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CHAPTER – I
GAS POWER CYCLES
1.1 AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Air standard cycles are used for comparison of thermal efficiencies of I.C
engines. Engines working with air standard cycles are known as air standard engines. Air is
used, as the working fluid and the efficiency calculated to these engines are known as air
standard efficiencies.
1.1.1 ASSUMPTIONS
The assumptions made are,
(i) Air is the working fluid, assumed to be a perfect gas.

(ii) Effect of calorific values of fuels is neglected by using hot and cold body contacts
with the engine cylinder head for addition and rejection of heat respectively.
(iii) Frictionless.
(iv) No heat is either gained or lost during the cycle except during the contact of hot
body and cold body with the cylinder head.
1.1.2 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES USED IN AIR STANDARD CYCLES

(i) Bore
It is diameter of the cylinder measured internally and is denoted by D.
(ii) Stroke
Stroke is defined as the displacement of the piston from its Top Dead Centre to the
Bottom Dead Centre and is denoted by L
(iii) Clearance volume
It is the minimum volume of a gas inside the cylinder when the piston is at Top Dead
Centre (T.D.C) and is denoted by V
(iv) Swept or stroke volume
It is the volume of a cylinder when the piston is moving from T.D.C to B.D.C and is
denoted by V
π
V D L
4
1
(v) Cylinder volume
It is the volume of a gas inside the cylinder when the piston is at Bottom Dead Centre
(B.D.C) and is denoted by V.
V V V
(vi) Compression ratio
It is defined as the ratio of cylinder volume to the clearance volume and is denoted
by γ.
V V V
r
V V
(vii) Air standard efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of work done by the engine to the heat supplied. It is also
known as ideal efficiency of the cycle. It is denoted by η
work done heat supplied heat rejected
η
heat supplied heat supplied
(viii) Mean effective pressure
It is defined as the average pressure required for developing same power as that of the
same engine operating under different pressures under same operating conditions. It can
be calculated from P-V diagram. It is also defined as the ratio of work output to the stroke
volume.
work output
P
stroke volume
1.2 CARNOT CYCLE
This cycle was first invented by a French engineer sadi Carnot in 1824 for perfect gas
undergoing cyclic and reversible processes. It has two reversible iso-thermal frictionless
processes and two reversible frictionless adiabatic processes.
Figure 1.1 P-v and T-s diagram of Carnot Cycle
2
1-2 Isothermal Expansion
2-3 Isentropic Expansion
3-4 Isothermal compression
4-1 Isentropic compression.
Isothermal expansion Process 1-2
The gas is expanded from state 1 to state 2 isothermally. Actually in anexapnsion
process gas temperature decreases, here to maintain the temperature isothermally heat is
supplied continuously.
V V
Heat supplied Q P V ln mRT ln
V V
Isentropic Expansion Process 2-3
The gas is expanded further at isentropic process from state 2 to state 3. During the
process gas temperature decrease from T to T
Isothermal Compression Process 3- 4
The gas is compressed from state 3 to state 4 isothermally. Actually in a compression
process gas temperature increases, here to maintain the temperature isothermally heat is
removed continuously.
V V
Heat rejected Q P V ln mRT ln
V V
Isentropic Compression process 4 – 1
The gas is compressed further at isentropic process from state 4 to state 1. During the
process gas temperature increases from T to T
Expression for efficeincy

η
V V
Heat supplied Q P V ln mRT ln
V V
V V
Heat rejected Q P V ln mRT ln
V V
V V
r
V V
Work done mR T T ln r
3
work done mR T T ln r T T
η
heat supplied mRT ln r T
T
η 1
T
1.3 OTTO CYCLE / CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE
Otto cycle was invented by German scientist Nichloas Otto in 1876. In this cycle he
proposed constant volume heat addition and rejection instead of isothermal heat
addition and rejection used in Carnot cycle. All petrol, Spark ignition (S.I.) and gas
engines are working under this cycle.
Figure 1.2 P-v and T-s diagram of Otto Cycle
1-2 Adiabatic / Isentropic compression

2-3 Heat addition at constant volume
3-4 Adiabatic / Isentropic Expansion
4-1 Heat rejection at constant volume
Isentropic compression process 1-2
Air is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2. During this process pressure,
temperature of air increases and volume decreases.
Constant volume heat addition process 2-3
Heat is added at constant volume from state 2 to state 3. During this process
temperature, pressure increases and volume remains constant.
Heat supplied Q mC T –T
4
Isentropic expansion process 3- 4
Air is expanded isentropically from state 3 to state 4. During the process pressure,
temperature decreases and volume increases.
Constant volume heat rejection process 4 – 1
Heat is rejected from the air at constant volume from state 4 to state 1. During the
process pressure, temperature decreases and volume remains constant.
Heat rejected Q mC T –T
In this cycle combustion takes place fully at constant volume process, so this cycle is
also called as constant volume cycle.
Expression for air standard efficiency

η
Heat supplied Q mC T – T 1
Heat supplied Q mC T – T (2)
. . . Work done = Heat Supplied – Heat Rejected
= mC T – T mC T –T
work done mC T – T mC T – T
η
heat supplied mC T – T
T –T
η 1 3
T –T
For isentropic process 1-2,
T V
T V
V
T T 4
V
For process 3-4,
T V
T V
5
V
T T 5
V
From P-V diagram,
V V ,V V
So (5) changes to
V
T T 6
V
We know that,
V
Compression ratio r
V
Substitute (4) & (6) in (3) we get,

T –T
η 1
V V
T –T
V V
T –T
1
V
T–T
V
1
η 1 7
r
From the above equation, air standard efficiency of Otto cycle increases with increase in
compression ratio and vice-versa. Compression ratio is maintained 7 – 10 for better
performance in engines operating under this cycle. If it increases more than 10 knocking will
take place due to this life of the cylinder is reduced.
Expression for mean effective pressure
Mean effective pressure is the average pressure in Newton’s per unit area which acts on the
piston throughout the cycle. It is given by the breadth of rectangle whose length is equal to
the swept volume.
work done
Mean effective pressure
swept volume
Work done = force x distance moved = pressure x area x length = P x A x L = pressure x
volume
Swept volume = V V V from P-V diagram.
6
Work done = Area of the curve 1-2-3-4
PV PV PV PV
γ 1 γ 1
Then,
P V P V P V P V
mR T T mR T T
mean effective pressure
V V γ 1 V V
T T
mR T 1 T 1
T T
γ 1 V V
V V
mR T 1 T 1
V V
V
γ 1 V 1
V
V
Compression ratior ,V V ,V V
V
V V
mR T 1 T 1
V V
Mean effective pressure V
γ 1 V 1
V
mR T r 1 T r 1 mR r 1 T T
γ 1 V r 1 γ 1 V r 1
r 1 PV PV r 1 V P P
γ 1 V r 1 γ 1 V r 1
P
r r 1 P 1 Pr r 1 r 1
P
γ 1 r 1 γ 1 r 1
P
Where, r pressure ratio
P
Pr r 1 r 1
Mean effective pressure P
γ 1 r 1
1.4 DIESEL CYCLE / CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE
Diesel cycle was invented by Rudolph Diesel in 1892. All Diesel, Compression Ignition
(C.I.) engines are working under this cycle.
7
Figure 1.3 P-v and T-s diagram of Diesel Cycle
1-2 Adiabatic / Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Adiabatic / Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection
Isentropic Compression Process 1-2

Heat addition Process 2-3
Heat is added at constant pressure from state 2 to state 3. During this process temperature,
volume increases and pressure remains constant.
Heat supplied Q mC T – T
Expansion Process 3- 4
Heat rejection process 4 – 1
Heat is rejected from the air at constant volume from state 4 to state 1. During the process
pressure, temperature decreases and volume remains constant.
Heat rejected Q mC T – T
In this cycle combustion takes place fully at constant pressure process, so this cycle is also
called as constant pressure cycle.
8

η

η
C T –T T –T
η 1 1 3
C T –T γ T –T

T V
r
T V
V
T T Tr 4
V
For constant pressure process 2-3,
V T
V T
V T
cut off ratio r
V T
Cutoff ratio (rc): It is the ratio of the final volume to the initial volume during
constant pressure combustion.
Therefore T Tr Tr r 5
For process 3-4,
9
T V
T V
T T
T 6
V r
V
Where,
V
expansion ratio r
V
Substitute (5) in (6) we get,

Tr r Trr
T
r
T Trr Tr 7
Tr –T
η 1
γ Tr r –Tr
T r –1
1
γT r r –r
1 r –1
η 1
γr r 1
Expression for Mean Effective Pressure

swept volume swept volume
mC T – T mC T –T
V V
T T
mC γT –1 T –1
T T
V
V 1
V
Substituting (5) & (7) in above equation we get,

mC γT r – 1 T r –1
P
V
10
mC r γT r – 1 T r –1
RT
r 1
P
T
PC Tr γ r –1 r –1
T
T C C r 1
T
PC T r γ r –1 r –1
T
C T γ 1 r 1
Substitute (4) in above equation we get,
P r γr r –1 r –1
γ 1 r 1
1.5 DUAL CYCLE / LIMITED PRESSURE CYCLE
Figure 1.4 P-v and T-s diagram of Dual Cycle
1-2 Isentropic Compression

2-3 Constant Volume Heat addition
3-4 Constant Pressure Heating
4-5 Isentropic Expansion
5-1 Constant Volume Cooling
11
Heat is added at constant volume from state 2 to state 3. During this process temperature,
pressure increases and volume remains constant.
Expansion Process 4-5
Heat rejection process 5-1
In this cycle conbustion takes place partially at constant volume and partially at constant
pressure, so this cycle is called as Dual cycle.

