AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

MH1115
Unit - V
Karthik Murali Madhavan Rathai
Assistant professor
Department of Mechatronics engineering
SRM University, Kattankulathur
Room no. H316
E-mail – karthikmr1991@gmail.com
Phone – +91-9840291486
Website – https://sites.google.com/site/karthikmr091/
 Vehicle motion control
• Some of the major electromechanical feedback control systems under
development in the automotive industry and in research laboratories
are
 Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS)
 Active stability control systems
 Ride quality improvement
 Traffic congestion solutions
 Fuel economy and vehicle emissions
 Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS)
• Variety of driver assistance systems are being developed by automotive
manufacturers to automate mundane driving operations, reduce driver
burden and thus reduce highway accidents. Examples of such ADAS
development include
 Collision avoidance systems which automatically detect slower moving preceding
vehicles and provide warning and brake assist to the driver.
 Adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems which are enhanced cruise control systems
and enable preceding vehicles to be followed automatically at a safe distance.
 Lane departure warning systems.
 Lane keeping systems which automate steering on straight roads.
 Vision enhancement/ night vision systems.
 Driver condition monitoring systems which detect and provide warning for driver
drowsiness, as well as for obstacles and pedestrians.
 Safety event recorders and automatic collision and severity notification systems
 ACTIVE STABILITY CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Vehicle stability control systems that prevent vehicles from spinning,
drifting out and rolling over.
• Stability control systems that prevent vehicles from skidding and
spinning out are often referred to as yaw stability control systems.
• Stability control systems that prevent roll over are referred to as
active rollover prevention systems.
• Yaw control system types
 Differential-braking
 Steer-by-wire
 Active torque distribution
Vehicle stability
 RIDE QUALITY
• The notion of using active actuators in the suspension of a vehicle to
provide significantly improved ride quality, better handling and improved
traction has been pursued in various forms for a long time by research
engineers.
• Fully active suspension systems have been implemented on Formula One
racing cars and for the more regular passenger car market, semi-active
suspensions are available.
• Most semi-active and active suspension systems in the market have been
designed to provide improved handling by reducing roll during cornering.
Active stabilizer bar systems have been developed, for example, by BMW
and Delphi and are designed to reduce roll during cornering without any
deterioration in the ride quality experienced during normal travel.
Passive, Semi-active and Full-active
suspension
 TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADDRESSING TRAFFIC
CONGESTION
• Automated highway systems
• “Traffic-friendly” adaptive cruise control
• Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)
 Adaptive Cruise Control
• Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) technology automatically adjust the vehicle speed and
distance to that of a target vehicle.
• ACC uses a long range radar sensor to detect a target vehicle up to 200 meters in front
and automatically adjusts the ACC vehicle speed and gap accordingly.
• ACC automatically decelerates or accelerates the vehicle according to the desired speed
and distance settings established by the driver.
• Response time of the driver (t): time needed by the driver to response safely to any
unwanted disturbances (approximately about 2-3 sec).
• Safe distance: the distance between vehicle equipped with ACC to the leading vehicle in
front where the driver is still able to response safely in case of emergency brake
happened to the vehicle in front.
Safe distance = Vs * t
Vs = speed of ACC vehicle
t = 2-3 sec
System Configuration of ACC
 Two types of ACC
• Radar-Based System
 Three overlapping radar-beams (76-77kHz)
 Detects moving object up to 120 m
 Work in poor weather conditions
• Laser-Based System (LIDAR)
 Light beams are narrower than water droplet and snowflakes
 Less expensive and easier to package
 Automatic cruise control
• Automotive cruise control is an excellent example of the type of electronic
feedback control system.
• Recall that the components of a control system include the plant, or system
being controlled, and a sensor for measuring the plant variable being
regulated.
• It also includes an electronic control system that receives inputs in the form
of the desired value of the regulated variable and the measured value of
that variable from the sensor. The control system generates an error signal
constituting the difference between the desired and actual values of this
variable. It then generates an output from this error signal that drives an
electromechanical actuator.
• The actuator controls the input to the plant in such a way that the
regulated plant variable is moved toward the desired value.
Automatic cruise control
 Control principle
• Whenever the actual speed is less than the desired speed the throttle
opening is increased by the actuator, which increases vehicle speed
until the error is zero, at which point the throttle opening remains
fixed until either a disturbance occurs or the driver calls for a new
desired speed.
• The error is

• The controller is PI

• The throttle opening is proportional to the value of this actuator

signal.
PI controller for cruise control
 Requirements of the controller
• When do you need a P – controller ?

• When do you need a I – controller ?

• When do you need a D – controller ?

