The meaning of craft.

Craft makers’ descriptions of craft as an occupation

Abstract

The aim of this study is to examine how craft makers describe the meaning of craft as an activity in
relation to their well-being. The article is based on an analysis of the written narratives of 92 textile
craft makers aged 16 to 84. Based on the results, the therapeutic nature of craft as a meaningful
occupation for those interested in crafting is evident. The significance of craft as an occupation can
be described by the following three themes: 1) the meaning and value of crafts, 2) the feelings
experienced during craft activity and 3) the holisticity and intentionality of craft-making. As an
activity and a kind of metaphor, craft has helped to reflect the participants’ life-situation. The self-
help therapeutic process of craft can be traced to the raw materials; the artefacts; a sense of
achievement; the possibilities for personal growth; the development of physical and cognitive skills;
the control of one’s own body, thoughts and feelings and the social and cultural dimensions related
to craft. The results indicate that the participants had noticed the significance of craft as an agony-
and stress-reducing and mind-calming activity. The so-called holistic craft and ordinary craft played
different roles in maintaining well-being. This information is hoped to be useful in occupation
analysis while considering the validity and use of crafts.

Keywords: activity, craft, holistic and ordinary craft, occupation, well-being

Introduction

Despite the availability of viable alternatives, craft has remained over the years a popular form of
activity. In contemporary Western culture, men and women make crafts as a hobby for a variety of
reasons and purposes, even though making crafts is no longer a financial obligation or the only way
to obtain products that are needed for everyday life. Still, craft production continues to be used for
economic purposes, as tangible benefits are gained from the end products of crafters’ labour (1, 2).

Schofield-Tomschin and Littrell (3) argue that there are two main meanings for craft: significance of
the craft objects and meaning incorporated in the making of the craft objects. Crafts are embedded
with meanings through their creation, and they carry the symbolism of the maker and relationships
with other people (2). Crafts may provide a link between and within generations, serving as
gatekeepers to friendships. Craft has also been a means to carry on traditions (3, 4, 5). It can be said
that craft makers may bind themselves symbolically to the larger environment of family, friends,
neighbours or other groups (5, 6).

According to Johnson and Wilson (2), one meaning behind making crafts may be that it offers a
means for self-expression. Nelson, Labat and Williams (7) stress the importance of a person’s
perceptions of his or her own work as it reflects lived experiences. Craft products are valued as
symbols of self; they are not mass produced but are made with love and personalised with the
makers’ personal histories, free from commercial marks (6). This kind of interaction between maker
and object may improve the individual’s self-esteem (8) and affect the development of self (3). Thus,
participation in craft activities may define craft makers’ personal identities (2), helping them feel
grounded and able to cope. (9).

It has been suggested that craft enables people to learn skills that translate into self-satisfying
activities (2, 10). In the study of Schofield-Tomschlin and Littrell (3), the craft process was shown to
provide identity, therapy, creativity, enjoyment, self-actualization, self-directed learning and
opportunities for teaching for the craft makers. It was illustrated that the craft makers had chosen
crafts as their leisure activity because they realized the affective and cognitive components that were
available to them through the craft process. Kojonkoski-Rännäli (11) argues that craft develops
makers’ pragmatic sense, which helps to analyse the relations between different events and
situations in life. Thus, craft as a process refers to the wholeness of a person’s life situation and to
intuitive learning (11). As an activity it is based on both the intellectual and physical characteristics
of the maker (10).

Mason (6) claims that craft may be seen as one example of meaningful life activities that contribute
to a healthy lifestyle, because it has a subjective contribution to person’s inner well-being and life
experience. Early studies in health and leisure research have shown that meaningful activities bring
hope and positive moods that have beneficial effects on well-being (9, 12–16). Noticeably, most of
the activities that offer these kinds of feelings are leisure activities and activities that give flow (17).
Activities may have intrinsic properties that will be revealed as one does the activity, and there may
be an interface between the activity and the experience of doing an activity (18).

Based on the previous research it can be concluded that there is a kind of connection between crafts
and well-being. However, the meaning of the craft in craft makers’ everyday lives and in the life
course has not been thoroughly investigated. The findings have been vague on what kinds of things
make craft meaningful. In addition, most of the related research of craft making highlights the
meaning of making crafts in groups (e.g. 1, 3–5), when the subjective experiences and expressions
have not been the main interest. More widely, qualitative studies has been asked to better explore
more elements of meanings, especially as they relate to leisure life and activities of different groups
of people and activities as a mediator of well-being (19, 20).

Thus, the purpose of this article is to depict craft makers’ descriptions of craft as an activity in
relation to their well-being. It attempts to shed light on the meaning of the craft in craft makers’ lives
as the meaning is experienced and expressed. This information is hoped to be useful in occupation
analysis while considering the validity and use of crafts (cf. 21).