η
Heat supplied Q mC T – T mC T – T 1
Heat rejected Q mC T – T 2
mC T – T mC T – T mC T – T
η
mC T – T mC T – T
mC T – T
1
mC T – T mC T – T
T –T
1 3
T –T γ T –T
12
For isentropic compression (process 1-2),
T V
r
T V
V
T T Tr
V
For constant volume heat addition (process 2-3)
T P
r
T P
Where, r is pressure ratio
T Tr Tr r
For constant pressure process 3-4,
V T
V T
V T
cut off ratio r
V T
T Tr Tr rr
For isentropic expansion process 4-5,
T V 1
T V r
1 r Tr rr r
T T T
r r
T Tr r
Substitute (4), (5), (6) & (7) in (iii) we get,
Tr r –T
η 1
Tr r –Tr γ Tr rr –Tr r
r r –1
1
r r –1 γr r – 1
Pressure ratio (rp): It is the ratio of the final pressure to the initial pressure during
constant volume combustion.
Expression for mean effective pressure
13
swept volume swept volume
mC T – T mC T – T mC T – T
P
V V
mC T r r –Tr mC T r r r –Tr r mC T r r –T
P V
V 1
V
P
V
P RT
P
P rC Tr r –Tr C Tr rr –Tr r C Tr r –T
T C C r 1
Taking C , T commonly outside
P rC T r r –r γ r rr –r r r r –1
C T γ 1 r 1
P rr r –1 γr r – 1 r r –1
γ 1 r 1
1.6 BRAYTON CYCLE
The Brayton cycle was first proposed by George Brayton in the reciprocating oil-burning
engine around 1870. This cycle finds application in Gas turbine engines, jet engines and in
airplanes. It is also known as Joule’s cycle. The first Ericsson cycle is similar to the Brayton
cycle.
Working Principle
Figure 2.5 shows the schematic arrangement of closed Braytoncycle.Low-pressure air is
drawn into a compressor (state1) from a heat exchanger where it is compressed to a higher
pressure (state 2). The compressed high pressure air is mixed with a fuel in a combustion
chamber and burnt.After the combustion is over, hot gases enter into the turbine (state 3) and
14
expand to
t state 4. After
A expanssion of hot gases, remaaining gases are drawn into the heat
exchangeer where it is cooled too the atmosspheric condditions by ciirculating th
he cool wateer
outside the
t heat exchhanger tubee. Figure 2.66 shows P-v and T-s diaagram of the closed looop
cycle.
Figure 1.5 Cloosed Braytonn Cycle
Figure 1.6 P-v

P and T-s ddiagram of closed
c loop ccycle
The cyclee consists off the followin

ng processess,
1-2 isentropic compression
2-3 constant preessure heat addition
a
3-4 isentropic expansion
4-1 constant preessure heat rejection
r
15
Air is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2 in a compressor. During this process
pressure, temperature of air increases and volume decreases.
Heat supplied Q mC T – T
Expansion Process 3- 4
Air is expanded isentropically from state 3 to state 4 in a turbine. During the process pressure,
Heat rejection process 4 – 1

η

η
T –T
η 1 3
T –T
T P
T P
16
P
T T T r 4
P
For process 3-4,
T P
T P
P
T T T r 5
P
From P-V diagram,
P P ,P P
So (5) changes to
P
T T 6
P
We know that,
P
Compression ratio r
P
from P-V diagram
Substitute (4) & (6) in (3) we get,

T –T
η 1
P P
T –T
P P
T –T
1
P
T–T
P
1
η 1 7
r
From the above equation, air standard efficiency of Brayton cycle increases with increase in
compression ratio and vice-versa.Fig. 1.7 shows the variation of efficiency with pressure
ratio.
17
Fig. 1.7 Variation of Efficiency Vs Pressure ratio
1.7 COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL AND DUAL CYCLES
The important variable factors which are used as the basis for comparison of the cycles are
compression ratio, peak pressure, heat addition, heat rejection and the network. In order to
compare the performance of the Otto, Diesel and Dual combustion cycles, some of the
variable factors must be fixed. In this section, a comparison of these three cycles is made for
the same compression ratio, same heat addition, constant maximum pressure and temperature,
same heat rejection and net work output. This analysis will show which cycle is more
efficient for a given set of operating conditions.
Case 1: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition
The Otto cycle 1-2-3-4-1, the Diesel cycle 1-2-3'-4'-1 and the Dual cycle 1-2-2”-3”-4”-1 are
shown in p-V and T-s diagram in Fig.4.7.1 (a) and (b) respectively for the same compression
ratio and heat input.
18
Fig. 1.8
From the T-s diagram, it can be seen that Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-3'-6’ = Area 5-2-2"- 3"-6"
as this area represents the heat input which is the same for all cycles. All the cycles start from
the same initial state point 1 and the air is compressed from state 1 to 2 as the compression
ratio is same. It is seen from the T-s diagram for the same heat input, the heat rejection in
Otto cycle (area 5-1-4-6) is minimum and heat rejection in Diesel cycle (5-1-4'-6') is
maximum. Consequently, Otto cycle has the highest work output and efficiency. Diesel cycle
has the least efficiency and Dual cycle having the efficiency between the two.
One more observation can be made i.e., Otto cycle allows the working medium to expand
more whereas Diesel cycle is least in this respect. The reason is heat is added before
expansion in the case of Otto cycle and the last portion of heat supplied to the fluid has a
relatively short expansion in case of the Diesel cycle.
Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection
Fig. 1.9
Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by [Figs.4.7.2 (a) and (b)],
Q
ηO 1
Q
Where, Qs is the heat supplied in the Otto cycle and is equal to the area under the curve 2-3
on the T-s diagram [Fig.4.7.2 (b)]. The efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given by,
Q
ηD 1
Q′
19
Where Q’s is heat supplied in the Diesel cycle and is equal to the area under the curve 2-3' on
the T-s diagram [Fig.4.7.2. (b)]. From the T-s diagram in Fig.4.7.2, it is clear that Qs > Q’s
i.e., heat supplied in the Otto cycle is more than that of the Diesel cycle. Hence, it is evident
that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater than the efficiency of the Diesel cycle for a
given compression ratio and heat rejection.
Case 3: Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection:
Figures 4.7.3 (a) and (b) show the Otto cycle 1-2-3-4 and Diesel cycle 1-2'-3-4 on p-V and T-
s coordinates, where the peak pressure and temperature and the amount of heat rejected are
the same.
The efficiency of the Otto cycle,
Q
ηO 1
Q
Fig. 1.10
Where, Qs in the area under the curve 2-3 in Fig.4.7.3 (b). The efficiency of the Diesel cycle,
1-
2-3'-3-4 is,
Q
ηD 1
Q′
20
It is evident from Fig.4.7.3 that Qs > Q’s. Therefore, the Diesel cycle efficiency is greater
than the Otto cycle efficiency when both engines are built to withstand the same thermal and
mechanical stresses.
Case 4: Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input:
Fig. 1.11
For same maximum pressure and heat input, the Otto cycle (1-2-3-4-1) and Diesel cycle (1-
2’-3’-4’-1) are shown on p-V and T-s diagrams in Fig.4.7.4 (a) and (b) respectively. It is
evident from the figure that the heat rejection for Otto cycle (area 1-5-6-4 on T-s diagram) is
more than the heat rejected in Diesel cycle (1-5-6’-4’). Hence Diesel cycle is more efficient
than Otto cycle for the condition of same maximum pressure and heat input. One can make a
note that with these conditions, the Diesel cycle has higher compression ratio than that of
Otto cycle. One should also note that the cycle which is having higher efficiency allows
maximum expansion. The Dual cycle efficiency will be between these two.
Case 5: Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output
The efficiency, η can be written as