• The system designer chooses the control electronics that provide the
following system qualities
 Quick response
 Relative stability
 Small steady-state error
 Optimization of the control effort required
Digital Cruise Control
Digital Speed Sensor
 Throttle Actuator
• The throttle actuator is an electromechanical device that, in response
to an electrical input from the controller, moves the throttle through
some appropriate mechanical linkage.
• Two relatively common throttle actuators operate either from
manifold vacuum or with a stepper motor.
Vacuum-Operated
Throttle Actuator
 The piston-connecting rod assembly is attached to
the throttle lever.
 There is also a spring attached to the lever. If there
is no force applied by the piston, the spring pulls the
throttle closed.
 When an actuator input signal energizes the
electromagnet in the control solenoid, the pressure
control valve is pulled down and changes the
actuator cylinder pressure by providing a path to
manifold pressure.
 Manifold pressure is lower than atmospheric
pressure, so the actuator cylinder pressure quickly
drops, causing the piston to pull against the
throttle lever to open the throttle.
 The force exerted by the piston is varied by
changing the average pressure in the cylinder
chamber.
Stepper Motor-Based Actuator
CRUISE CONTROL ELECTRONICS
 ACC principle
• It should be emphasized that, regardless of the actuator type used, a
microprocessor-based cruise control system will:
• Read the command speed.
• Measure actual vehicle speed.
• Compute an error (error = command – actual).
• Compute a control signal using P, PI, or PID control law.
• Send the control signal to the driver electronics.
• Cause driver electronics to send a signal to the throttle actuator such that the
error will be reduced.
ACC (Analog electronics)
 Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
• ABS is a safety-related feature that assists the driver in deceleration of the
vehicle in poor or marginal braking conditions (e.g., wet or icy roads).
• In such conditions, panic braking by the driver (in non-ABS-equipped cars)
results in reduced braking effectiveness and, typically, loss of directional
control due to the tendency of the wheels to lock.
• In ABS-equipped cars, the wheel is prevented from locking by a mechanism
that automatically regulates braking force to an optimum for any given
low-friction condition.
• ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping
distances on dry and slippery surfaces.
• ABS modulates the brake line pressure independent of the pedal force, to
bring the wheel speed back to the slip level range that is necessary
for optimal braking performance.
 Objectives of ABS
• To reduce stopping distance
 The road surface type and conditions can be inferred from the vehicle's braking
pressure, wheel slip measurements, and deceleration rate comparisons.
 The wheel slip is regulated so that the road adhesion coefficient is maximized. By
keeping all of the wheels of a vehicle near the maximum friction coefficient, an
antilock system can attain maximum fictional force
 In turn, this strategy leads to the minimization of the vehicle stopping distance.
• Stability
 A locked-up wheel generates a reduced braking force, smaller than the peak value of
the available adhesion between tires and road. A locked-up wheel will also lose its
capability to sustain any lateral force. This may result in the loss of vehicle stability.
 The basic purpose of a conventional ABS system is thus to prevent any wheel from
locking and to keep the longitudinal slip in an operational range by cycling the braking
pressure.
 Objectives of ABS
• Steerability
 Good peak frictional force control is necessary in order to achieve
satisfactory lateral forces and, therefore, satisfactory steer-ability.
 If an obstacle appears without warning, emergency braking may not be
sufficient. When the wheels are locked, car no longer respond to the driver’s
steering intention.
 With ABS car remains steerable even during emergency braking, and thus the
obstacle can be safely avoided.
 Components of ABS
• In addition to the normal brake components, including brake pedal, master
cylinder, vacuum boost, wheel cylinders, calipers/disks, and brake lines, this
system has a set of angular speed sensors at each wheel, an electronic
control module, and a hydraulic brake pressure modulator (regulator).
• The primary components of the ABS braking system are:
 Electronic control unit (ECU)
• It receives signals from the sensors in the circuit and controls the brake pressure at the road wheels
according to the data analyzed by the Unit.
• ECU assists the vehicle operator to prevent wheel lockup by regulating the wheel slip.
 Hydraulic control unit or modulator
• It receives operating signals from the ECU to apply or release the brakes under ABS conditions.
• It executes the commands using three solenoid valves connected in series with the master cylinder
and the brake circuits- one valve for each front wheel hydraulic circuit, and one for both of the rear
wheels. Thus brakes can be actuated by controlling hydraulic pressure.
 Components of ABS
 Power booster and master cylinder assembly
• It is activated when the driver pushes down on the brake pedal. The master cylinder
transforms the applied pedal force into hydraulic pressure which is transmitted
simultaneously to all four wheels.
• It provides the power assistance required during braking.
 Wheel sensor unit
• Speed sensors are comprised of a magnet wrapped in a coil and a toothed sensor
ring. An electrical field given off by the contact between the magnet and the toothed
ring creates a AC voltage.
• The voltage frequency is directly proportional to the wheel's rotational speed.
• It monitors the rotational speed of the wheel and transmits this data to the ABS
control module.
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) - Schematic
 Working of ABS
• If a wheel-speed sensor signals a lock up - the ECU sends a current to the
hydraulic unit. This energizes the solenoid valve. The action of the valve
isolates the brake circuit from the master cylinder. This stops the braking
pressure at that wheel from rising, and keeps it constant. It allows wheel
velocity to increase and slip to decrease.
• When the velocity increases, ECU re-applies the brake pressure to
restrict the wheel slip to a particular value.
• Hydraulic control unit controls the brake pressure in each wheel cylinder
based on the inputs from the system sensor. This in result controls the
wheel speed.
 What is slip ?
• Wheel slip:
 When the braking action is initiated, a slippage between the tire and the
contacted road surface will occur, which make the speed of the vehicle be
different from that of the tire.
• The longitudinal slip is defined as

𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝜔𝑅𝑤
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 =
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼−𝜔𝑅𝑤
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 % = × 100%
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

• The side slip angle is

−1
𝑉𝑠𝑦
𝛼= 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑉𝑥
Note: A rolling tire has slip S = 0, and a fully locked tire has S = 100%.
 Static tire forces characteristics

Cornering force vs slip angle for Cornering force vs slip angle for constant road
different road friction coefficient friction coefficient for different slip values
Forces During Braking

• The braking and lateral forces are proportional to the

normal force (from the weight of the car) acting on the
tire/road interface the friction coefficients for braking force
(𝐹𝑏 ) and lateral force (𝐹𝑙 )

 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑁𝜇𝑏
 𝐹𝐿 = 𝑁𝜇𝐿

Where
 𝜇𝑏 is the braking friction coefficient
 𝜇𝐿 is the lateral friction coefficient

• These coefficients depend markedly on slip

Braking coefficients versus Tire Slip
• The solid curves are for a dry road and the dashed curves for
a wet or icy road.
• As brake pedal force is increased from zero, slip increases
from zero. For increasing slip, 𝜇𝑏 increases to 𝑆 = 𝑆0 .
• Further increase in slip actually decreases 𝜇𝑏 , thereby
reducing braking effectiveness.
• On the other hand, 𝜇𝐿 decreases steadily with increasing
𝑆 such that for fully locked wheels the lateral force has its
lowest value.
• For wet or icy roads, 𝜇𝐿 at 𝑆 = 100% is so low that the lateral
force is insufficient to maintain directional control of the
vehicle.
• However, directional control can often be maintained even
in poor braking conditions if slip is optimally controlled.
• This is essentially the function of the ABS, which performs
an operation equivalent to pumping the brakes as done by
experienced drivers before the development of ABS. In a
typical ABS configuration, control over slip is effected by
controlling the brake line pressure under electronic control.
 Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
• This ABS regulates or modulates brake pressure to maintain slip as near to optimum 𝑆0 as
possible.
• The operation of this ABS is based on estimating the torque 𝑇𝑤 applied to the wheel at the
road surface by the braking force 𝐹𝑏 .
 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑅𝐹𝑏
• In opposition to this torque is the braking torque 𝑇𝑏 applied to the disk by the calipers in
response to brake pressure 𝑃.
 𝑇𝑏 = 𝑘𝑏 𝑃
• where 𝑘𝑏 is a constant for the given brakes.
• The difference between these two torques acts to decelerate the wheel. In accordance
with basic Newtonian mechanics, the wheel torque 𝑇𝑤 is related to braking torque and
wheel deceleration by the following equation
 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑇𝑏 + 𝐼𝑤 𝑊
• Where
 𝐼𝑤 is the wheel moment of inertia
 𝑊 is the wheel deceleration (dw/dt, that is, the rate of change of wheel speed)
 Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
• During heavy braking under marginal conditions, sufficient braking
force is applied to cause wheel lock-up (in the absence of ABS
control).
• Let’s take a look, what happens when ABS is in-charge !
• As brake pressure is applied, 𝑇𝑏 increases and w decreases, causing
slip to increase.
• The wheel torque is proportional to 𝜇𝑏 , which reaches a peak at slip
𝑆0 . Consequently, the wheel torque reaches a maximum value
(assuming sufficient brake force is applied) at this level of slip.
Anti-lock braking system (ABS)
• After the peak wheel torque is sensed electronically, the
electronic control system commands that brake pressure be
reduced (via the brake pressure modulator).
• This point is indicated in Figure in left, as the limit point of
slip for the ABS. As the brake pressure is reduced, slip is
reduced and the wheel torque again passes through a
maximum.
• The wheel torque reaches a value below the peak on the
low slip side and at this point brake pressure is again
increased.
• The system will continue to cycle, maintaining slip near the
optimal value as long as the brakes are applied and the
braking conditions are poor.
 Brake Pressure • The mechanism for modulating brake pressure
is illustrated in left Figure a).
Modulating Mechanism 1. Applied master cylinder pressure
2. Bypass brake fluid
3. Normally open solenoid valve
4. EMB braking action
5. DC motor pack
6. ESB braking
7. Gear assembly
8. Ball screw
9. Check valve unseated
10. Outlet to brake cylinders
11. Piston
• In Figure b)
1. Trapped bypass brake fluid
2. Solenoid valve activated
3. EMB action released
4. DC motor pack
5. ESB braking action released
6. Gear assembly
7. Ball screw
8. Check valve seated
9. Applied master cylinder pressure
 Brake pressure modulating mechanism
• Whenever the wheel slip limit is reached, the solenoid valve is closed and the
piston (11) retracts, closing the check valve.
• This action effectively isolates the brake cylinders from the master cylinder, and
brake line pressure is controlled by the position of piston (11).
• This piston retracts, lowering the brake pressure sufficiently so that slip falls below
𝑆0 .
• At this point, the control system detects low 𝑇𝑊 and the piston moves up, thereby
increasing brake line pressure.
• The ABS system will continue to cycle until the vehicle has stopped, the braking
conditions are normal, or the driver removes the brake pressure from the master
cylinder.
• In the latter case, the operation of the brake pressure modulator restores normal
braking function. For example, should the driver release the brake pedal, then the
pressure at the inlet (1) is reduced. At this point, the check valve (9) opens and
brake line pressure is also removed. The solenoid valve opens and the piston
returns to its normal position (fully up) such that the check valve is held open.
 • Figure left illustrates the braking during an ABS
ABS Braking Action action. In this illustration, the vehicle is initially
traveling at 55 mph and the brakes are applied as
indicated by the rising brake pressure.
• The wheel speed begins to drop until the slip limit is
reached. At this point, the ABS reduces brake
pressure and the wheel speed increases.
• With the high applied brake pressure, the wheels
again tend toward lock-up and ABS reduces brake
pressure. The cycle continues until the vehicle is
stopped.
• It should be noted that by maintaining slip near 𝑆0 ,
the maximum deceleration is achieved for a given
set of conditions. Some reduction in lateral force
occurs from its maximum value by maintaining slip
near 𝑆0 . However, in most cases the lateral force is
large enough to maintain directional control.
• In some antilock brake systems, the slip oscillations
are shifted below 𝑆0 , sacrificing some braking
effectiveness to enhance directional control. This
can be accomplished by adjusting the upper and
lower slip limits.
 Tire-Slip Controller
• Another benefit of the ABS is that the brake pressure modulator can be used for
tire-slip control. Tire slip is effective in moving the car forward just as it is in
braking.
• Under normal driving circumstances, the slip that was defined previously for
