PETRO

C A N T A N O
F A J A R D O
L U G A Y
P A G S I S I H A N
V I L L A L V A

CEIT-02-303A - GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS –

PROFESSOR ZORAHAYDA VILLANUEVA
CONCEPCION
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
DEFINITION
formed by the
accumulation of
sediments. They are
considered to be
derived rocks
because they are
formed from
fragments of pre-
existing rocks.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Characteristics
• Sedimentary rocks are formed of
sediments derived from the older
rocks, plant and animal remains
and thus these rocks contain
fossils of plants and animals.
• Sedimentary rocks are found over
the largest surface area of the
globe.
• The deposition of sediments of
various types and sizes to form
sedimentary rocks takes place in
certain sequence and system
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Characteristics
• Sedimentary rocks contain
several layers or strata but these
are seldom crystalline rocks.
• Like igneous rocks sedimentary
rocks are not found in massive
forms such as batholiths,
laccoliths, dykes etc.
• Layers of sedimentary rocks are
seldom found in original and
horizontal manner.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Characteristics
• Sedimentary rocks may be well
consolidated, poorly consolidated
and even unconsolidated. The
composition of the rocks depends
upon the nature of cementing
elements and rock forming minerals.
• Sedimentary rocks are characterized
by different sizes of joints.
• The connecting plane between two
consecutive beds or layers of
sedimentary rocks is called bedding
plane.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
FORMATION PROCESS
1. Weathering of pre-
existing rocks
2. Transport of the
weathering products
3. Deposition of the
material
4. Compaction
5. lithification
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
WEATHERING
In mechanical weathering rocks are broken
up into smaller pieces by frost-wedging,
root-wedging, and abrasion. Mechanical
weathering breaks rocks into smaller and
smaller pieces but without otherwise
altering the minerals.
In chemical weathering minerals are
changed into new minerals and mineral
byproducts. Some minerals like halite and
calcite may dissolve completely. Hydrolysis
is the reaction of minerals in weakly acidic
waters.
Rock fragments will also remain where the
rocks are not completely weathered.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
TRANSPORT
As the process of weathering
proceeds the products are carried
off. The most important
transporting agent is water. Water
carries or rolls particles in rivers,
also carries dissolved minerals.
Other transporting agents include
wind which blows dust and sand,
glaciers, which carry large amounts
of gravel and huge boulders in
addition to smaller particles.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
DEPOSITION
Sediments are transported only
when there is enough energy in the
transporting medium, for example,
when a stream is flowing rapidly
enough to carry a given size of
sedimentary particle. Sediments
are deposited layer upon layer. The
layers are deposited horizontally.
When a river encounters the ocean
it begins to deposit its suspended
sediments.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
COMPACTION AND CEMENTATION

As sedimentation
continues, the earlier
deposited sediments are
laden with an increasing
overburden. They are
compacted, reducing the
available pore space and
expelling much of the
pore-water.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
LITHIFICATION
Complex process whereby
freshly deposited loose grains
of sediment are converted into
rock. Lithification may occur at
the time a sediment is
deposited or later. Cementation
is one of the main processes
involved, particularly for
sandstones and conglomerates.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
TYPES
• Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed
from mechanical weathering debris.
(eg. breccia, conglomerate, sandstone,
siltstone, and shale)
• Chemical sedimentary rocks form
when dissolved materials precipitate
from solution. (eg. rock salt, iron ore,
chert, flint, some dolomites, and some
limestones)
• Organic sedimentary rocks form from
the accumulation of plant or animal
debris. (eg. coal, some dolomites, and
some limestones)
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
USES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
1. Building Construction
2. Structural Wall Construction
3. Cement Production
4. Concrete Production
5. Pavement and Road Construction
6. Tunneling
7. Brick and Tile Manufacturing
8. Architectural and Monumental Stone
9. Building Interior Decoration
10. Façade Construction
11. Filler in Paint
12. Sheetrock and Plaster
13. Wallboard
EXAMPLES
WHAT IS SAND
CONCEPT

the word "sand" in

sandstone refers
to the particle size
of the grains in the
rock rather than
the material of
which it is
composed.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX
SANDSTONE
SEDIMENTARY ROCK

