing about
purchasing land. He considered proposing a constitutional amendment but
dropped the idea because it might take too much time, and the opportunity
could vanish. The bargain was too good to pass up. Jefferson approved the
purchase, the Senate ratified it, and the United States abruptly doubled in
size.
1. Judicial Impeachment
John Marshall was the chief justice of the Supreme Court and a
strong rival of Thomas Jefferson. Therefore the relation between
executive and judiciary remained tense in those days. Jefferson tried
to appoint his party men to the courts but he was heavily criticized for
this act. Whereas John Marshall managed to secures the
independence of the federal judiciary through brilliant legal
arguments and skilled political maneuvering.
2. Albert Galton and Federal Budget
“Thomas Jefferson was the most brilliant man ever occupied the
American Presidency”
- John F. Kennedy
The nation went to war bitterly divided. While the south and west favored
the conflict. The U.S. military was weak. The army had fewer than 7,000
regular soldiers, distributed in widely scattered posts along the coast, near
the Canadian border, and in the remote interior. The state militias were
poorly trained and undisciplined. But yet they decided to declare the war
against Britain.
Causes of War
From US point of view, pressure leading to war came from two sides the
continued US neutral rights on sea and troubles with Britain on western
frontier.
Free Sea and Trade
As a trading nation America was dependant upon the free flow of ship over
the Atlantic Ocean. Yet the belligerents of Europe France and Britain had
no interest in neutral rights respect for each other. Due to support from
France in American War of Independence and French Revolution
Americans had a soft corner toward France but the British violation was
taken very blatantly.
Impressments of American
Declaration of War
America invited British to held talks on the neutral rights but British
delayed. Bothe the political pressure and British delay in talks led Madison
to seek the declaration of war in June 1812.
Invasion of Canada
A poorly equipped American army led the expansion of Canada from three
parts on 1812. The forces captured Canada from Detroit, Niagara and Lake
Champlain. The American raid on Toronto and burnt officials buildings
there but they British army easily repulsed them out and gained control.
Burning of White House By the spring of 1814, the defeat of Napoleon in
Europe enabled British to be more aggressive in war against US and they
send more troops toward North America. At the Chesapeake campaign,
British troops marched and captured Washington D.C and set white house
and other official building on fire.
Treaty of Ghent
British Having fought Napoleon for more than a decade; they now were in
desperate need of peace in Europe. At the same time Madison and America
recognized that America will be unable to get a decisive victory. Therefore
American peace commissioner traveled to Ghent, Belgium in 1814 to held
peace talk with Britain and finally a Treaty of Ghent was signed between
the two countries.
The American new boundary lines were being drawn during the presidency
of James Monroe. The population of America by that time was 10 millions.
During this period of explosive growth new states were being added almost
every year and the issue of slavery was increasingly dividing the nation.
1st Point: Missouri would be admitted to the union as a slave state, but
would be balanced by the admission of MAINE, a free state, that had long
wanted to be separated from Massachusetts.
2nd Point: slavery was to be excluded from all new states in the Louisiana
Purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri.
3rd Point: Ban on Slavery over the north of Missouri
The period of 1817 to 1829 can be divided in two phases. The 1st period
belongs to James Monroe who brought peace and security in the country
therefore his period is known as era of good feelings. The period of John
Quincy Adams was considered to be the period of hardship and difficulties.
Thus it was known as era of hard feelings
1817-1824
Era of Good Feelings
USA History by Aamir Mahar 64
1825- 1829
Era of Hard feelings
Effects
The effects of the Monroe Doctrine on Europe were mixed. While Spain
did not attempt to restore empire in Latin America, Britain continued as a
dominant trade power there. Some Latin American nations resented the
implications that the United States was somehow responsible for their well-
being. It was not until the 1880s and the development of the U.S. Navy that
the U.S. actually had the military power to enforce the Monroe Doctrine.
Andrew Jackson was born to a Scottish family on the border of South and
North Carolina on 15th March, 1768. He was a son of Saddle maker and
was groomed in extreme poor condition. He became orphan at the age of 14
years and tasted all the hardships in his life during his childhood. Jackson
was a brilliant student of Law. He was very much enthusiastic to be
military men and served the military from 1813 to 1400.
He was made Major General after defeating Greeks and he also defeated
British in the battle of New Orland. In 1828 he became the president of
America defeating John Quincy Adams. He was described as ―Old
Hickory.
1. Popular Leadership
A poll was released in February 2009. This poll was sponsored by C-
SPAN and consisted of a survey of 65 historians. The participants
were asked to rank the presidents in ten categories ranging from
public persuasion and economic management to international
USA History by Aamir Mahar 69
relations and moral authority. Abraham Lincoln finished first, George
Washington was second, and Franklin Roosevelt was third.
2. Abolition of Slavery
Abraham Lincoln is remembered for his vital role as the leader in
preserving the Union during the Civil War and beginning the process
that led to the end of slavery in the United States. The actual fact is
that legal freedom for all slaves in the United States did not come
until the final passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in December of
1865. Lincoln was a strong supporter of the amendment, but he was
assassinated before its final enactment.
3. Lincoln and Domestic Society
President Lincoln's domestic policies included support for the
Homestead Act. This act allowed poor people in the East to obtain
land in the West. He signed the Morrill Act which was designed to
aid in the establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges in
each state. Also, Lincoln signed legislation entitled the National
Banking Act which established a national currency and provided for
the creation of a network of national banks. In addition, he signed
tariff legislation that offered protection to American industry and
signed a bill that chartered the first transcontinental railroad.
4. Wisest US President
Politicians love to quote Abraham Lincoln because Lincoln is
considered America's wisest president. A major effect Lincoln has on
the U.S. today is simply through the good example he set when it
came to leadership and integrity.
5. Fugitive Slave Act
To soften the attitude of peoples in south Lincoln supported the
Fugitive Slave Law or Fugitive Slave Act which was passed in 1850.
This was one of the most controversial acts of the 1850 compromise
and heightened Northern fears of a "slave power conspiracy". It
declared that all runaway slaves will be brought back to their masters.
6. Good Relations with Cabinet
Lincoln managed excellent relations with his advisors, cabinet and
military. When ever, there was disagreement among advisors and he,
his leadership style often involved telling a story that demonstrated
his point. Lots of times this method worked, and cabinet admired and
respected him for it. He could virtually disarm his enemies with his
highly moralistic, skillful leadership. Lincoln possessed qualities of
kindness and compassion combined with wisdom. In fact, one of his
nicknames was "Father Abraham."
7. Foreign Policy
Civil War
In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States. He
defeated Stephen Douglas because of the greater northern population.
Southerners were angered by the growing abolitionist movement, and when
Lincoln was elected, they feared that their way of life was in jeopardy.
South Carolina seceded on December 20, 1860. Within the next two weeks,
six other southern states had left the union (Alabama, Florida, Georgia,
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas). Little did people know that a very
bloody four year war was to come.
PEOPLE
North (Union) South (Confederacy)
Abraham Lincoln Jefferson Davis
U.S. Grant Robert E Lee
William T Sherman Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson
1) The nation was reunited and the southern states were not allowed to
secede.
2) The South was placed under military rule and divided into military
districts. Southern states then had to apply for readmission to the Union.
3) The Federal government proved itself supreme over the states.
Progressivism (1890-1920)
Introduction
By the beginning of the twentieth century, muckraking journalists were
calling attention to the exploitation of child labor, corruption in city
governments, the horror of lynching, and the ruthless business practices
employed by businessmen like John D. Rockefeller.
Efforts to improve society were not new to the United States in the late
1800s. A major push for change, the First Reform Era, occurred in the years
before the Civil War and included efforts of social activists to reform
working conditions and humanize the treatment of mentally ill people and
prisoners. The second reform era began during Reconstruction and lasted
until the American entry into World War I. The struggle for women's rights
and the temperance movement were the initial issues addressed. A farm
movement also emerged to compensate for the declining importance of
rural areas in an increasingly urbanized America.
Progressives Presidents
o Theodore Roosevelt (1901 – 1909)
o Howard Taft (1909 – 1913)
o Woodrow Wilson (1913 – 1917)
A. Political Reforms
o Tried to put more power into the hands of the people
o Innovative changes in city government
o Direct Election of Senators
o the Vote for Women
B. Social Reforms
o Child labor laws
o Ten-hour work days
o Minimum safety standards on the job
o Immigration Restriction
o Little Help for Blacks NAACP (1909)
Success of Progressives
Successes were many, beginning with the Interstate Commerce Act (1887)
and the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). Progressives never spoke with one
mind and differed sharply over the most effective means to deal with the ills
generated by the trusts; some favored an activist approach to trust-busting,
others preferred a regulatory approach.
Progressive reforms were carried out not only on the national level, but in
states and municipalities. Such reforms as the direct primary, secret ballot,
and the initiative, referendum, and recall were effected. Local governments
were strengthened by the widespread use of trained professionals,
particularly with the city manager system replacing the frequently corrupt
mayoral system.
Enetente Powers
(France, Britain and Russia)
4. Russian Revolution
In 1917, the ruler of Russia ―Czar‖ was dethroned in the Russian
revolution and the communist party led by Lenin was all set to take
up the new system of government in Russia. America was of the view
that the communist revolution will not be favorable to American
system.
6. Declaration of War
In his powerful war message of 2 April 1917, Wilson condemned the
German submarine campaign as ―warfare against mankind, and
urged Americans to fight, in his famous phrase, to make the world
safe for democracy.
4. Reduction of armaments.
Reduction of armaments to the lowest point consistent with public
safety.
3. War Debts
At the end of World War I, European nations owed over $10 billion
to their former ally, the United States. Their economies had been
devastated by war and they had no way of paying the money back.
The U.S. insisted their former allies pay the money. This forced the
allies to demand Germany pay the reparations imposed on her as a
result of the Treaty of Versailles. All of this later led to a financial
crisis when Europe could not purchase goods from the U.S. This debt
contributed to the Great Depression.
4. High Tariffs
In 1922, the U.S. passed the Fordney-Mc Cumber Act, which
instituted high tariffs on industrial products. A tariff is a tax on
imports. Other nations soon retaliated and world trade declined
helping bring on the great depression.
5. Overproduction in Industry
6. Farm Overproduction
Due to surpluses and overproduction, farm incomes dropped
throughout the 1920‘s. The price of farm land fell from $69 per acre
in 1920 t0 $31 in 1930. In 1929 the average annual income for an
American family was $750, but for farm families it was only $273.
The problems in the agricultural sector had a large impact since 30%
of Americans still lived on farms.
Roosevelt was born in 1882 at Hyde Park, New York. He attended Harvard
University and Columbia Law School.
By March there were 13,000,000 unemployed, and almost every bank was
closed. In his first "hundred days," he proposed, and Congress enacted, a
sweeping program to bring recovery to business and agriculture, relief to the
unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and reform,
especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Government Expenditures
The total cost of the current bailout. It has cost more than all of these
government expenditures combined. Figures in parentheses have been
adjusted for inflation:
Marshall Plan
Cost: $12.7 billion ($115.3 billion)
Louisiana Purchase
Cost: $15 million ($217 billion)
Race to the Moon
Cost: $36.4 billion ($237 billion)
S&L Crisis
Cost: $153 billion ($256 billion)
Korean War
Cost: $54 billion ($454 billion)
The New Deal
Cost: $32 billion est. ($500 billion EST.)