work done work done
η
heat supplied work done heat rejected
Refer to T-s diagram in Fig.4.7.4 (b). For same work output the area 1-2-3-4 (work output of
Otto cycle) and area 1-2’-3’-4’ (work output of Diesel cycle) are same. To achieve this, the
21
entropy at 3 should be greater than entropy at 3’ .It is clear that the heat rejection for Otto
cycle is more than that of diesel cycle. Hence, for these conditions, the Diesel cycle is more
efficient than the Otto cycle. The efficiency of Dual cycle lies between the two cycles.
1.8 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL CYCLES FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE
Fig. 1.12
Fig. 1.12 (a) and (b) shows the actual p-V diagram and theoretical p-V diagram of four stroke
Petrol engine.
The line 5-1 represents the suction stroke in which the charge enters into the cylinder. The
suction of mixture is possible only if the pressure inside the cylinder is below atmospheric
pressure. That’s the reason line 5-1 lies below the atmospheric pressure line.The burnt gases
can be pushed out only if the pressure of the exhaust gas isabove atmospheric pressure. This
is represented by the line 1-5. The area in between the process 5-1 and 1-5 in the indicator
diagram gives pumping loss of the engine.
The compression stroke is shown by the line 1-2 which shows that the inlet valve closes
(IVC) a little beyond 1. At the end of this stroke, there is an increase in pressure inside the
engine cylinder.
Before the end of compression stroke, the charge is ignited (IGN) with the help of spark plug.
Thus, the pressure and temperature of the cylinder increase. But the volume remains constant
as shown by line 2-3.
Expansion is shown by the line 3-4. The exhaust valve opens (EVO) little before 4. The burnt
gases are exhausted to atmosphere.
22
It has been found practically, that the actual pressure rise in such an engine is only half of the
theoretical value. The corners are rounded off because both inlet and exhaust valves do not
open and close suddenly.
1.9 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL CYCLES FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Fig. 1.13 (a) and (b) shows the actual p-V diagram and theoretical p-V diagram of four stroke
Diesel engine.
Fig. 1.13
The line 5-1 represents the suction stroke in which the air enters into the cylinder. The
suction of mixture is possible only if the pressure inside the cylinder is below atmospheric
pressure. That’s the reason line 5-1 lies below the atmospheric pressure line. The burnt gases
can be pushed out only if the pressure of the exhaust gas isabove atmospheric pressure. This
is represented by the line 1-5. The air is compressed adiabatically in the cylinder during 1-2
process which takes place after inlet valve closed.
Before the end of compression stroke, fuel is injected through the fuel injector (FVO). The
fuel is ignited due to the temperature of highly compressed air inside the cylinder.
The combustion takes place at constant pressure as shown in line 2-3. Actually, combustion
at constant pressure is not possible as the fuel will not burn completely as it is introduced into
the cylinder.
Then the charge is expanded adiabatically is shown by the line 3-4. The exhaust valve opens
(EVO) little before 4. The burnt gases are exhausted to atmosphere.
Theoretically, the compression and expansion are followed adiabatically. But in actual cycle
it is not so. Because of heat and pressure losses are involved.
23
1.10 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL CYCLES FOR TWO STROKE PETROL
ENGINE
Fig. 1.14 (a) and (b) shows the actual p-V diagram and theoretical p-V diagram of two stroke
petrol engine.
Fig. 1.14
The suction stroke is carried out from transfer ports open (TPO) and transfer port close
(TPC). During half of the suction stroke, exhaust port is also opened. Now, the volume of air
fuel mixture is entered into the cylinder. This happens as the piston moves from TDC to
BDC. During second half of the suction stroke (i.e. BDC to TPC), the air and fuel mixture is
compressed and burnt gases pushed out. A little beyond TPC, the exhaust port closes (EPC)
at 1. These processes are represented in theoretical cycle as 1-5-6 and 6-5-1.
Now, the air fuel mixture is compressed isentropically in the cylinder. This is shown by line
1-2. A little before the end of compression, the charge is ignited (IGN) with the help of spark
plug as shown in the above diagram. Combustion of air –fuel mixture increases the pressure
and temperature of the products of combustion. During this process, volume remains
constant. This represented by the line 2-3.
The expansion process is shown by line 3-4. The end of the expansion stroke, exhaust port
opens (EPO) at 4 and burnt gases are pushed out to the atmosphere. During this, the pressure
falls suddenly to the atmospheric pressure.
As the piston is moving towards BDC, the volume of burnt gases increases from 4 to 5. At 5,
transfer port opens (TPO) and the suction starts.
24
1.11 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL CYCLES FOR TWO STROKE DIESEL
ENGINE
Fig. 1.15 (a) and (b) shows the actual p-V diagram and theoretical p-V diagram of two stroke
Diesel engine.
Fig. 1.15
The suction stroke is carried out from transfer ports open (TPO) and transfer port close
(TPC). During half of the suction stroke, exhaust port is also opened. Now, the volume of air
is entered into the cylinder. This happens as the piston moves from TDC to BDC. During
second half of the suction stroke (i.e. BDC to TPC), the air is compressed and burnt gases
pushed out. A little beyond TPC, the exhaust port closes (EPC) at 1. These processes are
represented in theoretical cycle as 1-5-6 and 6-5-1.
Now, the air is compressed isentropically in the cylinder. This is shown by line 1-2. A little
before the end of compression, the fuel is admitted into the cylinder by means of fuel injector
(INJ).Combustion of fuel increases the pressure and temperature of the products of
combustion. During this process, pressure remains constant. This represented by the line 2-3.
The expansion process is shown by line 3-4. The end of the expansion stroke, exhaust port
opens (EPO) at 4 and burnt gases are pushed out to the atmosphere. During this, the pressure
falls suddenly to the atmospheric pressure.
As the piston is moving towards BDC, the volume of burnt gases increases from 4 to 5. At 5,
transfer port opens (TPO) and the suction starts.
25
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. In a Brayton cycle, air enters at 100 kPa and 25○C. The pressure leaving the compressor is 3
bar and the temperature of turbine inlet is 650○C. Determine per Kg of air i) Cycle
efficiency, ii) Heat added, iii) Work available, iv) Heat rejected in the cooler at the shaft,
v) Temperature of air leaving the turbine.
Given data:
T1= 25○C = 25+273 = 298 K
P1 = 100 kPa = 1 bar
P2=P3= 3 bar
T3= 650○C = 650 +273 = 923 K
J
For air assume C 1.005 ,γ 1.4
K
Solution:
1
η 1
r
P 3
r 3
P 1
1
η 1 . 1 0.7306 26.94 %
3 .
Heat added C T –T
T P .
3 . 1.3687
T P
T 298 1.3687 407.88 K
Heat added = 1.005(923 – 407.88) = 517.70 kJ/kg
Work available = Turbine work – compressor work
Turbine work = C T – T
T P
T P
T 923
T .
674.35 K
P 3
P
Turbine work = C T – T 1.005 923 674.35 249.89 kJ/kg
Compressor work = C T – T 1.005 407.88 298 110.43 kJ/kg
26
Work available = 249.89 – 110.43 = 139.46 kJ/kg
Heat rejected Q C T –T 1.005 674.35 298 378.23 kJ/kg
Temperature of air leaving the turbine 674.35 K
2. An air standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 16, and compression begins at 1 bar,
50○C. The maximum pressure is 70 bar. The heat transferred to air at constant pressure is
equal to that at constant volume. Estimate, i) The pressures and temperatures at all cardinal
points of the cycle, ii) The cycle efficiency, iii) mean effective pressure of the cycle.
Given data:
V
r = 16 =
V
○
T1= 50 C = 50+273 = 323 K
P1 = 100 kPa = 1 bar
P3=P4= 70 bar
Heat transfer at constant volume = heat transfer at constant pressure
J J
For air assume C 1.005 ,C 0.718 ,γ 1.4
K K
Solution:
PV PV
V .
P P 1 16 48.50 bar
V
V .
T T Tr 323 16 979.15 K
V
RT 0.287 323
V 0.927 m
P 10
0.927
V 0.05794 m
16
P T
P T
T 979.15
T P 70 1413.21 K
P 48.50
V V 0.05794 m
27
Heat supplied Q mC T – T mC T – T 2 C T –T
Given that heat transfer at constant volume is equal that of constant pressure
kJ
Heat supplied Q 2 C T –T 2 0.718 1413.21 979.15 623.31
kg
Heat supplied Q C T –T C T –T 623.31
0.718 1413.21 – 979.15 1.005 T – 1413.21 623.31
T 1723.31 K
V T
V T
T 0.05794 1723.31
V V 0.0707 m
T 1413.21
V
T T
V
.
0.0707
T 1723.31 615.60 K V V
0.05794
.
V 0.0707
P P 70 1.907 bar
V 0.927

Q 210.09
Efficiency η 1 1 1 .3370 66.3%
Q 623.31
work done
Mean effective pressure P
swept volume
heat supplied Q heat rejected Q
swept volume V V
623.31 210.09
475.48 kPa 4.755 bar
0.927 0.05794
3. The compression ratio in an air-standard Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of compression
process the pressure is 1 bar and the temperature is 300K. The heat transfer to the air per
28
cycle is 1900 kJ/kg of air calculate. i) Pressure and temperature at the end of each process of
the cycle, ii) Thermal efficiency, iii) Mean effective pressure.
Given data
Compression ratio r 8
T1= 300 K
P1 = 1 bar
Heat supplied Q 1900 kJ/kg
J
For air assume C 0.718 ,γ 1.4
K
Solution:
V .
T T Tr 300 8 689.22 K
V
V .
P P Pr 1 8 18.38 bar
V
RT 0.287 300
V 0.861 m
P 10
0.861
V 0.1076 m
8
Heat supplied Q 1900kJ/kg C T –T

1900 0.718 T – 689.22
T 3335.46 K
P T
P T
T 3335.46
P P 18.38 88.94 bar
T 689.22
.
V 0.1076
T T 3335.46 1451.71 K
V 0.861
.
V 0.1076
P P 88.94 4.84 bar
V 0.861
1 1
η 1 1 .
1 0.4353 56.47%
r 8
29
Work done heat supplied heat rejected 1900 0.718 1451.71 300
1900 826.93 1073.07 kJ/kg
work done 1073.07
Mean effective pressure P 1424.30 kPa
swept volume 0.861 0.1076
14.2430 bar
4. An air –standard diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18, and the heat transferred to the
working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. At the beginning of the compression stroke, the
pressure is 1bar and the temperature is 300k. Calculate i) Pressure and temperature at each
point in the cycle, ii) Thermal efficiency, iii) Mean effective pressure.
Given data:
T1= 300 K
P1 = 1 bar
Heat supplied Q 1800 kJ/kg
J J
K K
Solution:
V .
T T Tr 300 18 953.30 K
V
V .
P P Pr 1 18 57.20 bar
V
RT 0.287 300
V 0.861 m
P 10
0.861
V 0.04783 m
18
Heat supplied Q 1900kJ/kg C T –T