Definition of the concepts

Activity and occupation
While an activity may be defined as a general class of basic activities, an occupation is framed by
personal interests, desires and values. According to Polatajko et al. (22), an activity becomes an
occupation if the activity is personally meaningful and specific to a person. An activity has to
posses at least the following qualities to be considered as an occupation: It is perceived as doing by
the individual, it is goal-oriented and purposeful, it carries meaning for the individual and it is
repeatable. These kinds of activities are performed with some consistency and regularity, bringing
structure and meaning to individuals. An occupation, as a therapeutic medium, may reach its full
potential impact on health and well-being when all these qualities are employed in its complete
essence (23).

Townsend and Polatajko (24) have claimed that the traditional activity analysis in occupational
therapy potentially encourages a therapist-centred approach to interventions. In contrast, occupation
analysis as a more person-centred approach moves beyond the activity to examine the personal
meaning and value of occupation with the features of the contexts surrounding participation in that
occupation. Thus, this approach highlights the power of occupation to enable people to engage in
occupations of their choice.

Conceptions of craft
The world craft has several definitions and connotations in different contexts, depending on the
historical phase or the philosophy or target of the specifier. The concept of craft may be defined
from the angles of maker, a process, a product or a user (10). Craft comprises the design and
making process, in which no more than hand-controlled machines are used and which presumes
knowledge of the philosophy of action (6, 25). Kojonkoski-Rännäli (11) claims that in craft there is
always human activity involved and concrete material to be dealt with. Craft is directed by thinking.
For example, the craft maker has an idea that the craft is going to be made, the making process
contains reflection in its realization and the product and process is itself a target of self-evaluation
(10, 26). A craft product is not an end result of the process; it may include a complex variety of
values and emotions as well as shape the identities of the maker (11).

Craft can be described as a distinctive knowledge that is intuitive and expressed through making and
doing. Pleasure in handling and making is hardwired into human nature (5, 11). This refers to the act
of making (6) and to bodily kinaesthetic intelligence (27). This can be seen in two ways: in the self-
target of craft process, and in the process of a craft maker’s inner-self. Craft, as an activity, entails
intuitive learning, which occurs in the craft process by evaluation and apprenticeship (26). Thus, in
craft, the craft maker can express and work through his or her feelings in an active manner and
simultaneously stimulate steps toward finding a solution. Craft as a concrete activity may have the
ability to empower the individual (28).

It can be concluded that craft may also have therapeutic elements in itself. Tubbs and Drake (29)
describe craft as a therapeutic activity in which the therapeutic nature of craft is something that
enhances personal strengths and functioning through sensory, psychological and social significance.
According to them, craft can help people realise by themselves that through the design process, or
the process of taking raw materials or minimally prepared substances and processing, assembling
and forming them, people can do the same with their lives.

The above-mentioned interpretations of the concept of craft rely on the basis of meaning-making-
based activity. In this study, craft is seen as a process that contains emotional as well as intellectual
and physical processes in the act of making, manipulating, articulating and sensory experiencing of
materials and self-made products.

Modalities of craft
According to Ihatsu (10), craft as an activity can be approached from two angles: that of techniques
and that of process. In some contexts, the activities focused on techniques are also called mediums
(basketry, embroidery, leatherwork, knitting, etc). In such cases, the activities describe the materials,
techniques or end results of the activity. However, craft activity, as a process, has two concessive,
consciousness-centred characteristics, those of intentionality and holisticity (10, 11). These two
dimensions refer to the character of the process and to the craft maker’s intentions and goal-
orientation. The intentionality and holisticity of the craft process can be seen in a person’s actions.
From the perspective of intentionality, it is a question of the maker’s decisions about the goals of
action. Intentional activity is essentially a goal-oriented activity. Kojonkoski-Rännäli (11) describes
the intention of making with one’s hands as a basis for human activity for which the individual has a
natural need.

From the perspective of holisticity, craft can be divided into the holistic craft process and into the
ordinary craft process. The concept of holistic craft refers to the design and manufacturing process
of handicraft and the role of the maker in that process. In the holistic craft process, all the phases are
conducted by the same person, either on his or her own or in a group (30). It contains the idea that
the process is undertaken by the same person from conception to execution and over which the craft
maker has detailed control (10). The maker is in charge of the ideas, the design, the preparation and
finally the assessment of the artefact and the production process. Thus, holistic craft comprises all
phases of the craft process, so that if some phase is left out it becomes ordinary craft (11). Instead,
ordinary craft is a reproductive activity in which the maker does not affect the design phase. Here
the maker uses a ready-made design that contains the aesthetic or technical qualities of the artefact
or a series of technical solutions. Ordinary craft can also be a process in which the maker reproduces
a previously learned model or technique. Thus, the craft maker is, for example, copying the product
from a model, by using strictly guided instructions or by utilising prepared substances, and the main
idea of the activity is to make the object (30).

Ihatsu (10) points out that holistic craft may also indicate the way we, as individuals with different
skills, abilities, desires and goals, can shape the way we live. Our hands can gain empirical
knowledge and shape the world in immediate contact with the material being used (11). Thus, the
maker is concretely grasping the world, working it out with hands in the context of a situation
representing the original human way of making, including, constructing, building and cultivating.
The wholeness of the person’s life situation may be seen as the starting point of the holistic craft
process, rather than the techniques or material surrounding him or her (31).