braking is negative. That is, the tire is actually moving at a speed that is greater
than for a purely rolling tire. In fact, the traction force is proportional to slip.
• For wet or icy roads, the friction coefficient can become very low and excessive
slip can develop. In extreme cases, one of the driving wheels may be on ice or in
snow while the other is on a dry (or drier) surface. Because of the action of the
differential, the low-friction tire will spin and relatively little torque will be applied
to the dry-wheel side. In such circumstances, it may be difficult for the driver to
move the car even though one wheel is on a relatively good friction surface.
 Tire-Slip Controller
• The difficulty can be overcome by applying a braking force to the free
spinning wheel. In this case, the differential action is such that torque is
applied to the relatively dry wheel surface and the car can be moved. In the
example ABS, such braking force can be applied to the free spinning wheel
by the hydraulic brake pressure modulator (assuming a separate modulator
for each drive wheel). Control of this modulator is based on measurements
of the speed of the two drive wheels. Of course, the ABS already
incorporates wheel speed measurements, as discussed previously.
• The ABS electronics have the capability to perform comparisons of these
two wheel speeds and to determine that braking is required of one drive
wheel to prevent wheel spin.
 Traction control systems
• Traction refers to the maximum frictional force that can be produced between surfaces
without slipping. In automobiles traction is responsible for the movement of vehicle.
• The purpose of the Traction Control System (TCS) is to prevent wheel spin due to
acceleration.
• The maximum torque that can be transmitted to the wheels is determined by the
coefficient of friction generated between the road and the tires. If torque exceeds that
level, the wheels are likely to spin. Conditions for Traction operation may include slippery
road surfaces, acceleration while cornering and hard acceleration.
• The basic idea behind the need of a traction control system is the difference between the
slips of different wheels or an apparent loss of road grip that may result in loss of
steering control over the vehicle which leads to slipping of the vehicle and loss of power
which results in uncontrolled cruising.
• Difference in slip may occur due to turning of a vehicle or differently varying road
conditions for different wheels. And thus need to be controlled for a safer way to cruise.
Block diagram of Traction control system
 Working
• A simple input output process block diagram is given in figure 1 and various inputs are shown on
the left side. The process control unit is represented in the middle part if the figure. Right side
blocks of the diagram shows the various controlled outputs for the TRAC system.
• The main inputs for a TRAC system are wheel speed sensors, battery level sensor, TRAC OFF
switch, stop light switch , and the throttle position sensor. These inputs give speed signal,
remaining battery signal, OFF signal, stop signal and throttle level signal respectively.
• The processing part consists of an Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) or a TRAC Electronic Control
Unit (TRAC ECU) and an Engine Control Modulator (ECM). The TRAC ECU will have an
interconnection with ECM in order to communicate to the engine throttle position control.
These processing units process and analyze the input signals and take necessary output actions
if required.
• The controlled outputs of a TRAC system are solenoids actuator, pump motor actuator, slip
indicator light, TRAC OFF light, ABS warning light, injectors control, and solenoid valve actuator.
• The control action can consist of one or more actions such as reducing or suppress the spark to
one or more cylinders, reducing fuel supply to one or more cylinders, brake one or more wheels,
close the throttle where vehicle is fitted with ECM controlled throttle, and the boost control
solenoid can be actuated to reduce boost and therefore engine power. The controlled action of
the one or more of the above outputs can help in traction control of the vehicle resulting in a
slip proof cruising of the vehicle irrespective of the external weather conditions.
 SUMMARY
• Traction-control systems utilize the same wheel-speed sensors
employed by the antilock braking system. These sensors measure
differences in rotational speed to determine if the wheels that are
receiving power have lost traction. When the traction-control system
determines that one wheel is spinning more quickly than the others,
it automatically applies brake to that wheel to reduce its speed and
lessen wheel slip.
• In most cases, individual wheel braking is enough to control wheel
slip. Therefore for drivers who routinely drive in snowy and icy
conditions, traction control is a must-have safety feature.
TRAC wheel speed control
• When the accelerator pedal is
depressed the main throttle opens
resulting in generation of more torque.
If the TRAC system identifies excessive
torque than required causing one or
more wheels to spin, then it applies
brake to those wheels in small amounts.
This braking action is intermittent till
the wheel speed is reduced to the
desired range for safe cruising.
• We can observe the highs and lows in
the graph representing increased wheel
speed and TRAC wheel speed
controlling action respectively. Finally it
comes to the required speed range and
TRAC system stops controlling action
and goes back to monitoring state
 Electronic stability control/program
• Vehicle stability control systems that prevent vehicles from spinning and
drifting out have been developed and recently commercialized by several
automotive manufacturers.
• Such stability control systems are also often referred to as yaw stability
control systems or electronic stability control systems.
• The function of the yaw control system is to restore the yaw velocity of the
vehicle as much as possible to the nominal motion expected by the driver.
• If the friction coefficient is very small, it might not be possible to entirely
achieve the nominal yaw rate motion that would be achieved by the driver
on a high coefficient road surface.
• In this case, the yaw control system might only partially succeed by making
the vehicle’s yaw rate closer to the expected nominal yaw rate
Electronic Stability Program
• It is used on vehicles to prevent
“spinning” during heavy braking and
steering, as shown in the image on the
left.
• ESP utilizes w/speed sensors to monitor
the road wheels, as well as a yaw speed
sensor to detect its level of movement
through the z axis (spinning) and a
steering wheel angle sensor. It also uses
traction control and anti-lock braking
systems, it can’t work on its own.
• Traction Control is used in order to drop
acceleration from the wheel that is
deemed to be slipping.
• ESP also uses ABS to activate the brakes
on individual wheels at the required level
to prevent the driver from losing control.
Under and over steer
• Understeer occurs when you go around a corner
much too fast and the front wheels don’t have
enough traction. As a result you end up going
forward instead of turning.