1800 1.005 T – 953.30
T 2744.35 K
V T
V T
30
T 0.04783 2744.35
V V 0.1377 m
T 953.30
.
V 0.1377
T T 2744.35 1318.29 K
V 0.861
.
V 0.1377
P P 57.20 4.39 bar
V 0.861
Work done heat supplied heat rejected 1800 731.13
1068.87 kJ/kg
work done 1068.87
η 0.5938 59.38 %
heat supplied 1800
work done 1068.87
13.14 bar
5. In an air standard diesel cycle, the pressure and volume at the beginning of compression are
100 kPa and 0.03m3 respectively. Pressure after isentropic compression is 4.2 MPa, and after
isentropic expansion is 200 kPa. Determine i) Compression ratio, ii) Cut-off ratio, iii)
expansion ratio and iv) Cycle efficiency.
Given data:
V1= 0.03m3
P1 = 100 kPa = 1 bar
P2 = 4.2 MPa = 42 bar
P4 = 200 kPa = 2 bar
Solution
Isentropic compression process (1-2)
V
P P
V
.
V P 42
compression ratio r 14.44
V P 1
31
V
expansion ratio r
V
V
P P P P
V
.
V P 42
8.8
V P 2
V
expansion ratio r 8.8
V
V
cut off ratio r
V
V V V
compression ratio r r r V V
V V V
r 14.44
r 1.64
r 8.8
1 r –1 1 1.64 . – 1 1.56
η 1 1 .
1
γr r 1 1.4 14.44 1.64 1 4.073
61.69%
6. Consider a stationary power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle. The pressure ratio of
the cycle is 8, And the gas temperature at the compressor inlet and the turbine inlet are 27○C
and 1027○C respectively. Determine the following i) Gas temperature at the compressor and
turbine exit, ii) Back work ratio, iii) Thermal efficiency.
Given data:
P
r 8
P
T1=27○C + 273 = 300 K
T3=1027○C + 273 = 1300 K
Solution
Isentropic expansion process (1 – 2)
P
i Gas temperature at compressor exit T T T r
P
.
300 8 543.42 K
Isentropic expansion process (3 – 4)
32
P
T T
P
T 1300
Gas temperature at turbine exit T 717.68 K
P 8 .
P
Compressor work W mC T – T 1.005 543.42 300 244.63 kJ/kg

Turbine work WT mC T – T 1.005 1300 717.68 585.23 kJ/kg
W 244.63
ii Back work ratio 0.418
WT 585.23
1 1
iii η 1 1 .
1 0.552 0.4479 or 44.79%
8
r
7. In an Otto Cycle, air at 17○C and 1 bar is compressed adiabatically until the pressure is 15bar.
Heat is added at constant volume until the pressure rises to 40 bars. The swept volume is
0.711 m3. Calculate the air standard efficiency, the compression ratio and the mean effective
pressure.
Given data:
Vs = V1– V2= 0.711m3
P1 = 1 bar, T1=17○C + 273 = 290 K
P2 = 15 bar
P3= 40 bar
Solution
T P
T P
.
P 15 .
T T 290 628.65 K
P 1
RT 0.287 290
V 0.8323 m
P 10
Constant volume process (2-3)
P T
P T
33
T 628.65
T P 40 1676.39 K
P 15
Swept volume V V V 0.711 m
0.711 0.8323 V
V 0.8323 0.711 0.1213 m
.
V 0.1213
T T 1676.39 775.90 K
V 0.8323
Heat supplied Q C T –T 0.718 1676.39 628.65 752.28 kJ/kg
Q Q 752.28 348.88
a efficiency η 0.5362 or 53.62%
Q 752.28
V 0.8323
b compression ratio r 6.86
V 0.1213
Q Q 752.28 348.88
c Mean effective pressure P
V 0.711
567.37 kPa or 5.67 bar
8. In an air standard dual cycle, the compression ratio is 12 and the maximum pressure in the
cycle is 70 bar. The lowest pressure and temperature of the cycle are 1bar and 300K. Heat is
added during constant pressure process upto 3% of the stroke. Taking diameter 25cm and
stroke 30 cm, determine a) The pressure and temperature at the end of compression, b) The
thermal efficiency and c) The mean effective pressure.
Given data:
P1 = 1 bar, T1= 300 K
P3 =P4=70 bar, diameter d 0.25 m , stroke l 0.30 m
J J
K K
Solution:
V .
T T Tr 300 12 810.58 K
V
34
V .
P P Pr 1 12 32.42 bar
V
RT 0.287 300
V 0.861 m
P 10
0.861
V 0.07175 m
12
P T
P T
PT 810.28
T 70 1750.17 K
P 32.42
x
V V V V
100
3
V 0.07175 0.861 0.07175
100
V 0.09543 m
V T
V T
T 0.09543 1750.17
T V 2327.79 K
V 0.07175
V
T T
V
.
0.09543
T 2327.79 965.64 K V V
0.861
.
V 0.09543
P P 70 3.218 bar
V 0.861
Heat supplied Q C T –T C T –T
0.718 1750.17 810.58 1.005 2327.79 1750.17
1255.13 kJ/kg
Work done heat supplied heat rejected 1255.13 477.93
35
777.20 kJ/kg
work done 777.20
η 0.6192 61.92 %
heat supplied 1255.13
work done 777.20
9.847 bar
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1) Otto cycle consists of processes

(a) adiabatic and constant volume (b) adiabatic and constant pressure
(c) isothermal and constant pressure (d) isothermal and constant volume
2) Carnot engine is irreversible due to
(a) friction between moving parts (b)losses from working fluid
(c) high speed (d) both (a) and (b) of the above
3) Air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle is equal to
(a) 1-(1/rγ+1) (b) 1-(1/rγ-1)
(c) 1+(1/rγ+1) (d)1+(1/rγ-1)
r-is compression and expansion ratio γ-ratio of two specific heats
4) Otto cycle is a theoretical cycle, on which
(a) only petrol engine (b) only diesel engine
(c) only gas engine (d)petrol and gas engine
5) Compression ratio for petrol engine is
(a) 3 to 6 (b) 5 to 8 (c) 15 to 20 (d) 20 to
30
6) Diesel engine consists of
(a) two adiabatic and two constant volume process
(b) two adiabatic and two constant pressure process
(c) two adiabatic and one constant pressure and one constant volume process
(d) two isothermal and one constant pressure and one constant volume process
7) The efficiency of a diesel cycle increases with
(a) increase in cut-off (b) decrease in cut-off
(c) constant cut-off (d) none of the above
8) For the same compression ratio, the efficiency of diesel cycle as compared to Otto
36
cycle is
(a) less (b) more
(c) equal (d) none
9) Efficiency of diesel cycle approach Otto cycle efficiency with
(a) increase in cut-off (b) decrease in cut-off
c) zero cut-off (d) constant cut-off
10) Compression ratio for diesel engine is
(a) 3 to 6 (b) 5 to 8
(c) 15 to 20 (d) 20 to 30
11) In Carnot cycle, heat is rejected at constant
(a) Volume (b) pressure
(c) Temperature (d) Entropy
12) Area of P-V Diagram for a Carnot cycle represents
(a)Heat supplied (b) Heat rejected
(c) workdone (d) Temperature drop
13) In Carnot cycle, the algebraic sum of the entropy changes for the cycle is
(a) positive (b)negative
(c)zero (d) none of the above
14) In Carnot cycle, the process carried at extremely slow speed is
(a) Isothermal compression (b) adiabatic compression
(c) adiabatic expansion (d) above all
15) The dual combustion cycle consists of two adiabatic processes ---------------
16) For the same compression ratio, the efficiency of dual combustion cycle as
compared to Diesel cycle is
(a) more (b) less
(c) equal (d) none
17) For the same compression ratio, the efficiency of dual combustion cycle as
compared to Otto cycle is
(a) more (b) less
(c) equal (d) none
18) The cycle used for gas turbines is
(a)Rankine cycle (b)Carnot cycle
(c)Otto cycle (d) Brayton cycle
19) The ideal efficiency of simple gas turbine cycle depends upon
37
(a) cut-off ratio (b) pressure ratio
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of the above
20) If the air after practical expansion on the turbine is reheated, the efficiency of the
gas turbine cycle
(a)decreases (b)increases
(c)remains constant (d) first increases then decreases
21) The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine with regenerator is maximum when
pressure ratio is
(a)less than 1.3 (b) more than 1.0
(c) equal to 1.0 (d) zero
22) By having multistage compressor with intercoolers the efficiency of a gas turbine
cycle
23) When the pressure ratio is equal to 1.0 the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine with
regenerator is
(a)less than Carnot cycle (b) more than Carnot cycle
(c) equal to Carnot cycle (d) none of the above
24) If the exhaust from the gas turbine is utilized in heating the compressed air, the
efficiency of the ga turbine cycle
TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. What is air standard cycle?
2. State the assumptions made in the air standard cycles?
3. Draw the P-V and T-S diagram for Otto cycle?
4. Draw the P-V and T-S diagram for Diesel cycle?
5. Draw the P-V and T-S diagram for Dual cycle?
6. Draw the P-V and T-S diagram for Brayton cycle?
7. Draw the layout of a closed cycle Gas turbine power plant?
8. What is mean effective pressure?
9. Determine the mean effective pressure of an engine of stroke volume 1×106 mm3
producing 600 KJ of work.
38
10. Define ‘Compression ratio’.
11. What is ‘Cut-off Ratio’?
12. Why actual work done is always less than the theoretical work done of an I.C Engine?
13. A Brayton cycle works between the pressure limits 60 bar and 2 bar, what is the
thermal efficiency?
14. The compression ratio of an Otto cycle is 8. Determine its air standard efficiency?
15. For the same compression ratio and heat rejection which cycle will be efficient?
16. For the same compression ratio and heat input which cycle will be efficient?
17. For the same maximum pressure and temperature which cycle will be efficient?
18. Define work ratio of gas turbine.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Derive an expression for the air standard efficiency of Otto cycle.