It is a sedimentary
rock composed of
sand-size grains of
mineral, rock, or
organic material.
One of the most
common types of
sedimentary rock
and is found in
sedimentary
basins throughout
the world.
1
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX
SANDSTONE
FORMATION

Formation of the
sandstones are
cemented grains that
may either be
fragments of a pre-
existing rock or be
mono-minerallic
crystals. The cements
binding these grains
together are typically
calcite, clays, and
silica
1
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX
OCCURRENCE
SANDSTONE - SEDIMENTARY ROCK

SANDSTONE HILLS SANDSTONE

IN NORTHWEST LAYERS IN SW
ISLAND WALES

New Zealand occurrences - extensive

occurrence throughout the country
(especially North Island), well exposed
on many coastlines, e.g. Auckland,
Taranaki, King Country, Wairarapa,
Southland; generally found
interbedded with mudstone.
1
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX
OCCURRENCE
SANDSTONE

Sandstone can be found to many place

to deposits across the World. In the
USA, there are four main sandstone
deposits that can be found in Virginia,
Wisconsin, Michigan and New York.
Aquia Creek Sandstone, found in
Stafford County Virginia, has been
used in many of Washington’s
prominent government buildings,
including the White House

1
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX
SANDSTONE
PROPERTIES

TEXTURE
11 clastic
0.06 - 2mm; clasts
GRAIN SIZE
22 visible to the naked
eye, often
identifiable.
variable, soft to hard,
HARDNESS
33 dependent on clast
and cement
composition.
variable through grey,

COLOR
44 yellow, red to white
reflecting the variation in
mineral content and
cement.

5
dominantly quartz and
CLASTS
5 feldspar (orthoclase,
plagioclase) with lithic clasts
and varying minor amounts
of other minerals.
OTHER FEATURES – GRITTY TO TOUCH (LIKE
SANDPAPER)
2
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX
D I ST R I B U T I O N

if soft then generally of

no use; if hard then can
be used as aggregate, fill
etc. in the construction
and roading industries;
dimension stone for
buildings, paving, etc.
USES OF

Domestic

1 Construction &
Housewares 3 Building
Material

2 Fountains &
Statues 4 Sharpening
Blades
STONE
LIMESTONE
SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Limestone is a sedimentary rock

composed primarily of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of
the mineral calcite.
- Most limestones form in shallow,
calm, warm marine waters.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 24

 OCCURRENCE
LIMESTONE - SEDIMENTARY ROCK

LIMESTONE LIMESTONE
CLIFFS IN LAYERS IN
DERBYSHIRE DORSET
New Zealand occurrences - widespread
occurrence throughout the country; exposed
in many quarries, and on some coastlines;
notable localities include the Te Kuiti area in
the North Island (home of the Waitomo
Caves), Pancake Rocks at Punakaiki on the
west coast of the South Island, and Trilobite
Rock in the Cobb Valley in northwest Nelson.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 25

 LIMESTONE
PROPERTIES

TEXTURE
11 clastic or
non-clastic.
variable, can
GRAIN SIZE
22 consist of clasts of
all sizes.

HARDNESS
33 generally
hard.

COLOR
44 variable, but generally
light colored, grey
through yellow.
if clastic / bioclastic then

55
grains and / or broken or
CLASTS whole shell fragments
visible; if non-clastic /
chemical then crystalline
OTHER FEATURES – smooth and no clasts visible.
to rough to touch, dependent
on composition and / or
mode of formation. PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 26
DISTRIBUTION

base for cement; as

dimension stone for
decoration of walls and
floors; in the production
of lime fertilizer, paper,
petrochemicals,
pesticide, glass etc.
D I ST R I B U T I O N
USES OF
Limestones

1 Filler
3 Filter

2 Sorbents
4 Tiles
 SHALE
SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Most common sedimentary rock,

accounting for about 70 percent of the
rock found in the Earth's crust. It is a
fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock
made of compacted mud consisting of
clay and tiny particles of quartz,
calcite, mica, pyrite, other minerals,
and organic compounds. Shale is found
all over the world in areas where water
exists or once flowed.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 31
 SHALE
SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Shale is fine-grained, that forms from

the compaction of silt and clay-size
mineral particles that we commonly call
"mud”. Shale is distinguished from
other mudstones because it is fissile and
laminated.
"Laminated" means that the rock is
made up of many thin layers. "Fissile"
means that the rock readily splits into
thin pieces along the laminations.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 32