• Over steer is the opposite, the car turns more than

the driver intended to causing the rear wheels to
slide and the car to spin.

• Under steer is common on front wheel drive cars

• Over steer is common on rear wheel drive cars

 Electronic Stability Program
• Human error is the cause for a large portion of road accidents. Due to external
circumstances, such as an obstacle suddenly appearing on the road or driving at
inappropriately high speeds, the vehicle can reach its critical limits and it becomes
uncontrollable. The lateral acceleration forces acting on the vehicle reach values that
overtax the driver. Electronic systems can make a major contribution towards increasing
driving safety.
• The Electronic Stability Program (ESP) is a closed-loop system designed to improve
vehicle handling and braking response through programmed intervention in the braking
system and/or drivetrain. The integrated functionality of the ABS prevents the wheels
from locking when the brakes are applied, while TCS inhibits wheel spin during
acceleration.
• In its role as an overall system, ESP applies a unified, synergistic concept to control the
vehicle’s tendency to “plow” instead of obeying the helm during attempted steering
corrections; and at the same time it maintains stability to prevent the vehicle breaking
away to the side, provided the vehicle remains within its physical limits.
Physical limits ?
Lateral dynamic response on passenger car
without ESP

1. Driver steers, lateral force buildup.

2. Incipient instability because side-slip
angle is too large.
3. Counter steer, driver loses control of
vehicle.
4. Vehicle becomes uncontrollable.

• 𝑀𝐺 Yaw moment
• 𝐹𝑅 Wheel forces
• 𝛽 Directional deviation from
vehicle’s longitudinal axis (side-slip
angle)
 Requirements
• ESP enhances driving safety by providing the following assets:
 Enhanced vehicle stability; the system keeps the vehicle on track and improves
directional stability under all operating conditions, including emergency stops,
standard braking maneuvers, coasting, acceleration, trailing throttle (overrun), and
load shift.
 Increased vehicle stability at the limits of traction, such as during sharp steering
maneuvers (panic response), to reduce the danger of skidding or breakaway.
In a variety of different situations, further improvements in the exploitation of
traction potential when ABS and TCS come into action, and when engine drag torque
control is active (Engine drag torque control (MSR) prevents the driven wheels from
locking on slippery surfaces under the influence of engine braking. This can happen if
the driver releases the accelerator abruptly or shifts down a gear quickly. The braking
effect of the engine may cause the driven wheels to skid), by automatically increasing
engine speed to inhibit excessive engine braking. The ultimate effects are shorter
braking distances and greater traction along with enhanced stability and higher levels
of steering response.
 Tasks and method of operation
• The electronic stability program is a system that relies on the vehicle’s braking system as a
tool for “steering” the vehicle.
• When the stability-control function assumes operation it shifts the priorities that govern
the brake system. The basic function of the wheel brakes – to decelerate and/or stop the
vehicle – assumes secondary importance as ESP intervenes to keep the vehicle stable and
on course, regardless of the conditions.
• Specific braking intervention is directed at individual wheels, such as the inner rear wheel
to counter understeer, or the outer front wheel during over steer.
• For optimal implementation of stability objectives, ESP not only initiates braking
intervention, but it can also intervene on the engine side to accelerate the driven wheels.
• Because this “discriminatory” control concept relies on two individual intervention
strategies, the system has two options for steering the vehicle: it can brake selected wheels
(selective braking) or accelerate the driven wheels. Within the invariable limits imposed by
the laws of physics, ESP keeps the vehicle on the road and reduces the risk of accident and
overturning. The system enhances road safety by furnishing the driver with effective
support.
Lateral dynamic response on passenger car
with ESP
1. Driver steers, lateral force buildup.
2. Incipient instability, ESP intervention at
right front.
3. Vehicle remains under control.
4. Incipient instability, ESP intervention at
left front, complete stabilization.