2. Derive an expression for the mean effective pressure of Diesel cycle.
3. Derive an expression for the air standard efficiency of a Dual cycle and from it
deduce the expression for the air standard efficiencies of Otto cycle and Diesel cycles.
4. Prove that the efficiency of Carnot engine working between the temperature limits T1
T  T 
and T2 is equal to  1 2  .
 T1 
5. Prove that the air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle is
1  rc  1 
1  
r  1  r  rc  1 
6. Derive the expression for the thermal efficiency of Brayton Cycle.

7. Draw theoretical and actual P-V diagram for a 4 – Stroke S.I engine and explain the
reason for the difference.
8. Using T-S diagram, prove that for the same compression ratio and same heat input the
otto<Dual<Diesel
9. Prove that the mean effective pressure of Otto cycle is given by
1   rp  1  r  1 
Pr   1
Pm 
  1 r  1
39
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. In an Otto cycle air at 15˚C and 1.02 bar is compressed until the pressure is 12.5 bar.
Heat is added at constant volume until the pressure raises to 35 bar absolute. Calculate
the compression ratio, the air standard efficiency and the mean effective pressure.
Take γ = 1.4.
2. An engine equipped with a cylinder having a bore of 150mm and a stroke of 450mm
operated on an Otto cycle. If clearance volume is 2000 cm3. Compute the air standard
efficiency.
3. In an air standard Otto Cycle the compression ratio is 7 and compression begins at
35˚C, 0.1MPa. The maximum temperature of the cycle is 1100˚C. Find the
temperature and pressure at all corner points of the P-V diagram, the heat supplied per
kg of air, the work done per kg of air, the cycle efficiency and mean effective
pressure?
4. An Engine working on Otto cycle has an air standard cycle efficiency of 56% and
rejects 444kJ/kg of heat. The pressure and temperature at the beginning of
compression is 0.1MPa and 60˚C respectively. Find the temperature and pressure at
all points, compression ratio, the work done per kg of air and mean effective pressure.
5. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.5 m3, 1 bar pressure and 27˚C
temperature at the beginning of compression. The pressure at the end of compression
is 10bar 220 KJ of heat is added at constant volume. Calculate the volume, pressure
and temperature at salient points in the cycle. Also find the percentage clearance, the
work done per cycle, efficiency, and mean effective pressure. Also calculate the
power developed in kW if the working cycles are 400 per minute.
6. An air standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 16 and a maximum cycle
temperature of 1600˚K the compression begins at 1.0 bar and 15˚C. Calculate the
values of pressure, volume, temperature the end of each process, heat supplied, heat
rejected, network and the thermal efficiency.
7. In a Diesel engine, the compression ratio 13: 1 and the fuel is cut-off at 8% of the
stroke. Find the air standard efficiency of the engine. Take  =1.4.
8. In an air standard Diesel cycle the compression ratio is 15. Compression begins at
0.1MPa, 40˚C. The heat added is 1.675 MJ/kg. Calculate the air standard efficiency
and mean effective pressure of the cycle.
40
9. In an ideal Diesel cycle, the temperature at the beginning and end of compression is
57˚C and 603 ˚C respectively. The temperature at the beginning and end of expansion
is 1950˚C and 870 ˚C respectively. Determine the ideal efficiency of the cycle. =1.4.
If the compression ratio is 14 and the pressure at the beginning of the compression is
1 bar, calculate the maximum pressure in the cycle.
10. In a Diesel cycle the pressure and temperature of air at the beginning of isentropic
compression is 1barabsolute and 15˚C respectively .The compression ratio is 15.3.
The Expansion ratio is 7. Calculate the cut off ratio, air standard efficiency and the
mean effective pressure of the cycle. Take Cp = 0.2375 kJ/kg K, Cv =0.1691 kJ/kg K.
11. In a Dual combustion cycle air at the beginning of compression is at 20˚C and 1 bar
absolute. The Heat supplied is 1250 kJ/kg of which half of heat supplied is at constant
volume and half at constant pressure. If the compression ratio is 15. Calculate the air
standard efficiency. Take Cp = 0.24kJ/kg K, Cv =0.1715 kJ/kg K.
12. In a Dual combustion cycle the pressure and temperature at the beginning of the cycle
is1.0bar and 15˚C. The specific volume at the end of isentropic compression is
0.068-m3/ kg of the working substance .The highest temperature reached in the cycle
is 1440˚K. The heat supplied at constant volume is 230kJ/kg. Calculate the
compression ratio, cut off ratio and thermal efficiency of the cycle.
13. In compression ignition engine, working on a dual combustion cycle, pressure and
temperature at the start of compression are 1 bar and 300K respectively. At the end of
compression, pressure reaches a value of 25bar. 420kJof heat is supplied per kg of air
during constant volume heating and pressure becomes 2.8 bar at the end of isentropic
expansion. Estimate the ideal thermal efficiency. Take Cp=1.005kJ/kgK and
CV=0.712kJ/kgK
14. An engine working on a dual combustion cycle has a pressure of 1bar and 50oC
before compression. The air is then compressed isentropically to 1/5th of its original
volume. The maximum pressure is twice the pressure at the end of isentropic
compression. If the cut-off ratio is 2, determine the temperature at the end of each
process and the ideal efficiency of the cycle. =1.4.
15. An ideal dual cycle engine works with a stroke volume of 10lit of air with a
compression ratio of 16. The pressure and temperature of air before isentropic
compression is 1 bar and 300K respectively. If the heat is added at a constant pressure
of 70bar and for 5% of stroke, Determine,
41
a. a) pressure ratio b)cut off ratio c) mass of air contained
b. d) heat added e) heat rejected f) work done
c. g) thermal Efficiency and h) mean effective Pressure.
d. Take Cp=1 kJ/kgK and CV=0.714kJ/kgK
16. An air standard limited pressure cycle has a compression ratio is 15 and Compression
begins at 0.1MPa, 40˚C. The maximum pressure is limited to 6MPa and heat added is
1.675 MJ/kg. Calculate per kg of air heat supplied at constant volume, heat supplied
at constant pressure, the work done, the cycle efficiency, mean effective pressure,
temperature at the end of the constant volume heating and the cut off ratio.
17. In a gas turbine plant, the intake temperature and pressure are 18˚C and 1 bar
respectively. The air is then compressed to a pressure of 4.1 bar by a compressor,
whose isentropic efficiency is 80%. The temperature of the gas whose properties may
be assumed to resemble with those of air, is raised to 645˚C in the combustion
chamber where there is a pressure drop of 0.1bar. Expansion to atmospheric pressure
then occurs. If the thermal efficiency of the plant is to be 19%. What must be the
isentropic efficiency of the turbine? Neglect mass of fuel. =1.4.
18. Determine the efficiency of a gas turbine plant fitted with a heat exchanger of 75%
effectiveness. The pressure ratio is 4:1 and the compression is carried out in two
stages of equal pressure ratio with inter cooling back to initial temperature of 290K.
The maximum temperature is 925K. The turbine isentropic efficiency is 88% and
each compressor isentropic efficiency is 85%. For air =1.4. andCp=1.005kJ/kg. K
19. A gas turbine plant has temperature limits 1080oC and 10oCcompression in
compressor and expansion in the turbine are isentropic. Determine
e. the pressure ratio which will give the maximum network output
f. the maximum net specific work output
g. the thermal efficiency at maximum work output
h. the work ratio at maximum work output
i. Take =1.41. Cp=1.007 kJ/kgK.
20. Air enters the compressor of an open cycle gas turbine at 100kN/m2 and 27oC. The
pressure of air after compression is 400kN/m2. The isentropic efficiencies of
compressor and turbine are 78% and 84% respectively. The air fuel ratio is 75:1. The
rate of flow of air is 2.5kg/s. Determine the power developed and thermal efficiency
42
of the cycle. Take =1.41. Cp=1.005 kJ/kgK both for air and gases. The calorific value
of fuel used is 42000 kJ/kg.
43
CHAPTER – II
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat Engines are otherwise called “Thermal Engines”. It is a machine which converts
heat energy into useful mechanical work. Heat engines develop more than 80% of energy
generated in the world.
They are broadly classified into two types:
1. Internal Combustion Engines
2. External Combustion Engines
2.1.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