SHALE FORMATION
SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Compaction; from particles in slow or

quiet water, such as river deltas, lakes,
swamps, or the ocean floor.
Heavier particles sink, ultimately
forming sandstone and limestone,
while clay and fine silt remain
suspended in water.
Shale typically occurs in a broadsheet,
several meters thick. Sometimes animal
tracks, fossils, or even imprints of
raindrops are preserved in shale layers.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 33
OCCURRENCE
SHALE – SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Shale forms in very deep ocean

water, lagoons, lakes and swamps
where the water is still enough to
allow the extremely fine clay and
silt particles to settle to the floor.
Geologists estimate
that shale represents almost ¾ of
the sedimentary rock on the Earth's
crust.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 34
 SHALE
PROPERTIES
fine-grained, clastic,
composed of mud that is a

TEXTURE
11 mix of flakes of clay minerals
and tiny fragments (silt-sized
particles) of other minerals,
especially quartz and calcite.
often determined by the

COLOR
22 presence of specific
materials in minor
amounts. (black,gray,
red,brown,yellow,green)
3 whereas its
HARDNESS
33 compressive
strength is 95.00
N/mm .2

So small that oil,

HYDRAULIC
44 natural gas, and water
have difficulty moving
through the rock.

COMPOSITION
55 composed mainly
of clay-size mineral
grains.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 35

DISTRIBUTION

It is a source material in
the ceramics industry to
make brick, tile, and
pottery. Shale used to
make pottery and
building materials
requires little processing
besides crushing and
mixing with water.
D I ST R I B U T I O N
DISTRIBUTION

The petroleum industry

uses fracking to extract
oil and natural gas from
oil shale. Fracking
involves injection of
liquid at high pressure
into the rock to force out
the organic molecules.
CONGLO
M E RAT E
CONGLOMERATE
SEDIMENTARY ROCK

A clastic sedimentary
rock that contains large
(greater than two millimeters
in diameter) rounded clasts.
The space between the
clasts is generally filled with
smaller particles and/or
a calcite or quartz cement
that binds the rock
together.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 40
CONGLOMERATE
CLASSES

Clast-supported: where the

clasts touch each other and
the matrix fills the voids
Matrix-supported:

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 41

CONGLOMERATE
FORMATION

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 42

OCCURRENCE
CONGLOMERATE – SEDIMENTARY ROCK

To form a conglomerate, there must

also be a source of large-size
sediment particles somewhere up
current. The rounded shape of the
clasts reveals that they were
tumbled for some distance by
running water or moving waves.
These conditions are found in
streams and standing water bodies
in many parts of the Earth.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 43
 OCCURRENCE
CONGLOMERATE – SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Found in areas where water once flowed

or where glaciers were found, such
as Death Valley National Park, the cliffs
along the east coast of Scotland, the
dome-shaped hills of Kata Tjuta in
Australia, the underlying anthracite of the
coal fields of Pennsylvania, and the base of
the Sangre de Cristo mountains of
Colorado. Sometimes the rock is strong
enough to be used for construction.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 44
 CONGLOMERATE
PROPERTIES
clastic; Coarse-
TEXTURE
11 grained (2 - 64
mm)
variable, dependent
COLOR
22 on clast and matrix
composition (tan to
brown)
variable hardness
HARDNESS
33 soft to hard, often
looks like concrete.
Monomictic
conglomerate - clasts are
COMPOSITION
44 the same type of rock
Polymictic conglomerate
- clasts are made up of
two or more rocks
Rounded clasts in a
MISCELLANEOUS
55 fine- to medium-
grained matrix;
OTHER FEATURES – smooth Immature
to rough to touch, dependent
on composition and / or
mode of formation. PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 45
D I ST R I B U T I O N

When the matrix is soft,

conglomerate may be crushed
for use as a fill material in the
construction and
transportation industries. Hard
conglomerate may be cut and
polished to make dimension
stone for interesting-looking
walls and floors.
BRECCIA
WHAT IS BRECCIA
CONCEPT

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX

BRECCIA
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
It is a rock composed
of broken angular or
sub angular
fragments over 2 mm
in diameter with a
space between the
particles filled with
smaller particles and
mineral cement.
Breccia forms where
broken, angular
fragments of rocks or
mineral debris
accumulated.
Sporadic occurrence
throughout the
country
The properties of
Breccia are highly
variable.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 49

BRECCIA
FORMATION

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 50

BRECCIA
COMPOSITION

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 51

BRECCIA
PROPERTIES
2mm; clasts easily
GRAIN SIZE
11 visible to the naked
eye, should be
identifiable.