Material and method

Data collection and participants
This qualitative study used the method of written narratives as a way to explore the role of craft in
the well-being of women and men who done crafting as an activity for years. These first-person
narratives are personal documents (32) that describe an individual’s actions, experiences and beliefs
on a specific topic. The written narratives in this study are responses to a request published in eight
small provincial newspapers in Finland. The request was an assignment that encouraged craft
makers to write about the meaning of crafts as an activity for one’s well-being. They were asked to
write down their own thoughts and experiences about how making crafts or crafted items as an
activity has been meaningful to them. It was emphasised that all ideas, thoughts and experiences
related to any aspect of their life and life course, whether they were small or big ones, that
meaningfully improved their well-being in different life areas, were relevant. Because the main
interest was obtaining information about the meaning of crafts for those persons who have
experiences as craft makers, the assignment was a loosely formulated description. This was done to
ensure that the writers would write in their own way about their meaningful experiences (cf. 33). It
was realised that another assignment and description would have resulted in a different kind of data.

The narratives consist of 92 textile handcrafters’ letters. Sixty of these participants were women and
32 were men (see Table I). Their ages ranged from 16 to 84 years, with most aged between 40 and
75. They lived in different areas in Finland, both in cities and in the countryside. A comparison of
the sample against demographic data shows that the participants represent the normal range of
people who do craft as a hobby. The narratives varied in length but provided rich descriptions of
unique experiences and meanings that the writers give to the craft process and products. They had
detailed descriptions of crafts that had been done, for whom and why they were done and the
process and experience that the craft-making entailed.

In this study, the writers were interested in crafts that had been done as a hobby for years. For this
reason, the research results can not be generalised to all situations and contexts. Despite that, the
results may offer useful information for considering the findings in a suitable context. As Mayring
(34) argues, in most cases the targeted conclusions of a qualitative study may be more general than
the results found.

Data analysis and interpretation

The data analysis takes inductive content analysis and a hermeneutic approach as its methodological
basis. It is suitable in cases in which there have been no previous studies dealing with the
phenomenon (35). Due to hermeneutics, there was no predetermined set of criteria (36). The
hermeneutic circle guided the process in an iterative manner. First, all the narratives that formed the
primary data were assigned in the Atlas.ti program as a project. Atlas.ti was used as a tool for
facilitating analysis of the large volume of written text (304 pp). The data was divided into smaller
pieces by marking phrases, sentences and significant words as quotations. Those quotations were
elementary units of analysis. In this phase the program helped to explore the data backward and
forward, make memos and comments about links between findings and concretise it by visualising
them. It was also possible to take summaries from quotations that can help in the next phase. The
final phase of the analysis was to find out the emerging central themes. For this reason the
thematically similar quotations had to be reintegrated to find a coherent explanation of the meaning
of craft as an activity in relation to craft makers’ well-being.

Three main themes were found: meaning and value of craft as an activity, the feelings expressed
during craft activity and the holisticity and intentionality of craft making (holistic craft or ordinary
craft). They were found by examining the definition of the craft makers’ descriptions of crafting, the
subjects’ ways of thinking about the meaning of craft and the process and strategies of making craft
during the life course. When the themes were gathered, the narratives were read again in relation to
the craft makers’ life context, to verify how those categories describe the connection between craft
and well-being.

To enhance the rigour of this qualitative study (37, 38), the following four criteria of trustworthiness
were taken into account: credibility, conformability, dependability, and transferability. Credibility
and conformability was taken into account by identifying the thematic categories and clearly
described criteria of the analysis. In the analysis, dependability was certified by peer examination
and theory generation. Transferability can be evaluated from the rich data and dense description.
Also, a sufficient amount of the participants’ privacy was honoured when quotations were selected
to illustrate the interpretation.

Results

Three main themes could be found in the data relating to craft as an activity. The first theme,
‘meaning and value of crafts,’ describes how the participants look upon their craft making. It depicts
the first descriptions and the most visible elements of craft as an activity. The ‘feelings experienced
during craft activity’ answers the question of when and how craft is used to increase well-being. The
third theme refers to the ‘holisticity and intentionality of craft making,’ which describes the deeper
meanings that craft makers attached to craft as an activity. It refers to the concepts of holistic craft
and ordinary craft and describes the craft process and its relation to the participants’ unconscious or
conscious intentions to increase their well-being.

Meaning and value of crafts

Craft makers’ described that they perceived craft-making as a pleasant and satisfactory activity that
also produced concrete and economical products. Craft was a useful way to occupy spare time. The
entertainment aspect of craft, however, was not simply about passing time or curing boredom. For
those who were unemployed and for the elderly, craft structured the day; it was an organiser of daily
rhythm. Making crafts pushed laziness away and helped one to engage in other daily occupations.
Some participants reported that they did their housekeeping in the morning, and after that they had
earned their craft relaxation. Others reported, instead, that they had to do craftwork before they
could concentrate on other things. In both cases, craft activated the participants’ day.