In the Internal Combustion Engine, the chemical energy of the fuel is released as a heat by
the way of combustion inside the engine cylinder where power is produced. The heat
produced is nothing but the products of combustion. By expansion of this hot medium inside
the cylinder, heat energy is converted into useful work.
The name “Internal Combustion Engine” is a misnomer since the fuel is burnt
internally.
2.1.2 EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

They are steam engines and steam turbines. In these, heat energy is produced during the
combustion of fuel in a boiler furnace. This energy is used to produce the steam under the
pressure in boiler. The steam expands in turbine and thereby does work.
The name “External combustion engine” is a misnomer since the fuel is burnt
externally.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION
2.2.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON IGNITION
(i) Spark Ignition Engines (S.I engines)

In this type of engine, combustible mixture is sucked into the engine
cylinder. This mixture is compressed. The compression ratio is about 5:1 to 7:1. At the
44
end of compression, the mixture exists in the cylinder as high pressure and temperature.
The Electric spark ignites this mixture. The burning of mixture produces greater pressure
and temperature. The product of combustion expands and produced power. Then the
products are expelled out.
(ii) Combustion Ignition Engines (C.I Engines)

In this type, air alone is sucked into the engine cylinder the air is
compressed. The compression ratio is about 14:1 to 17:1. The heat of compression in the
air is much greater due to high compression. At the end of compression the fuel is
injected in the form of fine spray into the engine cylinder. The compression heat ignites
the fuel and causes in to burn. Combustion of fuel produces high pressure and
temperature. The product of combustion expands and thereby produces power. The
combustion products are then exhausted.
(iii) Precombustion chamber Engines

The mixture is ignited by a spark in a special small anti-chamber, while
the takes in the main chamber.
2.2.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF STROKES:
(i) Four stroke Engine

In this engine, four strokes of the piston is required to complete a working
cycle. In this engine, two revolution of the crankshaft is used to complete the cycle of
operation.
(ii) Two Stroke Engine
In this engine, two strokes of the piston is required to complete a working cycle. In this
engine, one revolution of the crankshaft is used to complete the cycle of operation.
2.2.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CYCLE OF OPERATION
(i) Otto cycle

(ii) Diesel cycle
(iii) Dual cycle
2.2.4 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE TYPE OF FUEL USED:
45
(i) Engines using Light Liquid Fuels ---- Petrol Engines
(ii) Engines using Heavy Liquid Fuels ---- Diesel Engines
(iii) Engines using Gaseous Fuels ---- Gas Engines
(iv) Mixed Fuel Engines
(v) Multi Fuel Engines
2.2.5 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE MODE OF CONVERSION OF HEAT

ENERGY INTO MECHANICAL WORK:
(i) Reciprocating Engines:
In this, heat energy gets converted into mechanical energy in the inside of
engine cylinder while the piston reciprocates.
(ii) Rotary Engines:
In this heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy in the inside of engine

cylinder while the specially shaped casing and a rotor rotates inside thecasing.
(iii) Gas Turbine:

The heat energy in the hot gases is converted into mechanical work onthe
rotating blades of the gas turbine.
(iv) Combination Engine:

In this the heat energy is converted into mechanical work partly in thecylinder
of reciprocating engine and partly in the blades of turbine.
2.2.6 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF MIXTURE

FORMATION:
(i) External Mixture Formation Engines:
46
Used in spark ignition engines, and gas engines in which the fuel is injected
intothe intake pipe or intake manifold and mixes with air externally to the cylinder, i.e., in
the carburetor.
(ii) Internal Mixture Formation Engines:
Used in diesel engines, with injection of fuel into the cylinders and in gas engines in
which the gas is fed into the cylinder at the beginning of compression.
2.2.7 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF COOLING
(i) Air cooled engines

(ii) Water cooled engines
2.2.8 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF GOVERNING
(i) Quantity governing

(ii) Quality governing
(iii) Hit and miss governing
2.2.9CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF CYLINDERS
(i) Inline Engine

All cylinders are arranged in a line and the power is taken from a
singlecrankshaft. This arrangement is used in automobiles.
(ii) V-Type
It is a combination of two inline engines set at an angle of V varies from 30° to
75°.
(iii) Opposed piston engines

The piston reciprocates in a common cylinder having common
combustionchamber at the centre.
(iv) Radial Engine

47
All the cylinders are set along the radius of a circle. The connecting rods point
towards the centre of the circle. The connecting rods of all pistons work on a single crank
pin which rotates around the centre of the circle. This occupies little floor space and
simplifies the balancing problems. This is popular in aircrafts.
(v) Rotary Engine

The engine consists of three sided converse type of piston rotating in a cylinder.
This engine is known as “Wankel engine”. It is of high speed, lighter weight andworks on
spark ignition system.
2.2.10 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD OF CONTROL OF

CHARGE UNDER VARIABLE LOAD
(i) Quality control engines

In which the composition of the mixture which undergoes combustion is
changedby admitting more or less quantity of fuel in accordance with the variation ofload.
Air quantity remains almost constant. All diesel engines are quality controlengines.
(ii) Quantity control engines

In which the composition of the mixture which remains almost constant when
theload varies and the quantity of the mixture admitted is changed. All Petrol engines are
quantity control engines.
(iii) Combination control engines

In which both quality and quantity of the mixture are varied depending on the
load.
2.2.11 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE PURPOSE (OR) APPLICATION
(i) Stationary Engines

(ii) Mobile Engines
(iii) Aero Engines
(iv) Marine Engines
48
2.3 I.C. ENGINES COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS
For effective functioning of the internal combustion engine every components of the
engine has to work properly. The following components of the engine are,
Cylinder
It is a cylindrical space (or) container in which piston reciprocates. The working substance
contained within the cylinder is subjected to different thermodynamics processes. The
cylinder is supported in cylinder block.Material: Grey cast iron, Aluminium
Piston
It is a reciprocating cylinder component which is fitted in to the cylinder. The power
generated by the working substance during the expansion stroke is transmitted into the piston;
hence it forms the first link in transmitting the gas force to crankshaft. Material: C.I,
Aluminium alloy, Cast steel
Components of I.C Engine
49
Fig. 2.1 I.C. Engine
Piston Ring
These piston rings are fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between
piston and cylinder wall, thus preventing leakage of combustion gases
Combustion chamber
It is the space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, below the cylinder head and above
the top of the piston surface during the combustion process. The combustion of the fuel takes
place with in this space.
Connecting Rod
The connecting rod inter connects the piston and the crank-shaft and transmits the gas forces
from the piston to the crankshaft. It has two ends called small end and big end. The small end
of the connecting rod is connected with piston by using a pin called gudgeon pin. The big
end of the connecting rod is connected with crank pin by using a pin called crank
pin.Material: Plain carbon steel, Aluminum alloys
Crankshaft
It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston in to useful rotary motion of the output
shaft. The crankshaft is enclosed within crankcase. The crankshaft is attached with big end of
the connecting rod.Material: Alloys steel.
Spark plug
It is usually mounted on the cylinder head. It is a component which initiates the combustion
process in spark ignition engines.
Fuel injector
This component is present in the case of combustion ignition (CI) engines. This component
atomizes the fuel into fine droplets, thus injecting it at correct timing, in correct proportion
during the working cycle.
Inlet Manifold
50
It is a piping system which connects the intake system to the inlet opening. Air, as in the case
of CI engine (or) air fuel mixture, as in the case of SI engine, will follow through the inlet
manifold.
Inlet Valve
It is mounted on the cylinder head. It is used to regulate the charge (either air or air fuel
mixture) coming into the cylinder.Material: Nickel chrome.
Exhaust Manifold
It is a piping system which connects the exhaust system with the exhaust (or) outlet opening.
Products of combustion from the cylinder will escape into the atmosphere through this
system.
Exhaust Valve
It is also mounted on the cylinder head. It is used to control and regulate the
discharge of combustion products from the cylinder into the atmosphere. In general the
exhaust valve is subjected to higher temperature and corrosive atmosphere than the intake or
inlet valve.Material: Nickel chrome, Stainless steel etc.
Cam Shaft
The cam shaft is driven by crank shaft through timing gears having gear ratio of 2. The cam
shaft is used to control the opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves.Material: Alloys
steel
Cam
These are integral parts of the cam shaft. They are designed in such a way to open the valve
at the correct timing and keep them in the same position for necessary duration and to close
it.
Flywheel
It is mounted on the crank shaft and its function is to maintain the speed of the engine as a
constant. It is done by storing excess energy during the power stroke and is utilized during
remaining strokes of operation.
2.4 WORKINGOF TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE
The two stroke cycle engine requires two strokes of the piston or one revolution of the
crankshaft to complete the cycle. In two stroke engines, ports are used instead of valves. The
51
exhaust gases are sent out from the engine cylinder by the fresh charge of the fuel entering
the cylinder. In this engine the suction and exhaust strokes are eliminated.
In case of petrol engine, the mixture of air and petrol is ignited by means of an electric spark
produced at the spark plug. The two strokes of the engine are: (a) first stroke (b) second
stroke.
a) First stroke
Assume that the piston is at its BDC position. During this stroke, the piston moves upwards
from BDC to TDC. It closes the transfer port and the exhaust port. The charged air-petrol
mixture which is already there in the cylinder is compressed. Due to upward movement of the
piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crankcase and a fresh charge is drawn into the
crankcase through the uncovered inlet port. At the end of the stroke, the piston reaches the
TDC position.
52
b) Second stroke
The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by means of electric spark
produced by the spark plug, slightly before the completion of the compression stroke. Due to
the combustion of the air-petrol mixture, the piston is acted on by a large force and is pushed
in the downward direction producing the useful power. During this stroke, the inlet port is
covered by the piston and the fresh charge is compressed in the crankcase. Further downward
movement of the piston uncovers the exhaust port and then the transfer port. The expanded
gases start escaping through the exhaust port and the same time fresh charge which is already
compressed in the crankcase is forced into the cylinder through the transfer poet. The charge
strikes the deflector on the piston crown, rises to the top of the cylinder and pushes out of the
exhaust gases. The piston is now at the BDC position. The cylinder is completely with the
fresh charge, although it is somewhat diluted with exhaust gases. The cycle of events is then
repeated.
2.5 WORKING OF TWO STORKE DIESEL ENGINE
As the piston moves down on the power stroke, it first uncovers the exhaust port, and the
cylinder pressure drops to atmospheric pressure as the products of combustion come out from
the cylinder. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers the transfer port and
slightly compressed air enters the engine cylinder from the crankcase. Due to deflector on the
top of the piston, the air will move upto the top of the cylinder and sent put the remaining
exhaust gases through the exhaust port.
During this stroke, the piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC, first the transfer port and
then the exhaust port closes. As soon as the exhaust port closes the compression of the air
starts. As the piston moves up, the pressure in the crankcase decreases so that the fresh air
drawn into the crankcase through the open inlet port as shown in figure below.
53
Just before the end of the compression stroke the fuel is forced under pressure in the form of
fine spray into the cylinder through the fuel inject to into this hot air. At this movement,
temperature of the compressed air is high enough to ignite the fuel. It suddenly increases the
pressure and temperature of the products of combustion. The rate of fuel injection is such as
to maintain the gas pressure constant during the combustion period. Due to increased pressure
the piston is pushed down with a great force. Then the hot products of combustion expand.
During expansion some of the heat energy produced is transformed into mechanical work.
When the piston is near the bottom of the stroke it uncovers the exhaust port which permits
the gases to flow out of the cylinder. This completes the cycle and the engine cylinder is
ready to suck the sir ones again.
2.6 WORKINGOF FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE
(a) Suction stroke