Invasion of Iraq
Cost: $551billion ($597 billion)
Vietnam War
Cost: $111 billion ($698 billion)
NASA
Cost: $416.7 billion ($851.2 billion)
But the war effort also had a darker side. Civil liberties were compromised,
particularly for the 110,000 Japanese Americans who were forcibly
uprooted from their West Coast homes to be sent to remote relocation
camps. In both Europe and Asia, the Axis powers had established a firm
foothold prior to American entry into the conflict. Slowly, but surely the
Allies closed the ring on Nazi Germany after turning points at El Alamein
and Stalingrad. Once Italy quit the Axis and the Allies landed successfully
at Normandy, it was only a matter of time before the Nazi machine was
smashed. Similar failures marked the early war in the Pacific, as the
Japanese captured the Philippines. But once Japanese offensive capabilities
were damaged at Midway, the United States "Island Hopped" its way to the
Japanese mainland.
New technologies emerged during the war as well. RADAR helped the
British locate incoming German planes, and SONAR made SUBMARINE
detection much more feasible. German v-1 and v-2 rockets ushered in a new
age of long-range warfare. But no weapon compared in destructive capacity
to the atomic bomb, developed after a massive, secret research project
spearheaded by the United States government. World War II was fought
over differences left unresolved after World War I.
Causalities
Over 400,000 Americans perished in the four years of involvement, an
American death rate second only to the Civil War. Twelve million victims
perished from Nazi atrocities in the holocaust. The deaths of twenty million
Russians created a defensive Soviet mindset that spilled into the postwar
USA History by Aamir Mahar 94
era. After all the blood and sacrifice, the Axis powers were defeated, but the
Grand Alliance that emerged victorious did not last long. Soon the world
was involved in a 45-year struggle that claimed millions of additional lives
— the Cold War.
John F. Kennedy was born into a rich, politically connected Boston family
of Irish- Catholics. He and his eight siblings enjoyed a privileged childhood
of elite private schools, sailboats, servants, and summer homes. During his
childhood and youth, "Jack" Kennedy suffered frequent serious illnesses.
Nevertheless, he strove to make his own way, writing a best-selling book
while still in college. After a short stint as a journalist, Kennedy entered
politics, serving in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953
and the U.S. Senate from 1953 to 1961.
Kennedy was the youngest person elected U.S. President and the first
Roman Catholic to serve in that office. For many observers, his presidency
came to represent the ascendance of youthful idealism in the aftermath of
World War II. The promise of this energetic leader was not to be fulfilled,
as he was assassinated near the end of his third year in office. For many
Americans, the public murder of President Kennedy remains one of the
most traumatic events in memory—countless Americans can remember
exactly where they were when they heard that President Kennedy had been
shot. His shocking death stood at the forefront of a period of political and
social instability in the country and the world.
Foreign Policy
1. The Bay of Pigs Invasion
The most high-profile and obvious failure was the Bay of Pigs
Invasion. In this incident, the US clearly failed to bring off the
invasion of Cuba. This made JFK look weak because he allowed the
invasion but failed to support it enough to make it work.
Domestic Affairs
Kennedy called his domestic program the "New Frontier". It ambitiously
promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly,
economic aid to rural regions, and government intervention to halt the
recession.
2. Civil Rights
African-Americans were striving to reverse centuries of social and
economic hardship, and activism against legalized racism was
growing. He concentrated more on enforcing existing civil rights laws
than on passing new ones
4. Controlling Unemployment
Kennedy passed a program worth $435 millions to solve the ever
growing problem of unemployment. The workers in poor health
conditions were retained to new jobs with better working
environment. He passed a Society Security Act which intended to
bring the provision of insurance for unemployed by enlarging
payments
The Apollo program was conceived early in 1960, during the Eisenhower
administration. While NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo,
funding for the program was far from certain given Eisenhower's opposition
to manned spaceflight. Kennedy's advisors speculated that a moon flight
would be prohibitively expensive, but he postponed the decision out of
deference to his vice president.
Assassination
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 pm Central
Standard Time on November 22, 1963, while on a political trip to Texas.
He was shot once in the upper back and killed with a final shot to the head.
He was taken to Parkland Hospital for emergency medical treatment, but
pronounced dead at 1:00 pm. Only 46, President Kennedy died younger
than any U.S. president to date.
2. Civil Rights
In addition to reconcile public schools, Nixon implemented the
Philadelphia Plan in 1970 the first significant federal affirmative
action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after
it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for
ratification. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968.
3. New Federalism
New Federalism is a political ideology that feels certain powers
should be transferred from the Federal Government back to the State
Government. It would restore some of the autonomy and power the
states had before FDR's New Deal and the Civil Rights Acts of the
1960's.
4. Space Program
After a nearly decade-long national effort, the United States won the
race to land astronauts on the moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight
of Apollo 11 landed on the moon and Neil Armstrong, Edwin Eldrin,
and Michal Collin became the first to land on the moon. These
historic scenes were telecasted live worldwide.
2. Vietnam War
Vietnam War Started in 1969 at was at its peak when Nixon was in
office. He adopted a process of gradual withdrawal of American
troops from Vietnam to save American life and expenses. The
President withdrew 70,000 US troops from Vietnam in 1972.
Evidence found on one of the burglars implied a possible link to the White
House and prompted an investigation. Over the next two years, the
unlawful acts were committed on behalf of the Committee to Re-elect the
President (CRP), which was later referred to as CREEP. The reputations of
many politicians were tarnished by the scandal, which ultimately resulted in
the resignation of President Richard Nixon.
Nixon Resignation
Nixon resigned from office on August 9, 1974, and Gerald Ford became
president.
1793 Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin greatly increases the demand
for slave labor.
1793 A federal fugitive slave law is enacted, providing for the return slaves
who had escaped and crossed state lines.
1850 The continuing debate whether territory gained in the Mexican War
should be open to slavery is decided in the Compromise of 1850: California
is admitted as a Free State, Utah and New Mexico territories are left to be
decided by popular sovereignty, and the slave trade in Washington, DC is
prohibited. It also establishes a much stricter fugitive slave law than the
original, passed in 1793.
1857 The Dred Scott case holds that Congress does not have the right to
ban slavery in states and, furthermore, that slaves are not citizens.
1861 The Confederacy is founded when the deep South secedes, and the
Civil War begins.
Role of Malcolm X
Ku-Klux-Klan Movement
Remaining:
12) Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the
Two World Powers.
13) American Role in patronizing UNO and International Organizations
(1945 – 2012)
14) American Role in Cold War and its emergence as the Sole Super
Power (1945 -1990).
USA History by Aamir Mahar 105
15) International Concerns of USA: An Overview.
16) The War on Terror: The Role of Pakistan and USA (2001 - 2012)
17) Global perceptions of the USA.
18) Progressive Era: Reforms of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow
Wilson,
19) The Great Depression and the New Deal
20) United States’ role in International Conflicts
21) US Presidential Election
22) The US Congress: Role and Functions
Assalam-e-Alaikum!
Topic 2
Introduction: Advent of the Europeans to British supremacy
(1492-1606)
1) Introduction
2) Timeline
i. 1492: Christopher Columbus sails across the Atlantic Ocean and
reaches an island in the Bahamas in the Carribean sea
ii. 1496: 2nd Voyage of Columbus
iii. 1498: 3rd Voyage; John Cobalt sailed the Eastern shore near
present day Worcester Country
iv. 1502: Columbus’s 4th voyage
v. 1506: Death of Columbus
vi. 1507: “America” is first used on Italian Amerigo Vespucci
vii. 1513: Juan Ponce De Leon explores Florida coast
viii. 1524: Giovanni de Verrazano explores the coast from
Carolina North to Nova Scotia, enters new York Harbour
ix. 1540: Francisco Vasquezde Coronado explores south west
x. 1541: Hernando de Soto of Spain discovers Mississipi River
xi. 1565: St Augustine, Florida, the first town established by
Europeans in America is founded by Spanish and later burned by
English in 1586
USA History by Aamir Mahar 110
xii. 1585: First English settlement established at RANOKE
ISLAND, NORTH CAROLINA
xiii. 1588: In Europe, the defeat of Spanish Armada by English
results in Great Britain replacing Spain as dominant world power
and leads to gradual decline of Spanish influence in the New
World and widening of English imperial interests.
xiv. 1600: Nations interest in Americe
xv. 1606: King James I granted charter to Virginia company to
establish colony
3) Early America
i. First Americans crossed the land bridge from Asia
ii. They Lived in (now) Alaska for 1000 years
iii. They moved south in today’s mainland U.S.
iv. Lived by the Pacific Ocean in the Northwest, in mountains and
deserts of South west and along Mississipi River
v. Early Groups called; Adenans, Hopewillians, Anasazi and
Hohokam.
vi. After Marco Polo came back with stories of China and its riches,
Europeans began to explore. First, they set up settlements in
Africa, near the coast, where they used African slaves to work on
plantations.
vii. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, opening a sea route
to the Far East.
viii. Complications and dangers of this eastern sea route
influenced Christopher Columbus to sail west. In doing so, he
inadvertently discovered the Americas, though he never knew it.
ix. The Portuguese were first to settle in America, but the Spanish
later became the dominant nation in the Americas. Spanish
Conquistadores swept through Latin and South America,
destroying the Aztecs and the Incas. Meanwhile, Magellan’s crew
sailed around the world in 1519, becoming the first voyage to do
so. As the chapter ended, Spain was very much in control of
much of the Americas, though other countries were beginning to
challenge the Spanish dominance.
4) Important People
i. Cristopher Columbus
i. Most Famous explorer
i. North America
i. North America in 1600 was largely unclaimed, though the
Spanish had much control in Central and South America.
ii. Spain had only set up Santa Fe, while France had founded
Quebec and Britain had founded Jamestown.
iii. In the 1500s, Britain didn’t really colonize because of
internal conflicts.
1. King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic
Church in the 1530s and launched the English
Protestant Reformation.
USA History by Aamir Mahar 112
2. After Elizabeth I became queen, Britain became
basically Protestant, and a rivalry with Catholic Spain
intensified.
3. In Ireland, the Catholics sought Spain’s help in
revolting against England, but the English crushed the
uprising with brutal atrocity, and developed an
attitude of sneering contempt for natives.
7) Elizabeth Energizes England
i. Colonization
i. After Britain basically defeated Spain (i.e. Spanish Armada
defeat), British swarmed to America and took over lead in
colonization and power.
1. Sparked new literature, like Shakespeare
ii. After Drake circumnavigated the globe, Liz I knighted him
on his ship.
iii. However, English tries at colonization in the New World
failed often and embarrassingly.
iv. Britain and Spain finally signed a peace treaty in 1604.
8) England on the Eve of the Empire
i. Reasons for Emigration
i. In the 1500s, Britain’s population was mushrooming.
ii. Farmers were enclosing land for farming.
iii. Puritanism took a strong root in the woolen districts of
western and eastern England.
iv. Younger sons of rich folk (who couldn’t inherit money) tried
their luck with fortunes elsewhere, like America.
v. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected, being a
forerunner to today’s corporations.
9) England Plants the Jamestown Seedling; First European Settlement
i. Jamestown
i. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King
James I to make a settlement in the New World.
ii. However, story of colonization started from settlement
farther North along the Atlantic Coast in Virginia,
Massachusetts, NY and 10 other areas due to the growing
tide of immigrants from Europe.
10) Conclusion
Topic 4
USA as an Independent Country (1783 - 1819)
1) Introduction
I. As a result of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, the new nation
controlled all of North America from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Mississippi River between Canada and Florida. Canada, to the
north, remained British territory. Great Britain returned Florida to
Spain, and Spain continued to control the area west of the
Mississippi River.