As much as the craft makers appreciated spending time usefully, routine forms of domestic
production and maintenance were not experienced as being as fulfilling or as aesthetic as crafts. The
participants described craft as a willingly self-imposed obligation that improved the development of
physical and cognitive skills. Hand skills, the products and the satisfaction of achieving self-set
goals, as well as feedback from others, all raised the craft makers’ self-esteem and self-confidence.
Success in making something by hand was experienced as rewarding on such a deep level that it
created a desire to do something similar again, even the same kind of product. Crafts were visible
marks of work done that could be passed on to successive generations. A strong emotional bond was
formed with handicrafts.

I really need that sense of completing something, if not daily, then at least several times a
week. I might not comb my hair sometimes, but without sewing I cannot spend a day. It’s my
character to live in a useful and efficient manner, and craft is basically the only way to prove
my worth at home... Besides, craft keeps on existing in a concrete form. It stays for touching,
using or even decorating; it’s not the first thing one throws in the garbage. I’m aware of my
own mortality; someday I will disappear from the face of the earth..., but with luck, my
handicrafts will stay in this world even longer than I will. (Housewife, 37 yrs)

The participants described that seeing self-made handicrafts in the home or in the homes of loved
ones strengthened the sense of meaningfulness. The connection of craft to relationships and
domestic objects was illustrative of the way self-made handicrafts act as personalised reminders of
the maker and of their origin. The products made during the years and displayed at home carried
with them life experiences in such a way that the attached memories brought a sense of meaning to
life. Even though physical limitations brought by age later on prevented making crafts or
participating in craft groups, crafts and even raw materials had their own benefits as a retrospective
memorising process. Memorising and making notes of the produced products was experienced as a
meaningful activity. Some of the oldest craft makers wrote that craft can exclude memory loss and
dementia, disorientation of time and place and problems with abstract thinking, as craft involves the
performance of familiar tasks and techniques. Craft was described as a friend and as a way of
memorising one’s life course.

The feelings experienced during the craft activity

The participants described that the product made the activity meaningful, and on the other hand,
achieving a self-set goal was such a flow experience that it sustained motivation and success in the
process of the activity. Craft was a means to subsequent goal attainment, a guide for future actions and
a helper in changing difficult moods and achieving a sense of control and management of the
participants’ lives and environment. Perceiving and analysing reality meant evaluating one’s own life
values and gaining a sense of understanding and control over events. The evaluating process gave
possibilities for shaping personal aims, estimating their outcome and searching for explanations for
the cause of events. Craft was seen as a way to analyse life situations and as a tool for handling them.
When I get properly focused on my work, I in a way go inside my head and lock everything
else outside. I can only concentrate in this way at nights when the kids have gone to bed and I
get to do cross stitches in peace. I think about all kinds of things, plan daily chores, go
through different events and of course plan future projects. (Housewife, 30 yrs)

The results revealed that craft was a productive method for encouraging personal growth or a
conduit to successful aging. Craft enabled the participants to take some time for themselves, their
own thoughts and hopes. Self-expression or success in the craft process entailed the symbolised
pushing of the self to a higher or new plane. Craft has been an arena in which personal identities
have been developed and expressed. This kind of experiential knowing by doing may have allowed a
greater understanding of one’s own life and relationships with others. The produced crafted items
expressed life-span developmental tasks and transitions of one’s life course, as the craft makers
described how craft helped them comprehend life.

Both women and men wrote about the ways in which craft has helped them during significant losses
and unusually stressful times, such as one’s own illness, anorexia, depression, divorce,
unemployment and the illness or death of a loved one. For example, one of the men described the
way he was completing his late wife’s handicrafts as a grieving process. Big losses shake one’s self-
image at a very deep level and, thus, the whole foundation of one’s identity. When describing these
losses, all those who were sick could be described as using craft as escapism, meaning that the
participant used craft as a defence to protect him- or herself. Thus, craft has helped to analyse the
scattered state of affairs and resist domination by the labels of difficulties (e.g. divorce, sickness).
A new work should be started on something small, but I decided to make it big and sew by
hand. It was the tablecloth of my bad feelings and sorrow that became a beautiful field of
flowers. As I was working on it, my marriage was already starting to fall apart and craft
carried me from one day to the next... Three whole years went by in a mist I wouldn’t like to
recall, but I didn’t spend one day of it without craft. I made larger patch works, this time with
a sewing machine. Was I connecting the patches of my life? (Employed, 44 yrs)

When I got into sick leave last October on the account of depression and panic disorder, I
started to crochet lace tablecloths. I bought all the red and green threads in the shop; I bought
black thread and yellow thread. And I crocheted. I ‘stopped’ crocheting in April. Now later on I
have many times thought about the fact that in all these years that I have been making my
craft, it hasn’t been so much to my own joy but it has also had another purpose. I have come to
the conclusion that I have also been escaping in this way from the present moment, I have
protected myself from being self-destructive, I have calmed down, and I have been able to get
 up. Especially after this crocheting period when I kept on doing it for so long that I had to
wrap a tape around my finger because the hook had gone through the skin... I have reached the
conclusion that it was just this that helped me through the worst bit. (Sick, 42 yrs)