22
Variable, dependent
COLOR on clast and matrix
composition. (Can be
any color)

TEXTURE
33 Clastic (coarse-
grained).

FEATURES
44 rough
Variable, but
CLASTS
55 generally harder
rock types and / or
minerals dominate.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 52

OCCURRENCE
CONGLOMERATE – SEDIMENTARY ROCK

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 53

D I ST R I B U T I O N
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
DEFINITION
Metamorphic rocks are the rocks
formed from other rocks. They are
sedimentary or igneous rocks that
have undergone changes as a result
of extreme pressure and heat. The
name defines their formation
whereby ‘meta’ means change and
‘morph’ means ‘form.’ Hence,
metamorphic rocks are those whose
forms have been changed through
geological process such as large
tectonic movements and magma
intrusions.
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
FORMATION PROCESS
Large tectonic movements and magma
intrusion create earth movements that
cause pre-existing rocks to move and shift
,other rocks are buried deep below to
extreme pressure and heat which
contributes to changes and assemblage. The
changes modify the rock’s crystal type and
sizes. Metamorphic processes come about
at heats between 150̊ and 795̊ C. pressure
from the overlying rocks also increases the
process of transformation. Heat from
magma and friction along fault lines is the
major contributor of the heat that brings
about the rock changes.
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
PROPERTIES
1. Formed Underground
2. Sheets, Slabs and Slates
3. Formed from other
types

Metamorphic rocks are

formed from igneous and
sedimentary rocks.
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
TYPES
• Foliated metamorphic rocks
- are formed from direct exposure to
pressure and heat. They are the most vital
and largest groupings of metamorphic rocks.
Foliated metamorphic rocks have four
distinguishable types of aligned textures and
they normally have a banded or layered
appearance. (eg. gneiss, phyllite, schist, and
slate)
• Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
- are formed as a result of tectonic
movements or direct pressure which makes
their formation highly dependent on their
pre-existing conditions. They do not have a
layered or banded appearance. (eg. hornfels,
marble, quartzite, and novaculite)
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
USES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Economic uses
Metamorphic rocks are very
hard and can be used in the
construction industry. They are
also used for rip rap in coastal
defence schemes.
Decorative rocks such as marble
can be used in homes for
fireplaces and kitchen work
surfaces.
EXAMPLES
QUART
ZITE
QUARTZITE
METAMORPHIC ROCK
Quartzite is a
metamorphic
rock formed
when quartz-rich
sandstone or
chert has been
exposed to high
temperatures
and pressures.
It often forms
under
metamorphic
conditions.
Quartzite can be
found all over the
world.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 62

QUARTZITE
METAMORPHIC ROCK
Quartzite is a
nonfoliated
metamorphic
rock composed
almost entirely
of quartz. It
forms when a
quartz-rich
sandstone is
altered by the
heat, pressure,
and chemical
activity of
metamorphism.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 63

QUARTZITE
PROPERTIES
medium grained; can
GRAIN SIZE
11 see interlocking
quartz crystals with
the naked eye.
variable - pure
COLOR
22 quartzite is white but
quartzite exists in a
wide variety of colors.

TEXTURE
33 Granular.