• 𝑀𝐺 Yaw moment
• 𝐹𝑅 Wheel forces
• 𝛽 Directional deviation from
vehicle’s longitudinal axis (side-slip
angle)
⟸ Increased braking force
 Maneuver
Rapid steering and counter steering
• This maneuver is similar to lane changes or abrupt steering inputs
such as might be expected for instance
 when a vehicle is moving too fast when it enters a series of consecutive S-
bends,
 or which have to be initiated when, with oncoming traffic, an obstacle
suddenly appears on a country road, or
 which are necessary when an overtaking maneuver on the highway or
freeway suddenly has to be aborted.
 on a high-traction road-surface (coefficient of friction μHF = 1)
 without the driver braking,
with an initial speed of 144 km/h.
Vehicle tracking during right-left cornering
sequence
 Behavior analysis for Vehicle tracking during
right-left cornering sequence
• Vehicle without ESP
As can be seen, in the period following the initial, abrupt steering input the vehicle without
ESP is already threatening to become unstable (Fig. 4 on left, phase 2). Whereas the steering
input has quickly generated substantial lateral forces at the front wheels, there is a delay
before the rear wheels start to generate similar forces. The vehicle reacts with a clockwise
movement around its vertical axis (inward yaw). The next stage is phase 3 with the second
steering input. The vehicle without ESP fails to respond to the driver’s attempt to counter
steer and goes out of control. The yaw velocity and the side-slip angle rise radically, and the
vehicle breaks into a skid (phase 4).
• Vehicle with ESP
 On this vehicle ESP brakes the left front wheel to counter the threat of instability (Fig. 4 on
right, phase 2) that follows the initial steering input. Within the ESP context this is referred
to as active braking, and it proceeds without any intervention on the driver’s part. This
action reduces the tendency to yaw toward the inside of the corner (inward yaw). The yaw
velocity is reduced and the side-slip angle is limited. Following the counter steer input, first
the yaw moment and then the yaw velocity reverse their directions (phase 3). In phase 4 a
second brief brake application – this time at the right front wheel – restores complete
stability. The vehicle remains on the course defined by the steering-wheel angle.
Lane change with emergency braking