Craft seemed to relieve the feelings of sickness and pain, so that illness did not control life and the
future. Craft was depicted as being a chance to disengage from the patient’s everyday life. Craft
helped one adjust to the sickness and to achieve a mental balance when the sense of autonomy had
been shaken. The freedom of choice for self-expression created contentedness and peace of mind.
I remember how at the worst part of my sickness I had to go to the shop to touch the textiles
and especially the strong colored cloths seemed to give me strength. (Sick, 55 yrs)

Physical and bodily experiences are seldom mentioned while talking about well-being. However, in
the data, the significance of bodily experience was quite evident. The participants described how
they had been able to push away the feelings of agony by putting bodily activities into action.
Touching the material and the process of making the artefact had acted as a self-help therapeutic
interaction. A feeling of control had risen from materials, equipment, techniques and one’s own
hands obeying one’s will. Contentedness with doing and succeeding had strengthened the self-
acting identity. Thus, the self embraced intensive or new perspectives. The calming or re-creating
effect of craft was described as the jingling of knitting needles, the banging of the looms, the
cutting-up of one’s sorrows into streaks of a carpet, crocheting lace or cross-stitch and petit point
works, without any thought of matters preoccupied in the mind.

From a social point of view, it is interesting that the craft makers occasionally had a need for
solitude. The reason for this has entailed relaxation, or the need to analyse different phases in life
from a new perspective. Those who emphasised social relationships in doing crafts lived in the
countryside without neighbours; they had the need to communicate and to share both craft-related
and life-related experiences.

Holisticity and intentionality of craft-making

In the data, holisticity can be associated with the concept of holistic and ordinary craft and
intentionality with the conscious or unconscious meaning of craft as an activity. The data revealed
that the intentionality of holistic craft and ordinary craft were a little bit different. In ordinary craft,
learning a new technique using ready-made instructions, or making variations to a pre-existing
pattern, elicited a feeling of success. It means that one may gain abilities and possibilities, develop
new skills and hold activities that are in a good balance with the craft maker’s intentions. The data
shows that craft, while reproducing and copying a model or utilising craft kits, was used as a source
of an experience of mastery and control over one’s own actions and feelings. Then, more important
than making an innovative product was the fact that the product was made for the home or for some
dear person, so that the human relation made the making process and the product meaningful.
Especially those who were employed or worked at home had little free time to design or solve
visual or technical problems related to the product. They had a feeling that they had to get into work
immediately without spending time on the design. Among the elderly, the copying-based craft
meant a continuation of traditions and the passing on of family heirlooms. Crafts as material objects
had symbolic meanings and emotional ties to the family in a way that made them also visible to the
family members. Copying traditional artefacts also tied to minority cultures, members of which had
fears of losing these artefacts.

Both men and women working at home or outside as an employee described ordinary craft as a
means to heal the mind, such as making one feel complete for an entire day. Ordinary craft created a
sense of management in everyday life as well as in one’s life course. Relaxation and better moods
meant recreation. Making a new artefact, learning a new technique or making variations to a pattern
all raised a feeling of success and control. Craft meant obtaining something visible or finished
among daily activities. Participants measured their abilities consciously, in a way that they surely
succeeded in finishing the product. Thus, the reactions from an urgent life tempo and the feeling of
always being in a rush was diminished by craft.
If my mind is full of wonders, then I take a routine craft which I know well, in order to get my
thoughts to work in peace. It makes me sit like glued in one place at least one hour and then
my thoughts tend to be clearer. (Employed, ordinary craft, 28 yrs)

Unlike in reproductive craft, holistic craft had other kinds of inner intentions. The design process or
artistic self-expressive process raised deep flow-experiences that helped to banish intrusive thoughts
about one’s life situation and provided valued experiences of mastery and control. This process has
encouraged the participants to engage unknown craft processes. The participants described
creativeness, sensuous vitality, responsiveness to art materials and imagery use. Thus, craft has been
a coping strategy that has provided visible and manageable challenges that made unpleasant
realities fade away and helped the mind begin to process events gradually, in small steps, according
to the capabilities of the ego. Craft-related holisticity and intentionality helped to create and sustain
one’s self-image; it protected the ego or provided ego-uniting experiences. The creative process had
been escapism. However, clear goals of the inner intentions of craft-making has not been clearly
present in the beginning of the process in the participants’ accounts.
I have now noticed the strong impression of crafts when life seemed to be heavy. Making
creative things in crafts (e.g. tiffany) takes my attention completely. Eyes are viewing, brains
are designing, and the mind shapes the outcome. Then the brains send a message to hands,
hands are obeying, the mind is shaping the ideas and the result, and the eyes are looking that
all is going well. I feel and model the shape. My body is involved in the process all the time. I
 seek a suitable working position, adjusting me to the work. I am fully in my work, forgetting
all things and to rest. I cannot think of anything else than my making. My mind is peaceful, if I
have difficulties in the work I can consider about different solutions and make decisions in
spite of the fact that the situation is not the same in the rest of my life. I am not satisfied with
the rest of my life. (holistic craft, 46 yrs)