Topic 5
Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949)
1) Introduction
USA History by Aamir Mahar 128
i. Between 1821 and 1859, the following States became part of the
Union: Missouri (1821), Arkansas (1836), Michigan (1837), Texas
(1845), Florida (1845), Iowa (1846), Wisconsin (1848), California
(1850), Minnesota (1858) and Oregon (1859). Kansas (1861),
Nevada (1864), Nebraska (1867), Colorado (1876), Dakota
Territory was split in two (1889),; Montana Territory (1889),
Washington (1889), Idaho (1890), Wyoming (1890), Utah(1896),
Oklahoma (1907), New Mexico (1912), Arizona (1912), Alaska
(1959)
2) Fate of Indian Territories
i. In the 1820s, the USA government began moving what it called
the "Five Civilized Tribes" of South East America (Cherokee,
Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw) to lands west of the
Mississippi River.
ii. The 1830 Indian Removal Act gave the President authority to
designate specific lands for the Indians (native Americans).
iii. The 1834 Indian Intercourse Act called the lands Indian
Territory and specified where they were: all of present-day
Oklahoma North and East of the Red River, as well as Kansas and
Nebraska.
iv. But, in 1854 the territory was cut down when Kansas and
Nebraska territories were created. White settlers continued to
invade the West and half the remaining Indian Territory (West
Oklahoma) was opened to whites in 1889.
v. In 1907 Oklahoma became a state of the USA, and Indian
Territory was no more.
3) Timeline
i. August 10, 1821; The southeastern corner of Missouri Territory
was admitted to the US as the 24th state, Missouri. The remainder
became unorganized. Missouri did not include its northwestern
triangle at this point, that being added later in the Platte Purchase
ii. October 4, 1824; The 1824 Constitution of Mexico was enacted,
creating the United Mexican States and replacing the Mexican
Empire, which had collapsed on March 19, 1823.
iii. November 15, 1824; Arkansas Territory was shrunk, the western
portion becoming unorganized
iv. June 30, 1834: A large portion of unorganized land was added to
Michigan Territory, corresponding to present-day Iowa, western
Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota and South Dakota.
v. June 15, 1836: Arkansas Territory was admitted to the US as the
25th state, Arkansas. It continued to claim Miller County, with
increasing irrelevance.
Course of War
I. Introduction Bull Run Ends the “Ninety-Day War”
1. When President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen on
April 15, 1861, he and just about everyone else in the North
expected a swift war lasting about 90 days, with a quick
suppression of the South to prove the North’s superiority and end
this foolishness.
2. On July 21, 1861, ill-trained Yankee recruits swaggered out toward
Bull Run to engage a smaller Confederate unit.
i. The atmosphere was like that of a sporting event, as
Congressmen gathered in picnics.
Topic 10
Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA
and USSR as the Two World Powers
1) The Threat of Communism
I. The United States and the Soviet Union both fought on the side of
the Allies during World War II. But after the war, the two
countries became bitter enemies. The Soviet Union, as a
Communist country, opposed democracy. It helped Communists
take control of most of the countries of Eastern Europe and also
aided Communists who seized control of China.
II. The Soviet Union and China then set out to spread Communism
to other lands. The United States, as the world's most powerful
democratic country, took on the role of defending non-Communist
nations threatened by Communist take-over. The containment of
Communism became the major goal of U.S. postwar foreign
policy.
USA History by Aamir Mahar 157
III. The Cold War and foreign policy. The postwar struggle between
the American-led non-Communist nations and the Soviet Union
and its Communist allies became known as the Cold War. The
conflict was so named because it did not lead to fighting, or a "hot"
war, on a major scale.
IV. Both the United States and the Soviet Union built up arsenals of
nuclear weapons. The nuclear weapons made each nation capable
of destroying the other. The threat of nuclear war made both sides
cautious. As a result, Cold War strategy emphasized threats of
force, propaganda, and aid to weak nations. The United Nations
(UN), founded in 1945, provided a forum where the nations could
try to settle their Cold War disputes.
V. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, the first two presidents of the
Cold War era, pledged American military support to any nation
threatened by Communism. Also, the United States provided
billions of dollars to non-Communist nations.
VI. The Korean War resulted from the Cold War friction. On June 25,
1950, troops from Communist North Korea, equipped by the
Soviet Union, invaded South Korea. The UN called on member
nations to help restore peace. Truman sent American troops to aid
South Korea, and the UN sent a fighting force made up of troops
from many nations. The war lasted for three years, ending in a
truce on July 27, 1953.
VII. Communism and internal friction. The spread of Communism
caused deep divisions within the United States. Conservatives
blamed the Roosevelt and Truman administrations for allowing
the Communist postwar gains. They also claimed that
Communists were infiltrating the American government. The
charges led to widespread investigations of--and debate over--the
extent of Communist influence in American government and
society. Conservatives believed the investigations were needed to
save the country from Communist control. Liberals charged the
conservatives with conducting "witch hunts"; that is, trying to fix
guilt on people without evidence.
2) Postwar society
I. After World War II, the United States entered the greatest period of
economic growth in its history. Periods of inflation (rapidly rising
Topic: 12
Separation of Powers: Check and Balances
1. Introduction
a) Checks and Balances Checks and balances refers to a system of
separation of powers within a government.
b) The framework of separation is intended to balance govern- mental
power to prevent any part of the government from overreaching its
defined responsibilities.
USA History by Aamir Mahar 166
c) The Constitution of the United States, writ- ten in 1787 and adopted
in 1788, established a system of checks and bal- ances for the U.S.
federal government.
Conclusion
1. Introduction
o Exploration of America
o Christopher Columbus
o His Visits to America
o Natives American (their groups)
2. Causes of Colonization
USA History by Aamir Mahar 169
o Improvement in Technology
o Renaissance in Europe
o Religious Conflicts in Europe
o Expanding trade
o Search for New Routes
o Pressure of population
o Trade and Agriculture
o Desire for wealth
o Imperial Race
o Royal Proclamation
3. Critical Analysis
4. Conclusion
War of Independence
1. Introduction
2. Role of Spain and France
3. Role of Blacks
4. School of Thoughts
5. Mercantilism (If required in details)
o Navigation Act of 1651
USA History by Aamir Mahar 170
o Enumerated Act of 1660
o Staple Act of 1663
o Duty Act of 1673
o Enforcement Act of 1696
o Molasses Act 1733
o The Sugar Act of 1764
o The Currency Act of 1764
o The Quartering Act of 1765
o The Stamp Act of 1765
6. Other Causes of War of Independence
o Letters of Samuel Adams
o French Indian War
o Royal Proclamation of 1763
o The Coercive Act/ Intolerable Act
o Self-Government
o Great Awakening
o Boston Tea Party
o British Action on Massachusetts
o 1st Continental Conference
o 2nd Continental Conference
o Declaration of Independence
o Common Sense by Thomas Paine
o Sons of Liberty
o Boston Massacre
7. Critical Analysis
8. Conclusion
1. Introduction
2. Jacksonian democracy v/s Jeffersonian democrats
o Political
USA History by Aamir Mahar 171
a. Universal Suffrage
b. citizens considered eligible for office holding
c. candidates for president chosen
o Economic
d. Chosen Class
e. Industrialization
f. Attitude toward the Bank of the United States
o Social
g. Views on education
h. attitude toward equality for women
i. attitude toward American Indians
j. attitude toward slavery?
o Religious
k. To what extent was separation of church and state accomplished in each
period?
3. Critical Analysis
4. Conclusion
1. Introduction
2. Flaws in AOC
USA History by Aamir Mahar 172
o One house congress
o No separate executive
o Considerable powers to state
o Lack system of judiciary
o Central government had insufficient power to regulate commerce.
o It could not tax, generally impotent in setting commercial policy
o It could not effectively support a war effort
o It had little power to settle quarrels between states
3. Salient feature of US Constitution
o Checks and Balances:
o Brief & Simple:
o Written Constitution:
o Dual Citizenship:
o Secular State:
o Supremacy of the Constitution:
o Strong Federation:
o Bill Of Rights:
o Rigid Constitution:
o Separation of Powers:
o Bicameralism:
o Independent Judiciary:
o Universal Suffrage:
o Division of Powers:
o Spoils System:
o Presidential form of government:
o Republicanism:
o Sovereignty of the People
4. Critical Analysis
5. Conclusion
1. Introduction
The national government is divided into three branches:
1. Legislative
2. Executive
3. Judicial
2. Critical Analysis
3. Conclusion
1. Introduction
USA History by Aamir Mahar 175
"My Presidency is the 2nd American Revolution"
The answer to the 1st question will discuss the difference between federalist and
anti federalist to prove that Jefferson Victory as the president was 2nd American
Revolution.
"Thomas Jefferson was the best man ever to occupy American Presidency"
John F. Kennedy
2. Economic
Concepts of the “Chosen Class”?
Jefferson - Yeoman farmer as the “chosen class”
Jackson - included planters, farmers, laborers, and mechanics in “chosen class”
Industrialization?
Jefferson - Originally feared the consequences of industrialization
Jackson - Accepted industry as essential to American economy
How did the Charles River Bridge vs Warren Bridge decision affect the access
to corporate charters prevalent in Jefferson’s time?
Jefferson - In J’s time corporate charters were granted to favorites of state
legislators & often implied monopoly rights to a business
Jackson - Roger Taney, Jackson’s appointee as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court,
ruled in Charles River Bridge decision that corporate charters should be available
to all who chose to risk starting a business
3. Social
Education?
Jefferson - An educated man himself, believed education was necessary for office-
holding and for preparing citizens for participation in a democracy
Jackson - Had little education & believed education was relatively unimportant
4. Religion
The first permanent settlement in the present United States was Saint Augustine
(Florida), founded in 1565 by the Spaniard Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. Spanish
control came to be exercised over Florida, West Florida, Texas, and a large part of
the Southwest, including California. For the purposes of finding precious metals
and of converting heathens to Catholicism, the Spanish colonies in the present
United States were relatively unfruitful and thus were never fully developed. The
French established strongholds on the St. Lawrence River (Quebec and Montreal)
and spread their influence over the Great Lakes country and along the Mississippi;
the colony of Louisiana was a flourishing French settlement. The French
government, like the Spanish, tolerated only the Catholic faith, and it implanted the
rigid and feudalistic seignorial system of France in its North American
possessions. Partly for these reasons, the French settlements attracted few
colonists.
Religious motives were important in the founding of these colonies. The colonists
of Massachusetts Bay brought with them from England the charter and the
governing corporation of the colony, which thus became a corporate one, i.e., one
controlled by its own resident corporation. The corporate status of the Plymouth
Colony, evinced in the Mayflower Compact, was established by the purchase
USA History by Aamir Mahar 182
(1626) of company and charter from the holders in England. Connecticut and
Rhode Island, which were offshoots of Massachusetts, owed allegiance to no
English company; their corporate character was confirmed by royal charters,
granted to Connecticut in 1662 and to Rhode Island in 1663. A third type of colony
was the proprietary, founded by lords’ proprietors under quasi-feudal grants from
the king; prime examples are Maryland (under the Calvert family) and
Pennsylvania (under William Penn).
The religious and political turmoil of the Puritan Revolution in England, as well as
the repression of the Huguenots in France, helped to stimulate emigration to the
English colonies. Hopes of economic betterment brought thousands from England
as well as a number from Germany and other continental countries. To obtain
passage across the Atlantic, the poor often indentured themselves to masters in the
colonies for a specified number of years. The colonial population was also swelled
by criminals transported from England as a means of punishment. Once established
as freedmen, former bondsmen and transportees were frequently allotted land with
which to make their way in the New World.