FEATURES
44 Gritty
Generally

HARDNESS
55 Seven on the
Mohs Hardness
Scale

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 64

QUARTZITE
FORMATION

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 65

D I ST R I B U T I O N
D I ST R I B U T I O N
D I ST R I B U T I O N
MARBLE
MARBLE
Regional
Metamorphism
- Most marble
forms at
convergent plate
boundaries where
large areas of
Earth's crust are
exposed to regional
metamorphism.
Contact
Metamorphism
- Some marble also
forms by contact
metamorphism
when a hot magma
body heats
adjacent limestone
or dolostone.
PROPERTIES OF
MARBLE

Marble is usually a light-

colored rock. When it is
formed from a limestone
with very few impurities, it
will be white in color. Marble
that contains impurities such
as clay minerals, iron oxides,
or bituminous material can
be blue, gray, pink, yellow, or
black in color.
PROPERTIES OF
MARBLE

Being composed of calcium

carbonate, marble will react
in contact with many acids,
neutralizing the acid. It is one
of the most effective acid
neutralization materials.
Marble is often crushed and
used for acid neutralization
in streams, lakes, and soils.
PROPERTIES OF
MARBLE

Being composed of calcite,

marble has a hardness of 3
on the Mohs hardness scale.
As a result, marble is easy to
carve, and that makes it
useful for producing
sculptures and ornamental
objects.
PROPERTIES OF
MARBLE

Marble is translucent
which makes it suitable
for many types of
sculptures.
PROPERTIES OF
MARBLE

After being sanded with

progressively finer abrasives,
marble can be polished to a
high luster. This allows
attractive pieces of marble to
be cut, polished, and used as
floor tiles, architectural
panels, facing stone, window
sills, stair treads, columns,
and many other pieces of
decorative stone.
DISTRIBUTION
CRUSHED
STONES
Crushed stone is
used as an aggregate
in highways, railroad
beds, building
foundations, and
other types of
construction.
DISTRIBUTION
DIMENSION
STONES
Dimension stone is
produced by sawing
marble into pieces of
specific dimensions.
These are used in
monuments, buildings,
sculptures, paving and
other projects.
SLATE
The tectonic
environment for
producing slate is
usually a former
sedimentary basin
that becomes
involved in a
convergent plate
boundary.
Foliation develops at
right angles to the
compressive forces of
the convergent plate
boundary to yield a
vertical foliation that
usually crosses the
bedding planes that
existed in the shale.
SLATE
Shales and
mudstones, in
which slate is
derived, are
compressed by
horizontal
forces with
minor heating.
These forces
and heat
modify the clay
minerals in the
shale and
mudstone.
PROPERTIES OF
SLATE
COMPOSITION
Slate is composed mainly of clay
minerals or micas, depending upon
the degree of metamorphism to
which it has been subjected.

Slate can also contain abundant

quartz and small amounts of
feldspar, calcite, pyrite, hematite,
and other minerals.

It is derived from shale or

mudstone that has experienced
intense heat or pressure beneath
the earth's surface.

Slate is made up of parallel foliated

plates. This gives it the ability to
break smoothly and evenly along its
cleavage.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 81
PROPERTIES OF
SLATE

Slate ranks at 5.5 on the

Mohs scale. It is hard
enough to be able to
scratch glass and steel.
PROPERTIES OF
SLATE

The color of slate depends

on its mineral
composition. Red slate is
caused by hematite, green
by chlorite, blue-gray by
sericite, black by
carbonaceous materials
and yellowish-brown by
limonite.
PROPERTIES OF
SLATE

Some types of slate are

also mottled, streaked
or spotted because of
its mineral content. The
cleavage surface of
slate may have either a
shiny or dull luster.
Cross fractures are
typically dull.
PROPERTIES OF
SLATE

Slate is an opaque
material that does
not transmit any
light.
D I ST R I B U T I O N

Slate has
historically
been used for
shingles and
paving tiles.
DISTRIBUTION

Slate also serves

many decorative
purposes. The rock
makes plates,
picture frames,
coasters, trivets,
beads and jewelry.
D I ST R I B U T I O N

Slate is also used to

make fountains. The
relatively flat and
receptive surface of
slate makes it fairly
easy to write on with
materials like chalk or
charcoal.
DISTRIBUTION

Slate has been

used to make
chalkboards for
classrooms. Some
artists use slate as
a natural canvas.
GNEISS
GNEISS

Gneiss is foliated metamorphic

rock that is a common
distribute type of rock high-
grade regional metamorphic
approaches from pre-current
formations that have been
initially both igneous and
sedimentary rocks.
It has a glorious banding which is
apparent on microscopic scale
and hand specimen.
GNEISS
FORMATION