Discussion
The results of this study offer insights into the potential benefits of craft as an activity for people
who are interested in crafts. To have any therapeutic significance and to become an occupation, the
chosen activity must have purpose, value and meaning for the individual (20, 39, 40). Meaningful
activities are found to be related to well-being; they restore a sense of value and purpose to life (5,
17, 33), especially for the elderly (3, 19, 41, 42) or for people with limited employment prospects
and life options (43–46). The participants in this study experienced well-being while they were
making crafts, unless they had a feeling of unbalance during the day. As in the study of Collier (9),
the participants used crafts to change difficult moods. Crafts as meaningful activity had provided
structure to the participants’ day: It had been the reason to wake up or to the others an incentive to
do the work required (cf. 33, 40, 44). The retired and older participants felt their well-being
benefited when they could be involved in craft activities. For the oldest one even looking at self-
made crafted items and looking back on times when they had made crafts offered a meaningful
experience and continuity in the same way as Phinney, Chaudhury and O’Connor (47) noticed.
Making craft has increased the feeling of meaning and satisfaction in life.

As craft was an organizer of time (40, 48) it was also an organizer of thoughts and experiences. In
the findings of this research, craft making contributed to maintenance of the actualised self and
well-being in the same way as in Rebeiro’s and Cook’s research (49). Through craft, the participants
strove to maintain a sense of well-being in the face of work-related or major-loss-related stressful
life situations. This relates to Christiansen’s (50) examples that people can experience well-being
while they are engaged in an occupation, unless there is a lack of balance in their other occupations
during the day. It is interesting that in a study by Piškur et al. (17), the participants said that they
had difficulties in achieving well-being from an occupation if they were out of balance. In this
study, it is just the opposite: The participants could have a sense of balance by doing crafts in
situations in which they found themselves out of balance. One of the main reasons for this may be
the form of the self-chosen and meaningful activity, which was appropriate to their intentions.

The results indicate that the participants were intuitively (cf. 11) aware of the significance of craft as
an agony- and stress-reducing and mind-calming activity. It can be concluded that craft can have
elements that create a feeling of well-being through the making of an artefact and by giving peaceful
time to intellectual work. Craft has helped as an activity and a metaphor to reflect the participants’
life-situation (cf. 9–11, 48). In this case, craft has been a self-enhancing activity. According to
Reynolds (51), a lengthy process of craft can enable painful feelings and memories to be confronted
and worked through, allowing greater integration with the present. This is a natural explanation for
the participants’ need for solitude, which is just opposite the earlier studies of activities and social
contexts (cf. 1, 3–5, 17).

Crafts have created a link between and within generations despite the fact that some of the craft
makers wanted to do crafts alone with their thoughts. Also in those cases the produced crafts have
usually been gifts for loved ones (cf. 2, 6). Making crafts has helped to bind relationships between
past and future generations and through the developmental tasks of craft makers’ life-span, for
example in successful aging (cf. 1). As Ihatsu (10) and Kojonkoski-Rännäli (11) have described,
craft as an integrated activity may also provide space for reflections and the growth of internal
qualifications and abilities in balance between the various sides of the craft makers’ personality.

Students, the employed and older craft makers and those who were working as caretakers at home all
experienced craft as relaxation. For the older participants, craft, and memories connected to it,
helped to sustain a stable experience of the self. They made so-called ordinary craft: They used
instructions, ready-made models and kits and familiar techniques. For them, the main thing was the
activity and the artefacts but not the creativeness itself. Creativeness may be encouraged (cf. 12, 52,
53), but it is not always the thing participants are seeking while enhancing their well-being. For them
relaxation meant recreation and restructuring the ego. However, those who had a difficult time in
their life experienced craft as a creative and sustaining self-image that protects the ego or provides
ego-uniting experiences. For them, crafts meant coping and rebuilding the ego. They made crafts that
required new skills, design and problem solving. Several studies (9, 15, 40, 52–58) have pointed out
that there is strong evidence that being occupied and having creative activities have important
influences on better moods, health and well-being.

While describing their craft making and well-being, the participants described feelings that can be
characterised as flow. The participants wrote how they had learnt something important while doing
crafts, improved their abilities or forgotten everything else while doing crafts or seeing and touching
crafted items and raw materials. Csikszentmihalyi (59) and Piškur et al. (17) talk about active leisure
activities, but in this study also the responsiveness to craft materials, mastery of one’s own skills or
body and even touching and seeing colourful raw materials or crafted items could give an experience
of flow. However, one aspect of flow, namely having clear goals, was not always clearly present in
the participants’ accounts. The flow experiences during craft making encouraged the participants to
engage in positive journeys into the unknown, thereby alleviating some of the stress of their life
situations. Craft has been three-way communication, in which the therapeutic relationship has been
raised between the material, the craft maker and the activity.

In this study, craft as a meaningful occupation, has acted like a self-help therapeutic intervention
while it has increased craft makers’ well-being. Craft as an activity has intrinsic properties. The
participants’ narratives raised the interface between the activity and the experience of doing the
activity (cf. 18, 60). The therapeutic process of craft can be traced to the raw materials, the artefacts,
the sense of achievement, the possibilities for personal growth, the development of physical and
cognitive skills, control of one’s own body, thoughts and feelings and the social and cultural
dimensions related to craft. Craft makers described such affective and cognitive processes (see 61)
that are major determinants in experiencing well-being.