Colonial America
The colonies were subject to English mercantilism in the form of Navigation Acts,
begun under Cromwell and developed more fully after the Stuart Restoration. As
shown by C. M. Andrews, G. L. Beer, and later historians, the colonies at first
benefited by these acts, which established a monopoly of the English market for
certain colonial products. Distinct colonial economies emerged, reflecting the
regional differences of climate and topography. Agriculture was of primary
importance in all the regions.
In New England many crops were grown, corn being the closest to a staple, and
agricultural holdings were usually of moderate size. Fur trade was at first
important, but it died out when the New England Confederation defeated Philip in
King Philip's War and the Native Americans were dispersed. Fishing and
commerce gained in importance, and the economic expansion of Massachusetts
encouraged the founding of other New England colonies.
In the middle colonies small farms abounded, interspersed with occasional great
states, and diverse crops were grown, wheat being most important. Land there was
almost universally held through some form of feudal grant, as it was also in the
South. Commerce grew quickly in the middle colonies, and large towns flourished,
notably Philadelphia and New York.
By the late 17th century, small farms in the coastal areas of the South were
beginning to give way to large plantations; these were developed with the slave
USA History by Aamir Mahar 183
labor of Africans, who were imported in ever-increasing numbers. Plantations were
almost exclusively devoted to cultivation of the great Southern staples—tobacco,
rice, and, later, indigo. Fur trade and lumbering were long important. Although
some towns developed, the Southern economy remained the least diversified and
the most rural in colonial America.
As the 18th century, progressed, colonial grievances were exacerbated. The British
mercantile regulations, beneficial to agriculture, impeded the colonies' commercial
and industrial development. However, economic and social growth continued, and
by the mid-18th cent. There had been created a greater sense of a separate,
thriving, and distinctly American, albeit varied, civilization. In New England,
USA History by Aamir Mahar 184
Puritan values were modified by the impact of commerce and by the influence of
the Enlightenment, while in the South the planter aristocracy developed a lavish
mode of life. Enlightenment ideals also gained influential adherents in the South.
Higher education flourished in such institutions as Harvard, William and Mary,
and King's College (now Columbia Univ.). The varied accomplishments of
Benjamin Franklin epitomized colonial common sense at its most enlightened and
productive level.
Hamilton and his followers, who eventually formed the Federalist party, favored
wide activity by the federal government under a broad interpretation of the
Constitution. Their opponents, who adhered to principles laid down by Thomas
Jefferson and who became the Democratic Republican or Democratic party,
favored narrow construction—limited federal jurisdiction and activities. To an
extent these divisions were supported by economic differences, as the Democrats
largely spoke for the agrarian point of view and the Federalists represented
propertied and mercantile interests.
The Federalists were victorious in electing John Adams to the presidency in 1796.
Federalist conservatism and anti-French sentiment were given vent in the Alien
and Sedition Acts of 1798 and in other acts. Deteriorating relations with France
were seen in the XYZ Affair and the “half war” (1798–1800), in which U.S.
warships engaged French vessels in the Caribbean. The so-called Revolution of
1800 swept the Federalists from power and brought Jefferson to the presidency.
Jefferson did bring a plainer and more republican style to government, and under
him the Alien and Sedition Acts and other Federalist laws were allowed to lapse or
were repealed.
The same policies were continued under James Monroe. The Monroe Doctrine
(1823), which proclaimed U.S. opposition to European intervention or colonization
in the American hemisphere, introduced the long-continuing U.S. concern for the
integrity of the Western Hemisphere. Domestically, the strength of the federal
government was increased by the judicial decisions of John Marshall, who had
already helped establish the power of the U.S. Supreme Court. By 1820, however,
sectional differences were arousing political discord. The sections of the country
had long been developing along independent lines.
In the North, merchants, manufacturers, inventors, farmers, and factory hands were
busy with commerce, agricultural improvements, and the beginnings of the
Industrial Revolution. In the South, Eli Whitney's cotton gin had brought in its
wake a new staple; cotton was king, and the new states of Alabama, Louisiana, and
Mississippi were the pride of the cotton kingdom. The accession of Florida (1819)
further swelled the domain of the South. The American West was expanding as the
frontier rapidly advanced. Around the turn of the century settlement of territory W
of the Appalachians had given rise to the new states of Kentucky, Tennessee, and
Ohio. Settlers continued to move farther west, and the frontier remained a molding
force in American life.
The Missouri Compromise (1820) temporarily resolved the issue of slavery in new
states, but under the presidency of John Quincy Adams sectional differences were
aggravated. Particular friction, leading to the nullification movement, was created
by the tariff of 1828, which was highly favorable to Northern manufacturing but a
“Tariff of Abominations” to the agrarian South. In the 1820s and 30s the advance
of democracy brought manhood suffrage to many states and virtual direct election
of the President, and party nominating conventions replaced the caucus. Separation
of church and state became virtually complete.
Although in the dispute with Great Britain over the Columbia River country,
Americans demanded “Fifty-four forty or fight,” under President Polk a peaceful if
more modest settlement was reached. Thus the United States gained its Pacific
Northwest, and “manifest destiny” was virtually fulfilled.
The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), which repealed the Missouri
Compromise, led to violence between factions in “bleeding Kansas” and spurred
the founding of the new Republican party. Although there was sentiment for
moderation and compromise in both North and South, it became increasingly
difficult to take a middle stand on the slavery issue, and extremists came to the fore
on both sides. Southerners, unable to accept the end of slavery, upon which their
entire system of life was based, and fearful of slave insurrection (especially after
the revolt led by Nat Turner in 1831), felt threatened by the abolitionists, who
regarded themselves as leaders in a moral crusade. Southerners attempted to
uphold slavery as universally beneficial and biblically sanctioned, while
Northerners were increasingly unable to countenance the institution.
Vigorous antislavery groups like the Free-Soil party had already arisen, and as the
conflict became more embittered it rent the older parties. The Whig party was
shattered, and its Northern wing was largely absorbed in the new antislavery
Republican party. The Democrats were also torn, and the compromise policies of
Stephen A. Douglas were of dwindling satisfaction to a divided nation. Moderation
could not withstand the impact of the decision in the Dred Scott Case, which
denied the right of Congress to prohibit slavery in the territories, or the provocation
of John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry (1859). The climax came in 1860 when the
Republican Abraham Lincoln defeated three opponents to win the presidency.
USA History by Aamir Mahar 190
Southern leaders, feeling there was no possibility of fair treatment under a
Republican administration, resorted to secession from the Union and formed the
Confederacy. The attempts of the seceding states to take over federal property
within their borders (notably Fort Sumter in Charleston, S.C.) precipitated the Civil
War (1861–65), which resulted in a complete victory for the North and the end of
all slavery.
The latter part of the 19th century, also saw the rise of the modern American city.
Rapid industrialization attracted huge numbers of people to cities from foreign
countries as well as rural America. The widespread use of steel and electricity
allowed innovations that transformed the urban landscape. Electric lighting made
cities viable at night as well as during the day. Electricity was also used to power
streetcars, elevated railways, and subways. The growth of mass transit allowed
people to live further away from work, and was therefore largely responsible for
the demise of the “walking city.” With the advent of skyscrapers, which utilized
steel construction technology, cities were able to grow vertically as well as
horizontally.
Into the “land of promise” poured new waves of immigrants; some acquired
dazzling riches, but many others suffered in a competitive and unregulated
economic age. Behind the facade of the “Gilded Age,” with its aura of peace and
general prosperity, a whole range of new problems was created, forcing varied
groups to promulgate new solutions. In the 1870s the expanding Granger
USA History by Aamir Mahar 191
movement attempted to combat railroad and marketing abuses and to achieve an
element of agrarian cooperation; this movement stimulated some regulation of
utilities on the state level. Labor, too, began to combine against grueling factory
conditions, but the opposition of business to unions was frequently overpowering,
and the bulk of labor remained unorganized.
Some strike successes were won by the Knights of Labor, but this union,
discredited by the Haymarket Square riot, was succeeded in prominence by the less
divisive American Federation of Labor. Massachusetts led the way (1874) with the
first effective state legislation for an eight-hour day, but similar state and national
legislation was sparse, and the federal government descended harshly on labor in
the bloody strike at Pullman, Ill., and in other disputes. Belief in laissez faire and
the influence of big business in both national parties, especially in the Republican
party, delayed any widespread reform.
The Presidents of the late 19th century, were generally titular leaders of modest
political distinction; however, they did institute a few reforms. Both Hayes and his
successor, James A. Garfield, favored civil service reforms, and after Garfield's
death Chester A. Arthur approved passage of a civil service act; thus the vast,
troublesome presidential patronage system gave way to more regular, efficient
administration. In 1884 a reform group, led by Carl Schurz, bolted from the
Republicans and helped elect Grover Cleveland, the first Democratic President
since before the Civil War. Under President Benjamin Harrison the Sherman
Antitrust Act was passed (1890).
The Federal Reserve System and the Federal Trade Commission were established,
and the Adamson Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act were passed. Perhaps more
than on the national level, progressivism triumphed in the states in legislation
beneficial to labor, in the furthering of education, and in the democratization of
electoral procedures. Wilson did not radically alter the aggressive Caribbean policy
of his predecessors; U.S. marines were sent to Nicaragua, and difficulties with
Mexico were capped by the landing of U.S. forces in the city of Veracruz and by
the campaign against Francisco (Pancho) Villa.
World War I
USA History by Aamir Mahar 193
The nation's interest in world peace had already been expressed through
participation in the Hague Conferences, and when World War I burst upon Europe,
Wilson made efforts to keep the United States neutral; in 1916 he was reelected on
a peace platform. However, American sympathies and interests were actively with
the Allies (especially with Great Britain and France), and although Britain and
Germany both violated American neutral rights on the seas, German submarine
attacks constituted the more dramatic provocation. On Apr. 6, 1917, the United
States entered the war on the side of the Allies and provided crucial manpower and
supplies for the Allied victory.
Wilson's Fourteen Points to insure peace and democracy captured the popular
imagination of Europe and were a factor in Germany's decision to seek an
armistice; however, at the Paris Peace Conference after the war, Wilson was
thwarted from fully implementing his program.
The majority of Republican Senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, insisted upon
amendments that would preserve U.S. sovereignty, and although Wilson fought for
his original proposals, they were rejected. Isolationist sentiment prevailed during
the 1920s, and while the United States played a major role in the naval conferences
for disarmament and in the engineering of the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which
outlawed war, its general lack of interest in international concerns was seen in its
highly nationalistic economic policies, notably its insistence (later modified) on
collecting the war debts of foreign countries and the passage of the Hawley-Smoot
Tariff Act.
Harding's administration, marred by the Teapot Dome scandal, gave way on his
death to the presidency of Calvin Coolidge, and the nation embarked on a
spectacular industrial and financial boom. In the 1920s the nation became
increasingly urban, and everyday life was transformed as the “consumer
revolution” brought the spreading use of automobiles, telephones, radios, and other
appliances. The pace of living quickened, and mores became less restrained, while
USA History by Aamir Mahar 194
fortunes were rapidly accumulated on the skyrocketing stock market, in real estate
speculation, and elsewhere. To some it seemed a golden age. But agriculture was
not prosperous, and industry and finance became dangerously overextended.
In 1929 there began the Great Depression, which reached worldwide proportions.