• One equipped solely with the Antilock Braking System

(ABS) and
• One that is also fitted with ESP.
• Both vehicles are traveling at 50 km/h and
• On a slippery road surface (μ = 0.15)
• At the moment when the driver registers the
dangerous situation. 3
Over and understeering behavior when
cornering
 Closed-loop control system and controlled
variables
Electronic stability program concept
 Application of the ESP closed-loop stability control in the vehicle’s limit situation as
defined by the dynamics of vehicle motion is intended to prevent the
• linear (longitudinal) velocity, the
• lateral velocity and the
• rotational speed around the vertical axis (yaw velocity),
exceeding the ultimate control limits. Assuming appropriate operator inputs, driver
demand is translated into dynamic vehicular response that is adapted to the characteristics
of the road in an optimization process designed to ensure maximum safety.
 The first step is to determine how the vehicle should respond to driver demand during
operation in the limit range (ideal response), and also how it actually does respond
(actual response).
 Second, the actuators are then applied to minimize the difference between the ideal and
the actual response (control deviation) by indirectly influencing the forces acting at the
tires.
Block diagram of ESP
 System and control structure
 The Electronic Stability Program (ESP) embraces capabilities extending far
beyond those of either ABS or ABS and TCS combined. Based on advanced
versions of ABS and ABS/TCS system components, it allows active braking
at all four wheels with a high level of dynamic sensitivity. Vehicle response
is adopted as an element within the control loop. The system controls
braking, propulsive and lateral forces so that the actual response converges
with the ideal response under the given circumstances.
 An engine-management system with CAN interface can vary engine output
torque in order to adjust the driven-wheel slip rates. The advanced ESP
system provides highly precise performance for selective adjustment of the
dynamic longitudinal and lateral forces acting on each individual wheel.
ESP control schematic diagram
ESP control schematic with input/output
• The sensors that determine the
controller input parameters,
• The ESP control unit with its
hierarchically structured controller,
featuring a higher level ESP controller
and the subordinate slip controllers
• The actuators used for ultimate control
of braking, drive and lateral forces.
 Onboard Diagnostics
• Onboard Diagnostics, OBD, technology benefits motorists, technicians and the environment by
monitoring a vehicles performance every time it is driven, identifying performance and emissions
problems immediately and providing technicians with information to help them quickly and
accurately diagnose and repair malfunctions.
• Each microprocessor-based electronic subsystem has the capability of performing some limited
self-diagnosis. A subsystem can, for example, detect a loss of signal from a sensor or detect an
open circuit in an actuator circuit as well as other failures. As long as the subsystem computer is still
functioning, it can store fault codes for detected failures. Such diagnosis within a given subsystem is
known as onboard diagnosis.
• Some limited self-diagnostics have been available in power train control from the earliest days of
microprocessor-based control systems. However, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
developed regulations mandating a relatively high level of diagnosis for components and
subsystems that can adversely effect exhaust emissions when failed or in degraded performance.
These regulations are known as “On-Board Diagnostics II” (OBD II).
• They require that the vehicle has within its electronic control/instrumentation systems the
capability of essentially continuously monitoring the performance of the vehicle emission control
systems.
 Early OBD Systems (Pre – 1996)
• The first OBD systems appeared on vehicles in the 1980’s (OBD I) and monitored
fuel, ignition and emissions systems components.
• When a fault was found a code was stored in the vehicles onboard computer and
in many instances a “Check Engine” light was lit to alert the driver.
• Technicians could connect to the computer and see what codes had been set and
make a diagnosis of the problem.
• While the concept was a good one, several practical problems were found in
actual use
 No Standardization of data link connectors – a different one needed for each manufacturers
vehicles.
 Trouble codes not consistent between manufacturers.
 No standardization of emissions control device and system names between manufacturers.
 Criteria to light check engine light not consistent between manufacturers.
 Type of stored information in vehicles computer varied from manufacturer to manufacturer.