During this stroke, piston is moving from TDC to BDC due to this vacuum is created,
pressure inside the cylinder decrease to lower pressure than atmospheric pressure.
Because of this inlet valve opens automatically and air-fuel mixture is admitted inside
the cylinder. This happens until the piston reaches BDC. Exhaust valve is in closed
condition throughout the stroke.
(b) Compression stroke
During this stroke, both valves remain closed. As the piston moves upwards, the air-
fuel mixture inside the engine gets compressed. The pressure and temperature of the
54
charge increases, continuously of about 8 bar. Just before the end of this stroke, the
spark plug initiates the spark which ignites the mixture. The pressure and temperature
inside the cylinder is further increased. This completes one revolution of the crank.
(c) Power stroke

During this stroke, both the valves remain closed. Due to the increase in pressure, a
great force exerts by the gases pushes the piston downwards. This expansion of gases
continues till the piston reaches the BDC. At this position exhaust valve is opened.
(d) Exhaust stroke
As soon as the exhaust valve opened, the pressure falls suddenly to atmospheric. This
makes the piston to move from BDC to TDC by pushing out the combustion products
through the exhaust valve. This completes the second revolution of the crankshaft and
constitutes one cycle of operation and the cycle is repeated.
2.7 FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Diesel engines are known as compression ignition engines as the combustion takes place due
to high pressure and temperature generated during the compression stroke. In this engines
fuel injector is used instead of spark plug.
55
2.7.1 WORKING OF FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
(a) Suction stroke
During this stroke, piston is moving from TDC to BDC due to this vacuum is created,
pressure inside the cylinder decrease to lower pressure than atmospheric pressure.
Because of this inlet valve opens automatically and air alone is admitted inside the
cylinder. This happens until the piston reaches BDC. Exhaust valve is in closed
condition throughout the stroke.
(b) Compression stroke
During this stroke, both valves remain closed. As the piston moves upwards, the air
inside the engine gets compressed. Since the compression ratio is high in this engine
of about 20:1 the air is compressed to a high pressure and temperature of about 60 bar
and 1000 respectively. Just before the end of this stroke, fuel is injected as a fine
spray into the cylinder and the combustion starts instantaneously. The combustion is
continued as long as the fuel is injected. This completes one revolution of the crank.
56
(c) Power stroke
During this stroke, both the valves remain closed. Due to the increase in pressure of
gases, a great force exerts by the gases pushes the piston downwards. This expansion
of gases continues till the piston reaches the BDC. At this position exhaust valve is
opened.
(d) Exhaust stroke
As soon as the exhaust valve opened, the pressure falls suddenly to atmospheric. This
makes the piston to move from BDC to TDC by pushing out the combustion products
through the exhaust valve. This completes the second revolution of the crankshaft and
constitutes one cycle of operation and the cyle is repeated.
2.8 COMPARISON BETWEEN FOUR STROKE AND TWO STROKE CYLINDER

ENGINES
Four Stroke Cylinder Engine Two Stroke Cylinder Engine

1. For every two revolution of the crank 1. For every one revolution of the crank
shaft, there is one power stroke. shaft, there is one power stroke.
2. Because of the above, turning moment is 2. Because of the above, turning moment is
not so uniform and hence heavier flywheel is more uniform and hence a lighter flywheel is
needed. used.
3. For the same power more space is 3. For the same power less space is required.
required.
4. Because of one power stroke in two 4. Because of one power stroke for every
revolutions, lesser cooling and lubrication revolution, greater cooling and lubrication
requires. Lower rate of wear and tear. requirements. Higher rate of wear and tear.
5. Valves are required – inlet and exhaust 5. Ports are made in the cylinder walls – inlet,
valves. exhaust, and transfer port.
6. Because of heavy weight, complicated 6. Simple in design, light weight and air
valve mechanism and water cooled, making it cooled and easy to maintain.
complicated design and difficult to maintain.
7. The air-fuel mixture is completely utilized 7. As inlet and exhaust port open
57
thus efficiency is higher. simultaneously, sometimes fresh charges may
escape with exhaust gases. The exhaust gases
are not always completely removed. This
cause lower efficiency.
8. Volumetric efficiency is high due to more 8. Volumetric efficiency is low due to lesser
time for induction. time for induction.
9. Lower fuel consumption per horse power. 9. The fuel consumption per horse power is
more because of fuel dilution by the exhaust
gas.
10. Used in heavy vehicles, e.g. Buses, 10. Used in light vehicles, e.g. Motor cycle,
lorries, trucks etc. scooter, etc.
11. The engine cost is more. 11. The engine cost is less.
12. The exhaust is less noisy. 12. The exhaust is noisy due to short time
available for exhaust.
2.9 COMPARISON OF S.I. AND C.I. ENGINES:
S.I. Engines C.I. Engines