An occupational perspective on well-being suggests the importance of considering engaging

occupations that provide meaning for the participant (4, 33). This kind of approach highlights the
power of occupation as an enabler for people to engage in occupations of their own choice.
Therefore occupational therapists have to identify client-specific goals and challenges, and finally
enable client-specific solutions together with the client. The findings of this study may give
implications for professionals in the discussion of the validity and use of crafts while enhancing the
well-being of those clients who are attracted to crafts. Professionals may take into account the
possibilities of holistic and ordinary craft as meaningful occupations.

References

1. Littrell MA, Reilly R, Stout JA. In home business: Profiles of successful and struggling craft
producers. Home Econ Res J. 1991;20:26–39.
2. Johnson CJ, Wilson, LE. ‘It says you really care’: Motivational factors of contemporary female
handcrafters. Clothing & Textiles Res J. 2005;23:115–130.

3. Schofield-Tomschlin S, Littrell MA. Textile handcraft guild participation: A conduit to

successful aging. Clothing & Textiles Res J. 2001;19:41–51.

4. Johnsson H, Josephsson S, Kielhofner G. Narratives and experience in occupational transition: A

longitudinal study of the retirement process. Am J Occup Ther. 2001;55:424–432.

5. Dissanayake E. The Pleasure and Meaning of Making. Am Craft. 1995;55: 40–45.

6. Mason R. The meaning and value of home-based craft. Int J Art & Design Ed. 2005;24:261–268.
7. Nelson NJ, Labat LL, Williams GM. Contemporary Irish textile-artists: Exploring experiences of
gender, culture, and artistic medium. Clothing & Textiles Res J. 2002;20:15–25.
8. Fisher PA. Successful aging, life satisfaction, and generativity in later life. Int J Aging and Hum
Dev. 1995;41:239–250.

9. Collier AF. The well-being of women who create with textiles: Implications for art therapy. J Am
Art Ther. 2011;28:104–112.

10. Ihatsu AM. Making Sense of contemporary American craft. Academic dissertation. University of
Joensuu, Publications in Education. 2002:73.
11. Kojonkoski-Rännäli S. Ajatus käsissämme. Käsityön käsitteen merkityssisällön analyysi. [The
though in our hands. An analysis of the meaning of the concept handicraft]. Academic
dissertation. University of Turku. 1998:A185.
12. Schmid T. Meanings of creativity within occupational therapy practice. Aust Occ Ther J. 2004;
51:80–88.

13. Cummins RA, Nistico H. Maintaining life satisfaction: The role of positive bias. J Happiness
Stud. 2002;3:37–69.

14. Veenhoven R. Healthy happiness: effects of happiness on physical health and the consequences
for preventive health care. J Happiness Stud. 2008;9:449–469.

15. Reynolds F, Prior S. The role of art-making in identity maintenance: case studies of people living
with cancer. Europ J Cancer Care.2006;15:333–341.

16. Wiesmann U, Hannich J-J. A salutogenic view on subjective well-being in active elderly
persons. Aging & Ment Health. 2008;12: 56–65.
17. Piškur B, Kinebanian A, Josephsson S. Occupation and well-being: A study of some Slovenian
people’s experiences of engagement in occupation in relation to well-being. Scand J Occup Ther.
2002; 9:63–70.
18. McColl MA, Friedlander J, Kerr A. When doing is not enough: The relationship between activity
and effectiveness in anorexia nervosa. Occup Ther Ment Health. 1986;6:137–150.
19. Nilsson I, Fisher, AG. Evaluating leisure activities in the oldest old. Scand J Occup Ther.
2006;13:31–37.

20. Aubin G, Hachey R, Mercier S. Meaning of daily activities and subjective quality of life in
people with severe mentall illness. Scand J Occup Ther. 1999;6:53–62.
21. Fidler GS. From crafts to competence. Am J Occup Ther. 1981;31:567–573.
22. Polatajko HJ, Davis JA, Hobson S, Landry JE, Mandich AD, Street SL et al. Meeting
responsibility that comes with the privilege: Introducing a taxonomic code for understanding
occupation. Can J Occup Ther. 2004;71:261–264.
23. McLaughlin Gray J. Application of the phenomenological method to the concept of occupation.
J Occup Sci. 1997;1:51–7.
24. Townsend EA, Polatajko HJ. Enabling occupation II: Advancing an occupational therapy vision
for health, well-being & justice through occupation. Ottawa, ON: CAOT Publications; 2007.
25. Anttila P. Prosessi vai produkti. Tutkimus käsityön asenteista ja arvopäämääristä. [Product or
process? A Research about attitudes and values of craft]. Kouluhallitus: Kokeilu- ja
tutkimustoimisto. Tutkimusselosteita 43. Helsinki, FI; 1983.

