CLASSIFICATION

The scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships is called systematics.
An important aspect of systematic is taxonomy, the science of naming, describing, and classifying
organisms. The term classification means ordering organisms into groups based on their similarities or
relationships.

The living organisms are classified on the basis of homologous, biochemistry, cytology and genetics.
a- Homologous; The living organisms can be placed on same group according to their origin. Same
structure from same origin, same origin is controlled by same gene. Appearances, functions might
be different.
b- Biochemistry; Sometimes it is impossible to classify organisms using morphological criteria so to
comparing the chemical substances which they contain. To comparing amino acid sequence, order
of bases in the DNA can be possible to recognize differences.
c- Cytology; Microscopic observation of cell structure can be useful at the generic and species levels.
d- Genetics; Final helping in classifying organisms is genetics. Sequences of DNA is an important tool
for classifying organisms.

ORGANISMS ARE NAMED USING THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE

Linnaeus simplified scientific classification,

developing a binomial system of nomenclature in
which each species is assigned a unique two-part
name. The first part designates the genus (pl.,
genera ), and the second part is called the specific
epithet. For example, Quercus alba is the scientific
name for the white oak, and Salix alba is the
name for the white willow. (Alba comes from a
Latin word meaning “white.”) Thus, both parts of
the name must be used to accurately identify the
species.

The range of taxonomic categories from species to

kingdom forms a hierarchy. Closely related
species are assigned to the same genus, and
closely related genera may be grouped together in
a single family. Families are grouped into orders,
orders into classes, classes into phyla,2 and phyla
into kingdoms and/or domains.
The Kingdoms of Life
There are five kingdoms. These are; Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
1- Monera; Monera are the only kingdom composed of prokaryotic organisms, they have a cell wall,
and lack both membrane-bound organelles and multicellular forms e.g. bacteria, cynobacteria.
2- Protista; protists include a variety of eukaryotic body and nutritional forms. They are best defined
as eukaryotes that are NOT fungi, animals, or plants, e.g. paramecium, euglena.
3- Fungi; Fungi are a eukaryotic, heterotrophic, usually multicellular group having multinucleated
cells enclosed in cells with cell walls. They obtain their energy by decomposing dead and dying
organisms and absorbing their nutrients from those organisms.
4- Plantae; Plants are immobile, multicellular eukaryotes that produce their food by photosynthesis
and have cells encased in cellulose cell walls. Plants are important sources of oxygen, food.
5- Animalia; Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that are capable of mobility at some
stage during their lives, and that have cells lacking cell walls.

VIRUSES
The word virus is derived from a Latin word meaning “poison”. The true nature of viruses was discovered
in 1933, when the biologist Wendell Stanley prepared an extract of a plant virus called tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV).
1- Characteristics of Viruses; They are non-cellular obligate parasites. They can not live and
reproduce out of the living cells. They have just protein coat and nucleic acid. They cannot carry out
metabolism.
2- Structure of Viruses; Viruses may consists of viral-genome (DNA or RNA), capsid, envelop and tail-
fiber.
Viral-Genome sets of genes which are found on DNA or RNA. Viruses form
a protein sheath, or capsid, around their nucleic acid. Many animal viruses
form an envelope around the capsid rich in proteins, lipids, and
glycoprotein molecules. RNA-based viruses are known as retroviruses.

3- Classification of Viruses; Viruses are generally classified by morphology and the nature of their
genomes (DNA or RNA). On the basis of morphology, viruses are
classified into rod-shaped (TMV), spherical (poliovirus) and tadpole
(bacteriophage).

Bacteriophages; Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria.

They are among the most complex viruses. They are composed of
head, tail, capsid and nuclear material which is DNA. Bacteriophage
reproduce like other viruses. Some of them have been named as members of a “T” series (T1, T2, and so
forth).

Life Cycle of Viruses; Bacteriphage, TMV, rhinovirus, polivirus, etc. can reproduce by two
alternative mechanism, lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle.
a- The Lytic Cycle; A viral reproductive cycle can
be
lytic or temperate. In a lytic cycle, the virus lyses (destroys)
the host cell. When the virus infects a susceptible host cell, it
forces the host to use its metabolic machinery to replicate
viral particles. Viruses that have a lytic cycle are described as
virulent.
Five steps are typical in viral reproduction.
a-1. Attachment (or absorption). The virus attaches to
receptors on the host cell wall.
a-2. Penetration. The nucleic acid of the virus moves
through the plasma membrane and into the cytoplasm of the
host cell. The capsid of a phage remains on the outside.
a-3. Replication. The viral genome contains all the
information necessary to produce new viruses. Once inside,
the virus induces the host cell to synthesize the necessary
components for its replication.
a-4. Assembly. The newly synthesized viral components are
assembled into new viruses.
a-5. Release. Assembled viruses are released from the cell.
Generally, lytic enzymes destroy the host cell.

b- The Lysogenic Cycle; In a lysogenic cycle

the viral genome becomes integrated with and is
replicated along with the host DNA. When the bacterial DNA
replicates, the prophage also replicates. This sort of
reproductive cycle, involving a period of genome integration,
is called a lysogenic cycle. Viruses that become stably
integrated within the genome of their host cells are called
lysogenic viruses or temperate viruses.
Viral Diseases;
Animal diseases
1- Yellow fever; is caused by Flavivirus. Spread from individual to individual by mosquito bites.
2- Hepatitus B; is caused by Hepatitis B virus. Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver. Highly infectious
through contact with infected body fluids. Vaccine available, no cure. Can be fatal.
3-Hepatitus A; is caused by non-enveloped RNA viruses.
4- Hepatitus C; pass from mother to child.
5-Polio; is caused by Poliovirus. Acute viral infection of the CNS that can lead to paralysis and is often
fatal.
6- AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is caused by HIV. Destroys immune defenses,
resulting in death by infection or cancer. Retrovirus has RNA as a nucleic material. They are called Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). HIV damages the Immune System. Infected humans have little resistance
to infection.