In 1931, President Herbert Hoover proposed a moratorium on foreign debts, but
this and other measures failed to prevent economic collapse. In the 1932 election
Hoover was overwhelmingly defeated by the Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. The
new President immediately instituted his New Deal with vigorous measures. To
meet the critical financial emergency he instituted a “bank holiday.” Congress,
called into special session, enacted a succession of laws, some of them to meet the
economic crisis with relief measures, others to put into operation long-range social
and economic reforms. Some of the most important agencies created were the
National Recovery Administration, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration,
the Public Works Administration, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and the
Tennessee Valley Authority. This program was further broadened in later sessions
with other agencies, notably the Securities and Exchange Commission and the
Works Progress Administration (later the Work Projects Administration).
Laws also created a social security program. The program was dynamic and, in
many areas, unprecedented.
It created a vast machinery by which the state could promote economic recovery
and social welfare. Opponents of these measures argued that they violated
individual rights, besides being extravagant and wasteful. Adverse decisions on
several of the measures by the U.S. Supreme Court tended to slow the pace of
reform and caused Roosevelt to attempt unsuccessfully to revise the court.
Although interest centered chiefly on domestic affairs during the 1930s, Roosevelt
continued and expanded the policy of friendship toward the Latin American
nations which Herbert Hoover had initiated; this full-blown “good-neighbor”
policy proved generally fruitful for the United States.
World War II
The ominous situation abroad was chiefly responsible for Roosevelt's continuance
at the national helm. By the late 1930s the Axis nations (Germany and Italy) in
Europe as well as Japan in East Asia had already disrupted world peace. As wars
began in China, Ethiopia, and Spain, the United States sought at first to bulwark its
insular security by the Neutrality Act. As Axis aggression led to the outbreak of the
European war in Sept., 1939, the United States still strove to stay out of it, despite
increasing sympathy for the Allies. But after the fall of France in June, 1940, the
USA History by Aamir Mahar 195
support of the United States for beleaguered Britain became more overt. In Mar.,
1941, lend-lease aid was extended to the British and, in November, to the Russians.
The threat of war had already caused the adoption of selective service to build the
armed strength of the nation. Hemisphere defense was enlarged, and the United
States drew closer to Great Britain with the issuance of the Atlantic Charter.
In Asian affairs the Roosevelt government had vigorously protested Japan's career
of conquest and its establishment of the “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.”
After the Japanese takeover of French Indochina (July, 1941), with its inherent
threat to the Philippines, the U.S. government froze all Japanese assets in the
United States. Diplomatic relations grew taut, but U.S.-Japanese discussions were
still being carried on when, on Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese bombs fell on Pearl Harbor.
The United States promptly declared war, and four days later Germany and Italy
declared war on the United States. (For an account of military and naval events).
The country efficiently mobilized its vast resources, transforming factories to war
plants and building a mighty military force which included most able-bodied
young men and many young women. The creation of a great number of
government war agencies to control and coordinate materials, transportation, and
manpower brought unprecedented government intervention into national life.
Rationing, price controls, and other devices were instituted in an attempt to prevent
serious inflation or dislocation in the civilian economy.
The war underscored the importance of U.S. resources and the prestige and power
of the United States in world affairs. A series of important conferences outlined the
policies for the war and the programs for the peace after victory; among these were
the Moscow Conferences, the Casablanca Conference, the Cairo Conference, the
Tehran Conference, and the Yalta Conference, at which Roosevelt, Winston
Churchill, and Joseph Stalin planned for postwar settlement. Roosevelt was also a
key figure in the plans for the United Nations.
After Roosevelt's sudden death in April, 1945, Harry S. Truman became President.
A month later the European war ended when Germany surrendered on May 7,
1945. Truman went to the Potsdam Conference (July–August), where various
questions of the peacetime administration of Europe were settled, many on an ad
interim basis, pending the conclusion of peace treaties. Before the war ended with
the defeat of Japan, the United States developed and used a fateful and
revolutionary weapon of war, the atomic bomb. The Japanese surrender,
announced Aug. 14, 1945, and signed Sept. 2, brought the war to a close.
Peacetime readjustment was successfully effected. The government's “G.I. Bill”
enabled many former servicemen to obtain free schooling, and millions of other
veterans were absorbed by the economy, which boomed in fulfilling the demands
for long-unobtainable consumer goods. The shortening of the postwar factory work
USA History by Aamir Mahar 196
week and the proportionate reduction of wages precipitated a rash of strikes,
causing the government to pass the Taft-Hartley Labor Act (1947).
In the Korean War, U.S. forces played the chief part in combating the North
Korean and Chinese attack on South Korea. Thus the United States cast off its
traditional peacetime isolationism and accepted its position as a prime mover in
world affairs.
Two decades of Democratic control of the White House came to an end with the
presidential election of 1952, when Dwight D. Eisenhower was swept into office
over the Democratic candidate, Adlai E. Stevenson. Although it did not try to roll
back the social legislation passed by its Democratic predecessors, the Eisenhower
administration was committed to a laissez-faire domestic policy. By the mid-
USA History by Aamir Mahar 197
1950s, America was in the midst of a great industrial boom, and stock prices were
skyrocketing. In foreign affairs the Eisenhower administration was internationalist
in outlook, although it sternly opposed Communist power and threatened “massive
retaliation” for Communist aggression. Some antagonism came from the neutral
nations of Asia and Africa, partly because of the U.S. association with former
colonial powers and partly because U.S. foreign aid more often than not had the
effect of strengthening ruling oligarchies abroad.
In the race for technological superiority the United States exploded (1952) the first
hydrogen bomb, but was second to the USSR in launching (Jan. 31, 1958) an
artificial satellite and in testing an intercontinental guidedmissile. However,
spurred by Soviet advances, the United States made rapid progress in space
exploration and missile research. In the crucial domestic issue of racial integration,
the U.S. Supreme Court in a series of decisions supported the efforts of African-
American citizens to achieve full civil rights. In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became
the 49th and 50th states of the Union. Despite hopes for “peaceful coexistence,”
negotiations with the USSR for nuclear disarmament failed to achieve accord, and
Berlin remained a serious source of conflict.
In 1961, the older Eisenhower gave way to the youngest President ever elected,
John F. Kennedy, who defeated Republican candidate Richard M. Nixon. President
Kennedy called for “new frontiers” of American endeavor, but had difficulty
securing Congressional support for his domestic programs (integration, tax reform,
medical benefits for the aged). Kennedy's foreign policy combined such
humanitarian innovations as the Peace Corps and the Alliance for Progress with the
traditional opposition to Communist aggrandizement.
After breaking relations with Cuba, which, under Fidel Castro, had clearly moved
within the Communist orbit, the United States supported (1961) an ill-fated
invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro forces. In 1962, in reaction to the presence of
Soviet missiles in Cuba, the United States blockaded Soviet military shipments to
Cuba and demanded the dismantling of Soviet bases there. The two great powers
seemed on the brink of war, but within a week the USSR acceded to U.S. demands.
In the meantime, the United States achieved an important gain in space exploration
with the orbital flight around the earth in a manned satellite by Col. John H. Glenn.
The tensions of the cold war eased when, in 1963, the United States and the Soviet
Union reached an accord on a limited ban of nuclear testing.
Other manifestations of social upheaval were the increase of drug use, especially
among youths, and the rising rate of crime, most noticeable in the cities.
Opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam War so eroded Johnson's
popularity that he chose not to run again for President in 1968.
The institution of draft reform, the continued withdrawal of U.S. soldiers from
Vietnam, and a sharp decrease in U.S. casualties all contributed toward dampening
antiwar sentiment and lessening the war as an issue of public debate. Racial flare-
ups abated after the tumult of the 1960s (although the issue of the busing of
children to achieve integration continued to arouse controversy). The growing
movement of women demanding social, economic, and political equality with men
also reflected the changing times. A dramatic milestone in the country's space
program was reached in July, 1969, with the landing of two men on the moon, the
first of several such manned flights. Significant unmanned probes of several of the
planets followed, and in 1973 the first space station was orbited.
In domestic policy Nixon appeared to favor an end to the many reforms of the
1960s. He was accused by civil-rights proponents of wooing Southern support by
seeking delays in the implementation of school integration. Such actions by his
administration were overruled by the Supreme Court. Nixon twice attempted to
appoint conservative Southern judges to the U.S. Supreme Court and was twice
frustrated by the Senate, which rejected both nominations. In an attempt to control
the spiraling inflation inherited from the previous administration, Nixon
concentrated on reducing federal spending. He vetoed numerous appropriations
bills passed by Congress, especially those in the social service and public works
areas, although he continued to stress defense measures, such as the establishment
of an antiballistic missiles (ABM) system, and foreign aid.
Federal budget cuts contributed to a general economic slowdown but failed to halt
inflation, so that the country experienced the unprecedented misfortune of both
rising prices and rising unemployment; the steady drain of gold reserves after
USA History by Aamir Mahar 200
almost three decades of enormous foreign aid programs, a new balance-of-trade
deficit, and the instability of the dollar in the international market also affected the
economy. In Aug., 1971, Nixon resorted to the freezing of prices, wages, and rents;
these controls were continued under an ensuing, more flexible but comprehensive
program known as Phase II. Another significant move was the devaluation of the
dollar in Dec., 1971; it was further devalued in 1973 and again in 1974.
In keeping with his announced intention of moving the United States from an era
of confrontation to one of negotiation, Nixon made a dramatic visit to the People's
Republic of China in Feb., 1972, ending more than 20 years of hostility between
the two countries and opening the way for a normalization of relations. A trip to
Moscow followed in the spring, culminating in the signing of numerous
agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union, the most important
being two strategic arms limitations accords, reached after lengthy talks begun in
1969. The attainment of a degree of friendly relations with China and the USSR
was especially surprising in view of the provocative actions that the United States
was taking at that time against North Vietnam. Although U.S. ground troops were
being steadily withdrawn from Vietnam, U.S. bombing activity was increasing.
Finally Congress halted the bombing and limited Nixon's power to commit troops.
A cease-fire in Vietnam was not achieved until Jan., 1973.
In the presidential election of 1972, the Democratic party reforms that increased
the power of women and minority groups in the convention resulted in the
nomination of Senator George S. McGovern for President. Senator McGovern
called for an immediate end to the Vietnam War and for a drastic cut in defense
spending and a guaranteed minimum income for all citizens. His candidacy was
damaged by the necessity to replace his original choice for Vice President and by
the continuing perception of McGovern as a radical. Nixon was reelected (Nov.,
1972) in a landslide, losing only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.
But Nixon's second term was marred, and finally destroyed, by the Watergate
affair, which began when five men (two of whom were later discovered to be direct
employees of Nixon's reelection committee) were arrested after breaking into the
Democratic party's national headquarters at the Watergate apartment complex in
Washington, D.C. Nixon resigned on Aug. 9, the first president in the history of the
republic to be driven from office under the threat of impeachment.
Ford's popularity suffered a sharp setback when he granted Nixon a complete and
unconditional pardon for any crimes that Nixon may have committed during his
term as President. The public disapproval of this decision, along with the
deteriorating economy, contributed to a sharp reversal in Republican fortunes in
the elections of 1974.
In Dec., 1974, Nelson A. Rockefeller, a former governor of New York, was sworn
in as Vice President following extensive hearings before Congressional
committees. Thus, neither the President nor the Vice President had been popularly
elected, both having been chosen under the terms of the Twenty-fifth Amendment.
Ford's tenure as President was hindered by difficult economic times and an
inability to work with the Democrat-controlled Congress. Ford vetoed dozens of
bills, many of which were overridden by Congress to provide funding for social
programs. Ford also lacked broad support within his own party, as former
California governor (and future President) Ronald Reagan made a strong challenge
for the Republican presidential nomination.