 OBD II Systems
• Noting that OBD systems were valuable technology in maintaining good
performance and lower emissions in vehicles, the U.S. EPA developed
regulations that required all vehicles meet specific and consistent
standards for OBD systems, OBD II, by 1996. These regulations resulted in
standardization of
 Data Link Connector and location in vehicle.
Terminology for vehicle emissions control components Diagnostic trouble codes.
Freeze Frame – storage of engine conditions at time a Data Link Connector (DTC) is
set.
 Requirements for lighting Malfunction Indicator Light (MIL) (Check Engine Light)
 Determination and recording of readiness status of system monitors
 Off-board diagnosis
• However, a higher level of diagnosis than the onboard diagnosis is typically done with an
external computer-based system that is available in a service shop. Data stored in
memory in an onboard subsystem are useful for completing diagnosis of any problem
with the associated subsystem. Such diagnosis is known as off-board diagnosis and is
usually conducted with a special-purpose computer.
• In order for fault code data to be available to the off-board diagnosis computer, a
communication link is required between the off-board equipment and the particular
subsystem on board the vehicle. Such a communication system is typically in the form of
a serial digital data link. A serial data link transmits digital data in a binary time sequence
along a pair of wires. Before discussing the details of onboard and off-board diagnosis, it
is perhaps worthwhile to discuss briefly automotive digital communications.
• For example, in the following schematic, one of the connections to the CAN bus is a data
link (denoted DLC) that is a portal from the vehicle to the off-board diagnosis system. A
connection is made to this diagnostic system when the vehicle is in an authorized repair
facility (e.g. car dealer) for maintenance/repair.
CAN bus
 Off-board diagnosis
• The following schematic depicts a representative connection of an off-
board connection of a so-called diagnostic scan tool to an automotive DLC.
• The scanner has access to address and data buses of the subsystem
containing the memory in which the relevant fault codes are stored. The
scanner then sends addresses to the memory locations where the fault
codes are stored and retrieves any fault code in each memory location
associated with fault code storage. The scanner also includes a display
device where it displays the fault code. Some diagnostic systems include
storing the clock time of the occurrence of the fault. Such a system is useful
for diagnosing intermittent faults (i.e. those that come and go randomly
and are challenging for the technician to find). In addition to the portable
scan diagnostic tool (PSDT), there is a service bay diagnostic tool (SBDT)
which is often on a movable cart but is not small enough to be carried on
board for test drivers.
Off-board diagnosis
 Onboard diagnostics
• Onboard diagnostics are dictated largely by the need for each automobile to meet the requirements
of OBD II regulations.
• As stated above, any component/subsystem having the potential to adversely affect exhaust
emissions must be evaluated for its performance.
• In addition, however, on a power train systems level, the onboard diagnostics must be capable of
detecting engine misfire. A misfire is any failure of any cylinder (during an engine cycle) to
experience normal combustion. It can include e.g. a complete misfire in which ignition fails to cause
combustion to occur.
• Partial combustion in which only a portion of the fuel/air mixture is combusted also can constitute a
misfire by OBD II standards.
• A misfire can degrade the performance of the catalytic converter since the exhaust gas constituents
and concentrations are outside the limits in which it is intended to function.
• Any engine can experience an occasional, spurious misfire (or partial misfire). However, when the
severity and frequency of occurrence exceeds certain tolerance limits the catalytic converter
performance is degraded and exhaust emissions can exceed the EPA mandated limits.
• For such an occurrence, the warning message must be displayed and the owner should seek repairs
for the vehicle. The format for this warning message varies with vehicle model, but it is often an
illuminated “check engine” display.
 DTCs
Diagnostic Trouble Codes
• Prior to OBD II each manufacturer had it’s own list of trouble codes.
• Under OBD II all manufacturers must use a universal 5 digit code
system
 DTCs
Diagnostic Trouble Codes
• There are two types of DTC’s, 1 trip DTC’s and 2 trip DTC’s
 A 1 trip DTC is for a condition that requires immediate attention such as a
catalyst damaging misfire.
 A 2 Trip DTC is one that a condition must be found during 2 consecutive trips
such as an EGR fault.