All gneiss forms

as a result of
high-grade,
regional
metamorphic
conditions. High
grade means that
the
metamorphism
occurs at high
pressures and at
temperatures at
or above 320
degrees Celsius.
GNEISS
FORMATION
Any water that is
present in the
minerals pre-
metamorphism is
frequently lost as the
temperature
increases, resulting in
hard metamorphic
rocks that are
generally resistant to
dissolution in water.
Gneiss rocks exhibit a
unique form of
foliation known as
gneissic banding,
which are thicker
bands of foliation than
most metamorphic
rocks display.
P RO P E RT I ES O F
GNEISS
TYPE OF ROCK
GNEISS

METAMORPHIC
once igneous or sedimentary rocks,
but have been changed
(metamorphosed) as a result of
intense heat and/or pressure within
the Earth's crust. They are
crystalline and often have a
“squashed” (foliated or banded)
texture.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 95

DISTINGUISHING
FEATURES

Gneiss, recrystallized
Granite, which through solid state
crystallized directly reactions, often forms
from (liquid!) magma, crystals that are
displays randomly preferentially
oriented perpendicular to
oriented crystals. the direction of highest
pressure.

Completely crystallized; crystals visible with

the naked eye, but an isotropic pressure
during crystallization leads to a preferred
orientation of many newly formed minerals,
which can lead to distinctive textures.
The two rock specimens shown below have
similar mineral composition, but very
different texture.
MAIN MINERALS

Often similar to granite

(feldspars, olivine, amphibole,
pyroxenes), but notice the
preferred orientation of the
black biotite crystals in the
specimen beside.
WEATHERING
BEHAVIOR

Gneiss generally
weathers rather
slowly, though some
minerals might be
affected by chemical
weathering
IMPACT
ON SOILS

Since the mineral

composition is often
similar to granite and
weathering rates are
slow, gneiss tends to
lead to acidic, poorly
developed soils
How
It Forms
GNEISS

Gneiss is a metamorphic
rock, which forms through
recrystallization of pre-
existing rocks under high
temperature and pressure
(high grade
metamorphism). During
metamorphosis the rock
remains completely solid,
and pressure is often
anisotropic, which leads
to preferred orientation
of newly formed
minerals.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 10
0
GNEISS
OTHER PROPERTIES

GRAIN SIZE
11 (medium to)
coarse grained

variable in color
COLOR
22 usually alternating
light and dark bands
(“banded gneiss”)
banded, foliated, layered,
TEXTURE
33 aggregates of platy or
linear grains forming
lenses or blades
light bands: quartz,
MINERALS
44 feldspar, muscovite, dark
bands: hornblende,
biotite, graphite, garnet

Gneiss is the main rock in

OCCURENCES
55 Precambrian regions but
occur world-wide in a lot
of different metamorphic
geological units.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 101

CHEMICAL
COMPOSITIONS

Gneissic rocks are

usually medium- to
coarse-foliated;
they are largely
recrystallized but
do no longer
deliver large
quantities of micas,
chlorite or different
platy minerals.
Where it is
FOUND

Gneiss, being a highly deformed

crystalline metamorphic rock, is
commonly found in the cores of
mountain ranges and in Precambrian
crystalline terranes. The rock itself is
formed at crustal depths of 10 to 20
km, at pressures of 10kb or more,
and temperatures between about
500-700°K, so at depths where rock
becomes quasi-viscous, high-grade
minerals such as biotite and garnet
form that lend a characteristic
foliation or banding, but just below
temperatures where quartz and
feldspar and muscovite begin to
melt and/or break down and form
veins of granite.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 10

3
USES OF
GNEISS
1 Construction
4 Floor Tiles

1 4
2 Paving
5 Window Sills

2 5
3 Architectural
6 Cemetery

3 Stone
6 Monuments
SCH IST
SCHIST
METAMORPHIC ROCK

Schist is a
foliated metamorphic
rock made up of
plate-shaped mineral
grains that are large
enough to see with
an unaided eye. It
usually forms on a
continental side of
a convergent plate
boundary
where sedimentary
rocks, such
as shales and
mudstones, have
been subjected to
compressive forces,
heat, and chemical
activity.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 10