States with large energy industries such as Texas, Louisiana, Wyoming, and
Colorado all benefited from extremely high energy prices throughout the 1970s.
Alaska's economy also boomed as the Alaska pipeline began transporting oil in
1977. Soaring oil prices as well as increased foreign competition dealt a severe
USA History by Aamir Mahar 202
blow to American industry, especially heavy industries such as automobile and
steel manufacturing located in America's Rust Belt. Central cities in the United
States experienced great hardship in the 1960s and 70s. Rising crime rates and
racial unrest during the 1960s accelerated the outmigration of people and
businesses to the suburbs. By the late 1970s, many large cities had lost their middle
class core populations and suffered severe budgetary problems.
Carter's pledge to stand against nations that abused human rights resulted in a grain
and high-technology embargo of the Soviet Union in response to the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan. Carter also organized a boycott of the 1980 Moscow
Olympics. His decision in 1979 to allow Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlevi, the
deposed leader of Iran, to receive medical treatment in the United States inflamed
the already passionate anti-American sentiment in that nation. On Nov. 4, 1979, a
group of militants seized the U.S. embassy in Iran, taking 66 hostages. The Iran
hostage crisis destroyed Carter's credibility as a leader and a failed rescue attempt
(1980) that killed eight Americans only worsened the situation. (The hostages were
only released on Jan. 20, 1981, the day Carter left office.) With the hostage crisis
omnipresent in the media and the nation's economy sliding deeper into recession,
Carter had little to run on in the 1980 presidential election. Republican nominee
Ronald Reagan promised to restore American supremacy both politically and
economically.
In labor disputes, Reagan was decidedly antiunion. This was never more evident
than in 1981 when he fired 13,000 striking air traffic controllers. In Mar., 1981,
Reagan was wounded in an assassination attempt but fully recovered, dispelling
doubts regarding his age and health. The U.S. economy continued to worsen; in
1983 the unemployment rate reached its highest point since the Great Depression
at almost 11%. By the end of that year, however, oil prices began to drop, slowing
the inflation rate and helping the economy to begin a recovery.
Reagan's deregulaton of the banking, airline, and many other industries spurred
enormous amounts of economic activity. In 1984 the unemployment rate fell and
the dollar was strong in foreign markets. With the economy recovering, Reagan
was unstoppable in the 1984 presidential election.
At the same time the United States was secretly mining Nicaraguan harbors.
In 1983 241 U.S. marines stationed in Beirut, Lebanon as part of a UN
peacekeeping force were killed by terrorists driving a truck laden with explosives
in a suicide mission. Later that year Reagan ordered the invasion of the tiny
Caribbean nation of Grenada; the action was roundly criticized by the world
community, but succeeded in toppling the pro-Cuban regime. In 1986 the space
shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after liftoff, killing the entire seven-person
USA History by Aamir Mahar 204
crew, including six astronauts and a civilian schoolteacher. Reagan's aggressive
policies in the Middle East worsened already bad relations with Arab nations; he
ordered (1986) air strikes against Libya in retaliation for the Libyan-sponsored
terrorist attack in West Berlin that killed two American servicemen.
Although the president had vowed never to negotiate with terrorists, members of
his administration did just that in the Iran-contra affair. Against the wishes of the
Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense, Reagan officials arranged the
illegal sale of arms to Iran in exchange for the release of American hostages in the
Middle East. The profits from the sales were then diverted to the Contra rebels in
Nicaragua. Reagan improved his image before he left office, however, by agreeing
to a series of arms reduction talks initiated by Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev.
Reagan was also able leave a powerful legacy by appointing three conservative
Supreme Court justices, including Sandra Day O'Connor, the first woman to serve
on the high court.
Bush's major military action, however, was the Persian Gulf War. After Iraq
invaded Kuwait on Aug. 2, 1990, Bush announced the commencement of
Operation Desert Shield, which included a naval and air blockade and the steady
deployment of U.S. military forces to Saudi Arabia. In November the United
Nations Security Council approved the use of all necessary force to remove Iraq
from Kuwait and set Jan. 15, 1991, as the deadline for Iraq to withdraw.
A few days before the deadline Congress narrowly approved the use of force
against Iraq. By this time the United States had amassed a force of over 500,000
military personnel as well as thousands of tanks, airplanes, and personnel carriers.
Less than one day after the deadline, the U.S.-led coalition began Operation Desert
Storm, beginning with massive air attacks on Baghdad. Iraqi troops were
devastated by continual air and naval bombardment, to the point that it took only
The quick, decisive U.S. victory, combined with an extremely small number of
American casualties, gave President Bush the highest public approval rating in
history. Mounting domestic problems, however, made his popularity short-lived.
When Bush took office, he announced a plan to bail out the savings and loan
industry, which had collapsed after deregulation during the Reagan administration.
In 1991 it was estimated that it would cost taxpayers $500 billion to save the
industry.
The United States went through a transitional period during the 1980s and early
90s, economically, demographically, and politically. The severe decline of
traditional manufacturing which began in the 1970s forced a large-scale shift of the
economy to services and other sectors. States with large service, trade, and high-
technology industries (such as many Sun Belt states) grew in population and
thrived economically. Meanwhile, states heavily dependent on manufacturing,
including much of the Midwest, suffered severe unemployment and outmigration.
Midwestern states grew less than 5% during the 1980s while Sun Belt states grew
between 15% and 50%.
In addition, the end of the Cold War, precipitated by the dissolution of the Warsaw
Pact and the collapse of Soviet Communism, resulted in a reduction of the U.S.
armed forces as well as the opening of new markets in an increasingly global
economy. In Apr., 1992, after the severe police beating of an African American,
one of the worst race riots in recent U.S. history erupted in Los Angeles, killing 58,
injuring thousands, and causing approximately $1 billion in damage. Smaller
disturbances broke out in many U.S. cities. After the Persian Gulf War the nation
turned its attention to the domestic problems of recession and high unemployment.
Bush's inability to institute a program for economic recovery made him vulnerable
in the 1992 presidential election to the Democratic nominee, Arkansas governor
Bill Clinton.
Clinton won the election, gaining 43% of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes.
Incumbent Bush won 38% of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes. Although
independent candidate H. Ross Perot did not win a single electoral vote, he made a
strong showing with 19% of the popular vote, after a populist campaign in which
he vowed to eliminate the $3.5 trillion federal deficit. Clinton, generally
considered a political moderate, was particularly successful in appealing to voters
(especially in the Midwest and West) who had previously abandoned the
Democratic party to vote for Reagan. Bush, for his part, was unable to convince
voters that he could transform his success in international affairs into domestic
recovery. One of his last actions as president was to send (Dec., 1992) U.S. troops
USA History by Aamir Mahar 206
to Somalia as part of a multinational peacekeeping force administering famine
relief.
The economy gradually improved during Clinton's first year in office, and this,
along with a tax increase and spending cuts, caused some easing of the budget
deficit. The North American Free Trade Agreement, signed by the United States,
Canada, and Mexico in 1992 and designed to make its participants more
competitive in the world marketplace, was ratified in 1993 and took effect Jan. 1,
1994.
During his first two years in office, Clinton withdrew U.S. troops from Somalia
after they had suffered casualties in an ill-defined mission; he also sent troops to
Haiti to help in reestablishing democratic rule there. The president proposed a
major overhaul of the way American health care is financed, but it died in
Congress. Clinton's problems with Congress were exacerbated in 1994 after the
Republicans won control of both the Senate and the House and attempted, largely
unsuccessfully, to enact a strongly conservative legislative program, dubbed the
“Contract with America.” There were prolonged stalemates as the president and
Congress clashed over the federal budget; in Apr., 1996, a fiscal 1995 budget was
agreed upon after seven months of stopgap spending measures and temporary
government shutdowns.
In Apr., 1995, in the worst act of terrorism ever on American soil, a bomb was
exploded at the federal building in Oklahoma City, Okla., killing 169 people. Late
in 1995, the antagonists in the Yugoslavian civil war accepted a U.S.-brokered
peace plan, which U.S. troops were sent to help monitor. U.S. efforts also
contributed to Arab-Israeli acceptance of agreements to establish limited
Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza.
By 1996, President Clinton had improved his standing in the polls by confronting
House Republicans over the federal budget, and he subsequently adopted a number
of Republican proposals, such as welfare reform, as his own, while opposing the
more conservative aspects of those proposals. Clinton won his party's renomination
unopposed and then handily defeated Republican Bob Dole and Reform party
candidate Ross Perot in the November election.
As his second term began, Clinton's foes in and out of Congress pursued
investigation of Whitewater and other alleged improprieties or abuses by the
president. By late 1997 independent prosecutor Kenneth Starr had been given
information that led to the Lewinsky scandal, which burst on the national scene in
early 1998. Battle lines formed and remained firm through Clinton's impeachment
(Oct., 1998), trial (Jan., 1999), and acquittal (Feb., 1999), with a core of
conservative Republicans on one side and almost all Democrats on the other. The
USA History by Aamir Mahar 207
American people seemed to regard the impeachment as largely partisan in intent.
Lying behind their attitude, however, was probably the sustained economic boom,
a period of record stock-market levels, relatively low unemployment, the reduction
of the federal debt, and other signs of well-being (although critics noted that the
disparity between America's rich and poor was now greater than ever). This,
combined with the afterglow of “victory” in the cold war, continued through the
end of the 1990s.
In foreign affairs, the United States (as the only true superpower) enjoyed
unprecendented international influence in the late 1990s, and in some areas it was
able to use this influence to accomplish much. There was steady, if sometimes
fitful, progress toward peace in the Middle East, and George Mitchell, a U.S.
envoy, brokered what many hoped was a lasting peace in Northern Ireland. On the
other hand, America had little influence on Russian policy in Chechnya, and it
remained locked in a contest of wills with Iraq's President Saddam Hussein nine
years after the end of the Persian Gulf War. The reluctance of the Congress to pay
the country's UN dues nearly led to the embarrassment of the loss of the American
General Assembly vote in 1999 even as Secretary-General Kofi Annan expressed a
desire for greater American involvement in the organization.
Meanwhile, in Kosovo the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, led by the United
States, was unable to prevent a Yugoslav campaign against Kosovar Albanians but
ultimately forced Yugoslavia (now Serbia and Montenegro) to cede contral of the
province; U.S. and other troops were sent into Kosovo as peacekeepers. That
conflict showed that the United States was again reluctant to commit military
forces, such as its army, that were likely to suffer significant casualties, although it
would use its airpower, where its great technological advantages enabled it strike
with less risk to its forces.
Negotiations in the Middle East, which continued in 2000, broke down, and there
was renewed violence in Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank late in the year. The
Clinton administration worked to restart the negotiations, but the issues proved
difficult to resolve. In the United States, the Nasdaq Internet and technology stock
bubble, which had begun its rise in 1999, completely deflated in the second half of
2000, as the so-called new economy associated with the Internet proved to be
subject to the rules of the old economy. Signs of a contracting economy also
appeared by year's end.
The 2000 presidential election, in which the American public generally appeared
uninspired by the either major-party candidate (Vice President Al Gore and the
Republican governor of Texas, George W. Bush) ended amid confusion and
contention not seen since the Hayes-Tilden election in 1876. On election night, the
television networks called and then retracted the winner of Florida twice, first
USA History by Aamir Mahar 208
projecting Gore the winner there, then projecting Bush the winner there and in the
race at large. The issue of who would win Florida and its electoral votes became
the issue of who would win the presidency, and the determination of the election
dragged on for weeks as Florida's votes were recounted. Gore, who trailed by
several hundred votes (out of 6 million) in Florida but led by a few hundred
thousand nationally, sought a manual recount of strongly Democratic counties in
Florida, and the issue ended up being fought in the courts and in the media.