26. Anttila P. Käsityön ja muotoilun teoreettiset perusteet. [The theoretical basis for craft and craft
design]. Helsinki, FI: WSOY; 1993.
27. Gardner H. Art education and human development. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Trust; 1990.
28. Pöllänen S. Craft as context in therapeutic change. Ind J Occup Ther. 2009;XLI:43–47.
29. Tubbs C, Drake M. Crafts and creative media in therapy. New Jersey, USA: Slack Inc; 2007.
30. Pöllänen S. Contextualizing craft: Pedagogical models for craft education. Int J Art & Design Ed.
2009;28:249–260.
31. Peltonen J. Käsityökasvatuksen perusteet [Basics of craft education). University of Turku,
1988:A132.
32. Bogdan RC, Biklen SK. Qualitative research for education. An introduction to theories and
methods. 5th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon;2006.
33. Hammel KW. Dimensions of meaning in the occupations of daily life. Can J of Occup Ther.
2004;71:296–305.

34. Mayring P. On generalization in qualitative oriented research. Qual Soc Res. 2007;8. (cited
February 2012). Available at: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0703262.

35. Elo S, Kyngäs H. The qualitative content analysis process. J Advanced Nurs. 2008;62:107–115.
36. Klein HK, Myers MD. A set of principles for conducting and evaluating interpretive field studies
in information systems. MIS Quarterly.1999; 23:67–93.
37. Lincoln YS, Cuba EA. Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills CA: Sage Publications;1985.

38. Krefting L. Rigor in qualitative research: The assessment of trustworthiness. Am J Occup Ther.
1991;45:214–222.
39. McLaughlin-Gray J. Putting occupation in practice: Occupation as ends, occupations as means.
Am J Occup Ther. 1998;52:354–364.
40. Griffiths S. The experience of creative activity as a treatment medium. J Ment Health.
2008;17:49–63.
41. Davis B. Mediators of the relationship between hope and well-being in older adults. Clin Nurs
Res. 2005;14;253–272.

42. Larsson Å, Haglund L, Hagberg J-E. Doing everyday life-experience of the oldest old. Scand J
Occup Ther. 2009;16:99–109.
43. Lloyd C, Wong SR, Petchkovsky, L. The use of creative activities with people with mental health
problems: A survey of occupational therapists. Br J Occup Ther. 2001;70:207–214.
44. Drew S, Paradice, R. Time, women and well-being. Fem & Psychol. 1996;6:563–568.

45. Ville I, Ravaud JF, Tetrafigap Group. Subjective well-being and severe motor impairments: The
Tetrafigap survey on the long-term outcome of tetraplegic spinal injured persons. Soc Sci Med.
2001;52:369–384.

46. Vrkljan B, Miller-Polgar J. Meaning in occupational engagement in life-threatening illness: A

qualitative pilot project. Can J Occ Ther. 2001:68;237–246.

47. Phinney A, Chaudhury H, O’Connor DL. Doing as much as I can do: The meaning of activity for
people with dementia. Aging & Mental Health. 2007;11: 384–393.

48. Dickerson A, Kaplan SH. A comparison of craft use and academic preparation in craft
modalities. Am J Occup Ther. 1991;45:11–17.
49. Rebeiro K, Cook J. Opportunity, not prescription: An exploratory study of the experience of
occupational engagement. Can J Occup Ther. 1999;66:176–187.
50. Christiansen CH. Three perspectives on balance in occupation. In: Zemke R, Clarc F, eds.
Occupational science. The envolving science. Philadelphia: FA Davis Company; 1996:431–451.
51. Reynolds F. Cognitive behavioural counseling of unresolved grief through the therapeutic
adjunct of tapestry making. Arts in Psychother. 1999;26:165–171.
52. Reynolds F. Taking up arts and crafts in later life: a qualitative study of the experiential factors
that encourage participation in creative activities. Br J Occup Ther. 2009;72:393–400.
53. Griffiths S, Corr S. The use of creative activities with people with mental health problems: A
qualitative study. Can J Occup Ther. 2007;65:183–191.
54. Ghard G. Art and recovery in mental health: A qualitative investigation. Br J Occup Ther.
2007;70:329–329.
55. Reynolds F, Prior S. Creative adventures and flow in art-making: A qualitative study of women
living with cancer. Br J Occup Ther. 2006;69:255–262.
56. Reynolds F. Managing depression through needlecraft creative activities: A qualitative study.
Arts Psychother. 2000; 27:107–114.
57. Diamant E, Waterhouse A. Gardening and belonging: reflections on how social and therapeutic
horticulture may facilitate health, wellbeing and inclusion. Br J Occup Ther. 2010;73:84–88.
58. McColl MA. Occupation in stressful times. Am J of Occ Ther. 2002;56:350–353.

59. Csikszentmihalyi M. Finding flow. The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New
York: Basic Books; 1997.
60. Sundsteigen K, Eklund K, Dahlin-Ivanof S. Patients’ experience of groups in outpatient mental
health services and its significance for daily occupations. Scand J Occup Ther. 2009;16:172–180.
61. Davern MT, Cummins, RA, Stokes, MA. Subjective wellbeing as an affective-cognitive
construct. J Happiness Stud. 2007;8:429–449.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank MA Riikka Halonen for her assistance in data collection and
analysis.