6
SCHIST
METAMORPHIC ROCK
This metamorphic
environment is intense
enough to convert the
clay minerals of the
sedimentary rocks into
platy
metamorphic minerals
such
as muscovite, biotite,
and chlorite. To
become schist, a shale
must be
metamorphosed in
steps
through slate and then
through phyllite. If the
schist is
metamorphosed
further, it might
become a granular
rock known as gneiss.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 10

7
SCHIST
HOW IT’S FORMED
Schist is a rock that has been exposed
a moderate level of heat and a
moderate level of pressure. In the
convergent plate boundary
environment, heat and chemical activity
transform the clay minerals of shales
and mudstones into platy mica minerals
such as muscovite, biotite, and chlorite.
The directed pressure pushes the
transforming clay minerals from their
random orientations into a common
parallel alignment where the long axes
of the platy minerals are oriented
perpendicular to the direction of the
compressive force. This transformation
of minerals marks the point in the
rock’s history when it is no longer
sedimentary but becomes the low-
grade metamorphic rock known as
“slate.”

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 108

SCHIST
HOW IT’S FORMED

If the slate is exposed to additional

metamorphism, the mica grains in
the rock will begin to grow. The
grains will elongate in a direction
that is perpendicular to the
direction of compressive force. This
alignment and increase in mica
grain size gives the rock a silky
luster. At that point the rock can be
called a “phyllite.” When the platy
mineral grains have grown large
enough to be seen with the
unaided eye, the rock can be called
“schist.” Additional heat, pressure,
and chemical activity might convert
the schist into a granular
metamorphic rock known as
“gneiss.”
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 10
P R O P E R T IE S O F
SCHIST
TYPE OF ROCK
SCHIST

METAMORPHIC
once igneous or sedimentary rocks,
but have been changed
(metamorphosed) as a result of
intense heat and/or pressure within
the Earth's crust. They are
crystalline and often have a
“squashed” (foliated or banded)
texture.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 11

1
 DISTINGUISHING
FEATURES
SCHIST

Specimen of Schist. Specimen of Schist

showing that foliation is
caused by stretched-out
minerals.

Often has a distinct foliation fabric (planar

appearance), due to preferred alignment of
newly formed minerals, such as muscovite.
Novices sometimes confuse foliation with
sedimentary layering, which is caused by
changes in sediment particle size distribution
and mineral composition. The images below
show a specimen of schist displaying foliation, if
the rock is polished and cut into a thin section,
30 mm thick, it is possible to observe the
individual mineral grains.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 11
2
MAIN MINERALS
SCHIST

Rather variable, depending

on the initial mineral
composition of the un-
metamorphized rock

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 11

3
WEATHERING
BEHAVIOR
SCHIST

Many of the
metamorphic
minerals are affected
by chemical
weathering, crystal
sizes can be very
small, causing rapid
weathering.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 11
4
IMPACT
ON SOILS
SCHIST

Depends on
mineral
composition.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 11

5
How
It Forms
SCHIST

Schist is a metamorphic
rock, which forms through
recrystallization of pre-
existing rocks under fairly
high temperature and
pressure (medium grade
metamorphism). During
metamorphosis the
rock remains completely
solid, and pressure is
often anisotropic, which
leads to preferred
orientation of newly
formed minerals.
PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 11
6
SCHIST
OTHER PROPERTIES
fine to medium
GRAIN SIZE
11 grained; can often see
crystals with the naked
eye.
Variable - often

COLOR
22 alternating lighter and
darker bands, often
shiny. Mineralogy - mica
minerals

TEXTURE
33 foliated, foliation
(mm to cm scale)

generally
FEATURES
44 smoothish to
touch.
extensive occurrence
OCCURENCES
55 throughout the South
Island, e.g. Southern
Alps, Central Otago
area.

PETROLOGY | GROUP SIX 117

USES OF
SCHIST
1 Flooring
4 Floor Tiles

1 4
2 Garden
5 Interior

2 5
Decoration Decoration

3 Decorative
6 Paving Stone

3 Aggregates
6
11
PETROLOGY| GROUP SIX
8
THANK
YOU!
Any Questions?

CEIT – 02 – 303A – GROUP SIX