Ultimately the U.S. Supreme Court called a halt to the process, although its split
decision along ideological lines was regarded by many as tarnishing the court.
Florida's electoral votes, as certified by the state's Republican officials, were won
by Bush, who secured a total of 271 electoral votes (one more than needed) and
48% of the popular vote (Gore had 49% of the popular vote). Bush thus became
the first person since Benjamin Harrison in 1888 to win the presidency without
achieving a plurality in the popular vote.
The slowing economy entered a recession in Mar., 2001, and unemployment rose,
leading to continued interest rate reductions by the Federal Reserve Bank. The
Bush administration moved quickly to win Congressional approval of its tax-cut
program, providing it with an early legislative victory, but other proposed
legislation moved more slowly. The resignation of Senator Jeffords of Vermont
from the Republican party cost it control of the Senate, a setback due in part to
administration pressure on him to adhere to the party line. Internationally, the
United States experienced some friction with its allies, who were unhappy with the
Bush administration's desire to abandon both the Kyoto Protocal (designed to fight
global warming) and the Antiballistic Missile Treaty (in order to proceed with
developing a ballistic missile defense system). Relations with China were briefly
tense in Apr., 2001, after a Chinese fighter and U.S. surveillance plane collided in
mid-air, killing the Chinese pilot.
The politics and concerns of the first eight months of 2001 abruptly became
secondary on Sept. 11, when terrorists hijacked four planes, crashing two into the
World Trade Center, which was destroyed, and one into the Pentagon; the fourth
crashed near Shanksville, Pa. Some 3,000 persons were killed or missing as a
result of the attacks. Insisting that no distinction would be made between terrorists
and those who harbored them, Bush demanded that Afghanistan's Taliban
government turn over Osama bin Laden, a Saudi-born Islamic militant whose Al
Qaeda group was behind the attacks. The U.S. government sought to build an
international coalition against Al Qaeda and the Taliban and, more broadly, against
terrorism, working to influence other nations to cut off sources of financial support
for terrorists.
In October, air strikes and then ground raids were launched against Afghanistan by
the United States, with British aid. Oman, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan permitted the
USA History by Aamir Mahar 209
use of their airspace and of bases within their borders for various operations. The
United States also provided support for opposition forces in Afghanistan, and by
December the Taliban government had been ousted and its and Al Qaeda's fighters
largely had been routed. Bin Laden, however, remained uncaptured, and a force of
U.S. troops was based in Afghanistan to search for him and to help with mopping-
up operations.
The terrorist attacks stunned Americans and amplified the effects of the recession
in the fall. Events had a severe impact on the travel industry, particularly the
airlines, whose flights were temporarily halted; the airlines subsequently suffered a
significant decrease in passengers. Congress passed several bills designed to
counter the economic effects of the attacks, including a $15 billion aid and loan
package for the airline industry. A new crisis developed in October, when cases of
anthrax and anthrax exposure resulted from spores that had been mailed to media
and government offices in bioterror attacks.
Although consumer spending and the stock market rebounded by the end of the
year from their low levels after September 11, unemployment reached 5.8% in
Dec., 2001. Nonetheless, the economy was recovering, albeit slowly, aided in part
by increased federal spending. In early 2002 the Bush administration announced
plans for a significant military buildup; that and the 2001 tax cuts were expected to
result in budget deficits in 2002–4. Prompted by a number of prominent corporate
scandals involving fraudulent or questionable accounting practices, some of which
led to corporate bankruptcies, Congress passed legislation that overhauled
securities and corporate laws in July, 2002.
The fighting in Afghanistan continued, with U.S. forces there devoted mainly to
mopping up remnants of Taliban and Al Qaeda forces. U.S. troops were also based
in Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan to provide support for the forces in
Afghanistan. In the Philippines, U.S. troops provided support and assistance to
Philippine forces fighting guerrillas in the Sulu Archipelago that had been linked to
Al Qaeda, and they also trained Georgian and Yemeni forces as part of the war on
terrorism.
The November election resulted in unexpected, if small, gains for the Republicans,
giving them control of both houses of Congress. After the election, Congress voted
to establish a new Department of Homeland Security, effective Mar., 2003. The
department regrouped most of the disparate agencies responsible for domestic
security under one cabinet-level official; the resulting government reorganization
was the largest since the Department of Defense was created in the late 1940s.
Dec., 2002, saw the negotiation of a free-trade agreement with Chile (signed in
June, 2003), regarded by many as the first step in the expansion of NAFTA to
include all the countries of the Americas. President Bush ordered the deployment
of a ballistic missile defense system, to be effective in 2004; the system would be
designed to prevent so-called rogue missile attacks. In advance of this move the
United States had withdrawn from the Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty with Russia in
June. North Korea, often described as one of the nations most likely to launch a
rogue attack, had admitted in October that it had a program for developing nuclear
weapons, and the United States and other nations responded by ending fuel
shipments and reducing food aid. In the subsequent weeks North Korea engaged in
a series of well-publicized moves to enable it to resume the development of nuclear
weapons, including withdrawing from the nuclear nonproliferation treaty. The
United States, which had first responded by refusing to negotiate in any way with
North Korea, adopted a somewhat less confrontational approach in 2003.
President Bush continued to press for Iraqi disarmament in 2003, and expressed
impatience with what his administration regarded as the lack of Iraqi compliance.
In Feb, 2003, however, the nation's attention was pulled away from the growing
tension over Iraq by the breakup of the space shuttle Columbia as it returned to
earth. Seven astronauts were killed in this second shuttle mishap, and focus was
once again directed toward the issues of the safety of the space shuttle and the
dynamics of the decision-making process at NASA.
The cost of the military campaign as well as of the ongoing U.S. occupation in Iraq
substantially increased what already had been expected to be a record-breaking
U.S. deficit in 2003 to around $374 billion. The size of the deficit, the unknown
ultimate cost of the war, and the continued weak U.S. economy (the unemployment
rate rose to 6.4% in June despite some improvement in other areas) were important
factors that led to the scaling back of a tax cut, proposed by President Bush, by
more than half to $350 billion.
In Aug., 2003, a massive electrical blackout affected the NE United States. Much
of New York and portions of Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and neighboring Ontario, Canada, lost power, in
many cases for a couple days. The widespread failure appeared to be due in part to
strains placed on the transmission system, its safeguards, and its operators by the
increased interconnectedness of electrical generation and transmission facilities
and the longer-distance transmission of electricity. An investigation into the event,
however, laid the primary blame on the Ohio utility where it began, both for
inadequate system maintenance and for failing to take preventive measures when
the crisis began.
The economy improved in the latter half of the 2003. Although the unemployment
rate inched below 6% and job growth was modest, overall economic growth was
robust, particularly in the last quarter. A major Medicare overhaul was enacted and
signed in December, creating a prescription drug benefit for the first time. The
same month the Central American Free Trade Agreement was finalized by the
United States, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, and in early
2004, Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic agreed to become parties to the
accord. The United States also reached free-trade agreements with Australia and
Morocco.
U.S. weapons inspectors reported in Jan., 2004, that they had failed to find any
evidence that Iraq had possessed biological or chemical weapons stockpiles prior
to the U.S. invasion. The assertion that such stockpiles existed was a primary
justification for the invasion, and the report led to pressure for an investigation of
U.S. intelligence prior to the war. In February, President Bush appointed a
bipartisan commission to review both U.S. intelligence failures in Iraq and other
issues relating to foreign intelligence; the commission's 2005 report criticized
intelligence agencies for failing to challenge the conventional wisdom about Iraq's
USA History by Aamir Mahar 212
weapon systems, and called for changes in how U.S. intelligence gathering is
organized and managed. The Senate's intelligence committee, reviewing the
situation separately, concluded in its 2004 report that much of the CIA's
information on and assessment of Iraq prior to the war was faulty.
Also in February, U.S., French, and Canadian forces were sent into Haiti to
preserve order. Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide had resigned under U.S.-
French pressure after rebel forces had swept through most of the country and
threatened to enter the capital. U.S. forces withdrew from Haiti in June when
Brazil assumed command of a UN peacekeeping force there.
By March, John Kerry had all but secured the Democrat nomination for president.
With both major party nominees clear, the focus of the political campaigns quickly
shifted to the November election. Both Bush and Kerry had elected not to accept
government funding, enabling them each to raise record amounts of campaign
funding, and the post-primary advertising campaign began early. In July, Kerry
chose North Carolina senator John Edwards, who had opposed him in the
primaries, as his running mate.
U.S. forces engaged in intense fighting in Iraq in Apr., 2004, as they attempted to
remove Sunni insurgents from the town of Falluja. The battling there was the
fiercest since the end of the invasion, and ultimately U.S. forces broke off without
clearing the fighters from the city, a goal that was not achieved until after similar
fighting in November. Guerrilla attacks by Sunni insurgents continued throughout
the year. Also in April a radical cleric attempted to spark a Shiite uprising, and
there was unrest and fighting in a number of other Iraqi cities. By mid-April the
Shiite militia was in control only in the region around An Najaf, but the militia did
not abandon its hold there until after intense battling in August. At the end of June,
Paul Bremer, the head of the U.S.-led Coalition Provisional Authority, turned over
sovereignty to an Iraqi interim government.
Nonetheless, the unrest called into question the degree to which Iraq had been
pacified, and the 160,000 U.S.-led troops still in Iraq were, for the time being, the
true guarantor of Iraqi security. Meanwhile, the prestige of the U.S. military had
been damaged by revelations, in May, that it had abused Iraqis held in the Abu
Ghraib prison during 2003–4.
In July, 2004, the U.S. commission investigating the terror attacks of Sept. 11,
2001, criticized especially U.S. intelligence agencies for failings that contributed to
the success of the attacks, and called for a major reorganization of those agencies,
leading to the passage of legislation late in the year. In the following months the
country's focus turned largely toward the November presidential election, as the
campaigns of President Bush and Senator Kerry and their surrogates escalated their
USA History by Aamir Mahar 213
often sharp political attacks. In a country divided over the threat of terrorism and
the war in Iraq, over the state of the economy and the state of the nation's values,
election spending reached a new peak despite recent campaign financing
limitations, and fueled a divisive and sometimes bitter mood. Ultimately, the
president appeared to benefit from a slowly recovering economy and the desire of
many voters for continuity in leadership while the nation was at war. Amid greatly
increased voter turnout, Bush secured a clear majority of the popular vote, in sharp
contrast to the 2000 election that first made him president. Republicans also
increased their margins of control in both houses of Congress, largely through
victories in the more conservative South.
The very active 2005 hurricane season saw several significant storms make landfall
on the U.S. coast. In August, Hurricane Katrina devastated the Mississippi and SE
Louisiana coasts, flooded much of New Orleans for several weeks, and caused
extensive destruction inland in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, making it the
most expensive natural disaster in U.S. history. The following month, Hurricane
Rita caused devastation along the SW Louisiana coast and widespread destruction
in inland Louisiana and SE Texas.
The perceived failings in the federal response to Katrina seemed to catalyze public
dissatisfaction with President Bush, as Americans became increasingly unsettled
by the ongoing war in Iraq, the state of the U.S. economy, and other issues less
than a year after Bush had been solidly reelected. Congress, meanwhile, passed a
USA History by Aamir Mahar 214
$52 billion emergency spending bill to deal with the effects of Katrina, but did not
make any significant spending cuts or reductions in tax cuts to compensate for the
additional outlays until Feb., 2006, when Congress passed a bill cutting almost $40
billion from a variety of government benefit programs, including Medicare,
Medicaid, and student loans.
