👫11.

1 Reproduction
Class BIO 970
Created Nov 03, 2019 10 49 AM
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Fertilization
This is when the nucleus of a male sperm cell fuses with the nucleus of the
female egg cell.
Eggs
Female egg cells are formed when a woman is born. They are stored in
ovaries. One egg matures every month. It is released into the oviducts.
Egg cells required an external force to make them move, cells in the oviduct
are lined with cilia which move the egg along to the uterus. It can live for 24
hours but dies if it is not fertilized by then.
During sexual intercourse, sperm enters the vagina which leads to the uterus.
The sperm live for 1 2 days and need to make their way till the egg in the
oviduct to fertilize it otherwise they die.
If the egg is fertilized, it forms an embryo which develops into a fetus.
Sperm
Sperm cells have one mission, which is to swim, find and egg and fertilize it.
500 million sperm land in the vagina but only one fertilizes the egg.
Sperm cells are formed in testes and are pumped out through sperm ducts.
They pass through glands which add fluids to feed the sperm. The mixture of

11.1 Reproduction 1
 sperm and fluid is semen - this is released through the penis.
Sex cells
Sperm cells and egg cells are both specialized for their functions. Sperm cells
swim fast due to their structure and can release an enzyme to penetrate the
egg.
Eggs contain a large store of food. When fertilized, it uses the food to
produce an embryo. It is also well protected, as soon sperm cell enters an egg,
the outer membrane seals.

11.1 Reproduction 2
 👶11.2 Fetal development
Class BIO 970
Created Nov 03, 2019 11 09 AM
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Growing
Life begins as a single fertilized zygote, this zygote splits multiple times till it
forms a morula and then a blastocyst which implants into the uterus wall.
When in the uterus, some cells make contact with the mother's blood supply
and began to form a placenta and umbilical cord. The rest of the cells keep
dividing and specialize to form different tissues and organs, and after 8 weeks
the fetus is formed.
Safe and well fed
The growing fetus floats in a bag called the amnion which is filled with
amniotic fluid; this protects the bay and helps it practice movement.
The mother and bay cannot share blood, but the placenta lets molecules move
between the mother's blood and the fetus' blood. It brings food molecules and
oxygen from the mother's blood.
The blood vessels in the placenta have a large surface area so nutrients and
oxygen can diffuse quickly. At the same time waste and carbon dioxide diffuse
from the fetus to the mother.
Danger

11.2 Fetal development 1

 A fetus is safe from physical damage but not from chemicals and micro-
organisms. Drugs and infections can cross the placenta and can harm the
fetus.
Becoming human
By the 20th week, most babies have
a full set of organs. These send
signals to your brain which the brain
cannot make sense of yet. However,
these signals help your brain cells
connect with each other.

11.2 Fetal development 2

 11.3 Twins
Class BIO 970
Created Nov 03, 2019 11 26 AM
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Identical and Non-Identical Twins
Twins can be identical and non-identical.
Identical twins are formed when if a single embryo splits very early on. Each
half of the embryo grows to form a different fetus. Both babies will have the
same genes and the same sex.
Non-identical twins form when two or more different eggs are made due to
faulty ovulation are fertilized and each egg forms a different fetus. These
babies will have different genes and can have the same or different sexes.
Conjoined twins
A partially split embryo forms conjoined twins. They can be joined from
anywhere. If they don't share vital organs, they can be separated surgically.
Most conjoined twins don't survive.

11.3 Twins 1
 👤11.4 Adolescence
Class BIO 970
Created Nov 03, 2019 11 39 AM
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Puberty
Puberty is an indication of the functioning of the reproductive organs. It
occurs between the ages of 11 and 15. Girls may go through it earlier than
boys.
Hormones
When puberty is reached, the brain
makes testes and ovaries to pour
hormones into the blood, these are
like chemical messengers which
affect parts of the body. The effects
of sex hormones are most visible.
During puberty, they cause internal
and external changes
Periods
A girl starts periods (menstrual cycle) during puberty (menarc) this goes on till
around the age of 50 (menopause).
Every month, an egg matures in an ovary. At the same time her uterus builds
up a thick lining and then the egg is released - this is called ovulation.

11.4 Adolescence 1
 The egg then travels down the oviduct. If fertilized, an embryo forms and
implants. If not fertilized, the girl's hormone levels drop and this makes the
uterus lining break.
It leaves the girl's body as a flow of blood through the vagina. The menstrual
cycle is said to begin from the first day of this bleeding.
The menstrual cycle lasts 28 days but can vary
Periods stop when the woman is pregnant and end at menopause
Feeling different
During puberty sex hormones affect
your body as well as your body.
They can change your mood and can
make it harder for you to sleep.

11.4 Adolescence 2
 🦀5.4 Classfication
Class BIO 970
Created Nov 03, 2019 12 07 PM
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Vertebrates and Invertebrates
Animals can be largely divided into vertebrates and invertebrates which are
then divided into smaller subgroups. Vertebrates have skeletons with
backbones which invertebrates don't.
Groups of Invertebrates
arthropods - have jointed legs
mollusks - have a soft body
echinoderms - have spiny skin
cnidarians - have tentacles
annelids - have segmented bodies
nematodes - have long thin bodies
flatworms - have flat bodies
Arthropods
Most invertebrates belong to this group. This can be further divided into
smaller subgroups:
insects - have 6 legs

5.4 Classfication 1
 arachnids - have 8 legs
crustaceans - have 2 pairs of antennae
myriapods - have long segmented bodies
Using a key
Having subgroups makes it easier to
identify each species. A key uses
questions to determine which groups
or subgroups a species belongs to.

5.4 Classfication 2
 🐫5.5 Vertebrates
Class BIO 970
Created Nov 03, 2019 12 19 PM
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Classifying vertebrates
Vertebrates can be further
divided into 5 groups
Warm blood
Mammals and birds keep
their body temperature
around 37 degrees Celsius
and maintain this
temperature. Fish,
amphibians and reptiles are
cold blooded, they change
their body temperature
according to their
surroundings.
Amphibians and reptiles
These can be hard to distinguish from a distance. Both have similar physical
features.
Unusual and hard to classify animals
5.5 Vertebrates 1
 Whales are unusual mammals, they have features similar to fish and mammals.
They even give birth to live young and feed them on milk.
Some animals are very difficult to classify:
Olm - has gills , lives in water and is covered in smooth skin.
Platypus - has a double layer of fur, lays eggs and feeds offspring on milk.
Caecilian - smooth skinned, lives in underground burrow and gives birth to
live young.
Armadillo - its underside is covered in soft fur, low body temperature and
feeds young on milk.

5.5 Vertebrates 2
 🌲5.6 Classification of plants
Class BIO 970
Created Nov 03, 2019 12 32 PM
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Classification of plants
Plants can be classified into 4 groups: flowering plants, conifers, ferns and
mosses.
Flowering plants: These reproduce through flowers in dry conditions. These
make more than 3/4th of the plant kingdom.
Mosses and Ferns : Mosses and ferns grow in damp, shady areas They
reproduce through spores and can only do this when they are wet. Moss
spores form at the ends of small stalk while fern spores form on the underside
of their leaves.
Conifers: Conifers produce cones instead of flowers. They also produce seeds
and reproduce in dry conditions.
Algae
In oceans, plants are replaced by algae, but these aren't considered plants
since they don't have separate roots, stems and leaves.
Algae include seaweeds and phytoplankton. Many life forms in the oceans
feed on these.

5.6 Classification of plants 1