Internationally and domestically, the United States government was the subject of
condemnation from some quarters for aspects of its conduct of the “war on terror”
in the second half of 2005. In Aug., 2005, Amnesty International denounced the
United States for maintaining secret, underground CIA prisons abroad. Subsequent
news reporting indicated that there were prisons in eight nations in E Europe and
Asia, and in December the United States acknowledged that the International
Committee of the Red Cross had not been given access to all its detention facilities.
A Swiss investigator for the Council of Europe indicated (Dec., 2005) that reports
that European nations and the United States had been involved in the abduction
and extrajudicial transfer of individuals to other nations were credible, and he
accused (Jan., 2006) the nations of “outsourcing” torture. In Jan., 2006, the New
York–based Human Rights Watch accused the U.S. government of a deliberate
policy of mistreating terror suspects.
In Dec., 2005, the National Security Agency was revealed to be wiretapping some
international communications originating in the United States without obtaining
the legally required warrants. The practice had begun in 2002, at the president's
order. The administration justified it by asserting that the president's powers to
defend the United States under the Constitution were not subject to Congressional
legislation and that the legislation authorizing the president to respond to the Sept.,
2001, terror attacks implicitly also authorized the wiretapping. Many politicians,
former government officials, and legal scholars, however, criticized the practice as
illegal or unconstitutional. The revelations and assertions did not derail the renewal
of those parts of the USA PATRIOT Act, a sometimes criticized national security
law originally enacted in 2001 after the Sept. 11th attacks; with only minor
adjustments most of the law was made permanent in Mar., 2006.
Leading imports include ores and metal scraps, petroleum and petroleum products,
machinery, transportation equipment (especially automobiles), and paper and paper
products. The major U.S. trading partners are Canada (in the world's largest
bilateral trade relationship), Mexico, Japan, the United Kingdom, South Korea, and
Germany. The volume of trade has been steadily increasing. The gross domestic
product has continued to rise, and in 1998 it was easily the largest in the world at
about $8.5 trillion. The development of the economy has been spurred by the
growth of a complex network of communications not only by railroad, highways,
inland waterways, and air but also by telephone, radio, television, computer
(including the Internet), and fax machine. This infrastructure has fostered not only
agricultural and manufacturing growth but has also contributed to the leading
position the United States holds in world tourism revenues and to the ongoing shift
to a service-based economy. In 1996 some 74% of Americans worked in service
industries, a proportion matched, among major economic powers, only by Canada.
Government
The government of the United States is that of a federal republic set up by the
Constitution of the United States, adopted by the Constitutional Convention of
1787.
There is a division of powers between the federal government and the state
governments. The federal government consists of three branches: the executive, the
legislative, and the judicial. The executive power is vested in the President and, in
the event of the President's incapacity, the Vice President. (For a chronological list
USA History by Aamir Mahar 216
of all the presidents and vice presidents of the United States, including their terms
in office and political parties, see the table entitled Presidents of the United States.)
The executive conducts the administrative business of the nation with the aid of a
cabinet composed of the Attorney General and the Secretaries of the Departments
of State; Treasury; Defense; Interior; Agriculture; Commerce; Labor; Health and
Human Services; Education; Housing and Urban Development; Transportation;
Energy; and Veterans' Affairs.
The Congress of the United States, the legislative branch, is bicameral and consists
of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch is formed by
the federal courts and headed by the U.S. Supreme Court. The members of the
Congress are elected by universal suffrage as are the members of the electoral
college, which formally chooses the President and the Vice President.
86. Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life among the Lowly is an anti-slavery novel
by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in 1852
87. Gadsden purchase was conducted in 1853 with Mexico, ratified by
senate in 1854, to build a transcontinental railroad
88. Kansas-Nebraska act was passed in 1854, proposed by Stephen
Douglas, an attempt to legalese the doctrine of Popular Sovereignty. It
repealed Missouri compromise, giving states right to decide the status.
89. Eventually both Kansas and Nebraska entered as Free states.
90. The 1854 Ostend Manifesto was an unsuccessful Southern attempt to
annex Cuba as a slave state
USA History by Aamir Mahar 223
91. Appeal of independent democrats of Congress was written by Chase,
signed by Free-Soil Democrats
92. In Kansas, two opposing constitutions, Topeka Constitution (anti-
slavery- 1855) and Lecompton Constitution (pro-slavery- 1857) were
proposed. In Congress debate (1858), former won and Kansas entered
union as Free state (1861)
93. In 1856, Pottawatomie massacre took place- free men under John
Brown attacked Pro-Salves
94. Kansas-Nebraska act had huge impact on 1856 election in which
Buchanan, a democrat, won
95. In 1857, Supreme Court heard the famous Dred Scot vs. Sanford case -
ruled in favor of slave owners and also declared Missouri Compromise
unconstitutional plus declared Negros as Non-Citizens of US. This
decision was later overruled by 15th amendment(1870)
96. Lincoln-Douglas debate took place in 1858, as a contest for Senate seat
from Illinois
97. In 1859, John Brown’s Raid on Harper Ferry took place- An attempt to
eradicate slavery by armed slave revolt
98. According to 1860 census, population was 31.4 Mn
99. 1860 election was won by Abraham Lincoln- a republican; democrats
were divided on nomination (Douglas was main nominee). Another party
called Constitutional Union Party also participated Civil War
100. First state to secede was South Carolina (20 Dec 1860) and by Feb, 6
more states seceded. In Feb 1861, 7 states -SAFMGTL (Some apples feel more
good than lemon)–met at Montgomery (Alabama) and formed a Confederate
state of America with Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president.
Richmond (Virginia) was selected as capital. This happened even before
Lincoln took office (4thMarch 1861).
101. 4 more states – VNAT (Very Tasty And Nectarous)- joined confederation
later to make total 11 states
102. Union had 25 states on its side
103. War started with attack of Southern forces on Fort Sumter on 12th April
1861. War was conducted on 2 fronts- east and west. Lincoln called for
75,000 volunteers
104. 1st battle of Bull Run/Manassas was conducted in east in 1861, a failed
attempt by US to take Richmond.
Uptill 1977
193. New Hampshire was the first state to adopt a constitution in 1776
194. On July 8, 1776, Liberty Bell rang from the tower of Independence Hall
summoning the citizens of Philadelphia to hear the Declaration of
Independence by Colonel John Nixon.
USA History by Aamir Mahar 230
195. Thomas Paine wrote a book Common Sense (1776) which aroused the
public revolutionary spirit
196. Virginia Statute of religious freedom was drafted by Jefferson in 1777,
included in Virginia’s state law in 1786
197. Benjamin Franklin was a Pennsylvanian Radical
198. Samuel Adams, John Adams and John Hancock were Massachusetts’
radicals
199. George Washington, Madison, Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry
were Virginian radicals
200. Alexander Hamilton and Robert Livingston were New York radicals
201. American capitals were
a. Philadelphia (1st and 2nd Continental Congress)
b. Then due to WOI it was changed frequently to Baltimore, Lancaster
and York and finally again back to Philadelphia
c. Under AOC it was changed to New York City
d. Under US Constitution, first ever capital was New York City, changed
to Philadelphia (1790) and finally to Washington DC (1800)where
congress held its first meeting In 1800
202. ROBERT MORRIS became the Congress' superintendent of finance in
1781 and setup Bank of North America
203. Continental congress issued paper money called “Continental”
204. Annapolis Convention, presided by John Dickinson, was held in
September 1786, first attempt to modify the AOC to give Congress more
control, but failed. It called for Philadelphia convention.
205. Shay’s rebellion took place in 1786-87in Massachusetts
206. Three-fifth compromise was suggested by James Wilson and Roger
Sherman.
207. Benjamin Franklin is called the “sage of constitutional convention”
208. The committee of detail was headed by John Rutledge
209. The preamble of constitutionwaswritten by Committee of Style
210. Anti-federalists were led by Patrick Henry, federalists by Alexander
Hamilton
211. Constitution was ratified by 9th stateson June 21, 1788,New Hampshire
being that state; became operational on 4th March 1789 with first
meeting of congress and repealing of AOC on 3rd March
212. George Washington is the only president not to belong to any political
party; he called political parties “factions”
USA History by Aamir Mahar 231
213. Bill of rights (9 proposed by Massachusetts, 12 proposed by GW, but 10
accepted amendments), sent to states on 25th Sep, 1789, ratified by 9
states and became operational in Dec 1791. Connecticut and Georgia
ratified them in 1941
a. 1st Amendment: Freedom of speech, no religion established
b. 2nd Amendment: A state militia and right to keep arms
c. 9th Amendment: Rights not listed will be protected
d. 10th Amendment: Powers not enlisted in constitution are reserved by
states
214. Supreme Court of USA was established in 1789
215. Population of US according to census of 1790 was 3.9 Mn
216. First cotton mill was established in 1790by Samuel Slater
217. The First Bank of USwas established in 1791 at Philadelphiaas a
private corporation with an expiration date of 20 years.Bank would
have $ 10 Mn capital one-fifth of which will be provided by
government. Bank would have 25 directors (one-fifth appointed by
govt.)
218. National currency was issued in 1792 (Mint Act) by establishing a mint
at Philadelphia
219. 11th amendment in US Constitution was passed by Congress in 1794,
ratified in 1795 was in order to overrule the U.S. Supreme Court's
decision in Chisholm v. Georgia
220. Jay’s treaty was signed with UK in 1794
221. Washington DC was previously called Federal City
222. French Revolution broke out in 1789
223. Anglo-French war broke out in 1792
224. Ellen Whitney invented Cotton Gin in 1793
225. First party system ranges from almost 1794 to 1828. Two major parties
were Federalists and Democratic-republicans (Jeffersonian).
226. Election of 1796 was the first election where candidates at all levels ran
from well-organized partiesand the only electionwhere POTUS and VP
were from opposing parties
227. Alien and sedition acts passed in 1798, contained 4 sub-laws and
expired in 1801
228. Virginia resolution (1798-Madison) and Kentucky resolutions(1798 &
99-Jefferson) were passed in state legislatures, in opposition of Alien &
History of USA
Solved MCQS - 2012
230. FDR highest vote in which term? 2nd Term
231. Harvard was established in which year? 1636
232. How many states signed Declaration of Independence? 13 Colonies
233. Ronald Reagan said Evil Empire about which state? USSR
234. Fourth Constitution Amendment is about? Search and Seizure
235. Paris Treaty in which year? 1783
236. First US Consensus in which year? 1790
237. Fourteen points of Wilson deals with? Germany
238. NASA US space shuttle Colombia in which year? 1981
239. Intermediate Range Nuclear Treaty signed between Reagan and
Gorbachev in which year? 1987
240. I have a dream speech by Martin Luther in which year? 1963
241. Capital Punishment in America is followed in how many states? 35
242. Malcolm X killed in which year? 1965
243. National Organization of Women was established in which year? 1966
244. American Bar Association established in 1878.
245. Miranda rule pertains to warn you in advance before arresting you.
246. Truman doctrine was to contain communism in Greece and Turkey.
247. Reader Digest was introduced in America in 1922.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
250. Clara Barton was a famous nurse in Civil War, made American Red
Cross.
259. USA has an area of3.79 million square miles (9.83 Million Km square).
264. In US constitution:
Article 1: Legislature (also census)
Article 2: Executive
Article 3: Judiciary
Article 4: Relations between states
Article 5: Amendments
Article 6: Central Govt
Article 7: Ratification
BEST WISHES