1. The fuel used is gasoline (Petrol). 1. Fuel used is Diesel.
2. Air + Fuel mixture is taken during suction. 2. Only air taken during suction.
3. For mixing air and fuel a separate device 3. No need of carburetor.
called carburettor is required.
4. Since homogeneous mixture is produced in 4. For atomizing and spraying the fuel inside
carburettor, no need of injector. the cylinder, fuel injector is necessary.
5. Pressure at the end of compression is about 5. Pressure at the end of compression is about
10 bar. 35 bar.
6. A spark plug is used to ignite the air fuel 6. Spark plug is not necessary.
mixture.
7. Self-ignition temperature of fuel is not 7. The fuel gets ignited due to the high
attained. In other words, the fuel is not self- temperature of compressed air.
ignited.
8. S.I. Engines works on otto cycle (i.e) 8. C.I. Engines works on diesel cycle (i.e)
58
combustion takes place at constant volume. combustion takes place at constant pressure.
9. Compression ratio is around 6 to 10. 9. Compression ratio is around 15 to 25.
10. Cold starting of engine is easy. 10. Cold starting of engine is diffucult.
11. These are very lighter. 11. Heavier engine.
12. Cost is comparatively low. 12. Cost is high.
13. Running cost is high. 13. Running cost is not high.
14. Less maintenance. 14. High maintenance is needed.
15. thernal is about 25%. 15. thernal is about 35 to 45%.
16. Overheating trouble is more. 16. Overheating trouble is less.
17. Spark plug needs frequent maintenance. 17. Fuel injector needs less maintenance.
18. These are high speed engines. 18. These are low speed engines.
19. Noiseless operation due to less 19. Very noisy operation due to high
compression ratio. compression ratio.
20. Engine weight / kW is less. 20. Engine weight / kW is more.
21. Vibration is less. 21. More vibration is there.
22. Generally employed for light duty 22. Generally employed for heavy duty
vehicles e.g. two wheeler, otto etc. vehicles e.g. truks, buses, etc.
2.10 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM:
The diagram representing the opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves during
one cycle of operation in a four stroke IC engine is known as valve timing diagram. The
processes of the cycle are represented with respect to the movement of crank angles as shown
in figure. Inlet valve opening (IVO) is advanced before TDC and the inlet valve closing
(IVC) is delayed after BDC by few degrees to maximize the suction process. More the
suction, higher the power developed by the engine. Fuel injection beginning and spark
ignition are advanced to complete the combustion just after TDC. Exhaust valve opening
(EVO) is advanced before BDC at the cost of power stroke and its closing (EVC) is delayed
after TDC by few degrees to increase exhaust stroke to ensure maximum removal of exhaust
gas.
59
2.10.1 VA
ALVE TIM
MING DIAG
GRAM FOR
R FOUR STR
ROKE PET
TROL ENG
GINE:
2.10.2. VALVE
V TIM
MING DIAG
GRAM FOR
R FOUR ST
TROKE DIE
ESEL ENGIINE:
60
RT TIMING
2.11POR G DIAGRAM
M
T represenntation of oppening and closing of ports
The p in onee cycle of operation witth
respect to
t the rotation of the crankshaft
c iss known as port timingg diagram. One cycle of
o
volution of crankshaft or
operationn in a two sttroke enginee is completeed in one rev o two strokees
of piston. This is posssible due to overlappingg of chargingg in exhaust process.
During thhis period, a portion off the fresh ccharge which
h helps to push
p the exhhaust gas alsso
escapes through
t the exhaust
e portt. The fresh charge that goes out witthout combu
ustion reducees
the therm
mal efficienccy of the tw
wo stroke enggine significcantly to fouur stroke enggine in whicch
overlappiing is minim
mum. The duuration of pow
wer stroke represented iin the port tim
ming diagram
m
is less than that of foour stroke enngine. In casse of petrol engine,
e sparkk ignition (S
SI) takes placce
few degrrees before TDC
T such thaat maximum
m pressure du
ue to compreession is creaated when thhe
piston is at TDC. In the case of diesel enginne, fuel injecction begins few degreess before TD
DC
such thatt the self-ignnition of diesel takes plaace when piston reachess TDC and there
t after thhe
flame pro
oduced ignittes the injectted diesel sppontaneously
y to maintainn constant prressure till thhe
fuel injecction ends. The
T volume expansion innside the craankcase beloow the bottoom side of thhe
piston suucks the freshh charge into
o the crankcaase.
2.11.1 PORT
P TIMIING DIAGR
RAM FOR TWO
T STRO
OKE PETR
ROL ENGIN
NE:
61
2.11.2 Poort Timing Diagram
D foor Two Strok
ke Diesel En
ngine:
2.12. FU
UEL SUPPLY SYSTEM
M
T functionss of the fuel supply systeem are

The
(i) To storee the fuel
(
(ii) To supp
ply the fuel too the enginee to the requiired quantityy and in propper conditionn
(iiii) To indiccate the driveer the fuel leevel in the fuuel tank.
2.12.1 FUEL
F SUPP
PLY SYSTE
EM OF A PE
ETROL EN
NGINE:
T fuel feed
The d system of a petrol enginne consists of
o the follow
wing componnents:
(i) Fuel Tan

nk
(
(ii) Fuel Pum
mp
(iiii) Fuel Filter
(iiv) Carbureettor
( Intake manifold
(v) m andd
(v
vi) Fuel Gaauge
Carbureetor
T function
The n of the carb
buretor is too supply thee proper fueel-air ratio to
t the enginne
cylinder during sucttion created by the dow
wnward movvement of the
t piston. As
A the pistoon
moves do
ownward a pressure diffference is ccreated betw
ween the atm
mosphere andd the cylindeer
62
which leaads to the suuction of airr in the cylinnder. This suucked air wiill also carry
y with it som
me
harged from a tube. Thee tube has ann orifice calleed carburetoor jet which is
droplets of fuel disch
open to the
t path of sucked
s air. The
T rate at w
which fuel is
i dischargedd into the aiir will depennd
upon thee pressure difference
d created. To ennsure the attomization oof fuel the suction
s effect
must be strong
s and thhe fuel outleet should be ssmall.
or: To increaase the suction effect thhe passage of
Workingg of Simple Carbureto o air is madde
narrow. It
I is made inn the form of
o venturi. Thhe opening of
o the fuel jet is placedaat the venturri,
where thee suction is greatest
g becaause the veloocity of air will
w be maxim
mum at that point.
T fig. show
The mber, nozzle, a venturi, a
ws a simplee carburetor consists off float cham
choke vaalve and a th
hrottle valvee. The narroow passage is
i called vennturi. The oppening of thhe
fuel is noormally placced a little below the vennturi section
n. The atomiized fuel andd air is mixeed
at this pllace and then
n supplied too the intake manifold off the cylindeer. The fuel is supplied to
t
the fuel jet from the float chamber and the suupply of the fuel to the float
f chambeer is regulateed
by the flo
oat pivot and
d supply vallve. As the ffuel level in the chamberr decreases the
t float pivoot
will openn the supply of the fuel from
f fuel tannk.
A the air velocity
As v of air passes through thee venturi seection will be
b maximum
m
corresponndingly the pressure wiill be minim
mum. Due too the pressurre differencee between thhe
float chaamber and th
he throat off the venturii, fuel is discharged froom the jet to
t the air. To
T
prevent the
t overflow
w of fuel from the jet, thhe level of fuel
f in the chamber
c is kept
k at a level
slightly below
b the tipp.
T quantity of the fuel supplied is governed by

The b the openiing of the butterfly valvve
situated after
a the vennturi tube. As
A the openinng of the vallve is small, a less quanttity of fuel-aair
mixture is
i supplied to
t the cylindder which reesults in reduuced power output. If thhe opening of
o
the valvee is more thaan an increaased quantityy of fuel is supplied
s to tthe cylinder which resullts
in greaterr output
63
Types of Carburetors:
1. Solex Carburetor
2. Carter carburetor
3. S.U. Carburetor
2.12.2 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM OF DIESEL ENGINE:
The main difference between the fuel supply system of a diesel engine and that of a
petrol engine is, the system in diesel engine consists of a fuel injector instead of a carburetor
and the remaining elements are the same.
So, the components of fuel supply system of a diesel engine includes
(i) Fuel Tank,
(ii) Fuel Filter,
(iii) Injection Pump (or) Fuel Pump,
(iv) Injector,
(v) Pipings,
(vi) Fuel Gauge.
The fuel from tank directs to the main filter through a fuel pump. After filtered, the
fuel proceeds to the inlet side of fuel injection pump. From the fuel injection pump the fuel
under pressure flows, in the feed pipes to the fuel injector. From the fuel injector, the fuel
gets injected into the cylinder in correct proportion.
2.13. FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

There are two methods of fuel injection in compression ignition engines: (a) air injection
system (b) airless or solid or mechanical injection
2.13.1 Air injection system
This system was first developed by Dr. Rudolph Diesel. In this method, air is first
compressed to a very high pressure. A blast of this air is then injected carrying the fuel along
with it into the cylinder. The high pressure air requires a multi-stage compressor. The
compressor consumes about 10 % of the power developed by the engine, thus decreasing the
net output of the engine. This method of fuel injection is costly and complicated. Therefore it
is now obsolete.
64
olid or Airleess or Mech
2.13.2 So hanical injecction
In this sy
ystem the fueel is supplied at a very hhigh pressuree (150 bar) from
f the fueel pump to thhe
fuel injecctor and from
m there it is injected to the combustion chambeer. It burns due
d to heat of
o
compresssed air. Thiss method req
quires a fuel pump. Thiss method is used
u in all tyypes of diesel
engines. Air injectio
on may be classified
c as (a) Individuual Pump Syystem, (b) Common
C Raail
System, and
a (c) Distrributor Systeem
(a) Indivvidual Pump

p System
Inn this system
m each cylindder has its ow
wn individuaal high presssure pump annd metering
unit as shhown in figu
ure. It is quitee compact m
method and in
nvolves highher cost. Thee design of
this type of pump sho
ould be veryy accurate beecause the vo
olume of fueel injected peer cycle at
full load is 1/20000 of
o the enginee displacemeent and durinng idling it iss 1/100000 of
o the enginee
ment. The tim
displacem me allowed for injectingg such a small quantity oof fuel is aboout 1/450 secc
at 1500 rpm.
r The preessure requirred is about 110 MPa to 30 MPa.
(b) Common Rail Sy

ystem
Inn this system
m, the fuel is pumped b a multi cylindder pump into a commonn rail, in
which thee pressure iss controlled by
b a relief vaalve. A meteered quantityy of fuel is su
upplied too
each cyliinder from th
he common rail.
r
The advaantages of coommon rail system
s are:
(i)
( Onlyy one pump iis required for
fo multi cycclinder engin
nes.
(ii)
( It fullfills the neccessary of eitther (i) the constant speeed with
( the consttant load witth variable speed.
variaable load or (ii)
(iii)
( This system has a very simplle arrangemeent and a low
w
mainntenance cosst.
(iv)
( The variaiton
v of the pump suupply pressuur will affect all the
cycliinders unifroomly.
65
The disaddvantages off common raail system arre:
(i) Leaks maay develop inn the injectioon valve.
(ii) More accu
urate workm
manship and design are reequired.
(c) Distributor Systeem

Inn this system
m, there is a single highh pressure pu
ump an in ccommon rail system. Thhis
pump is used
u for metering and compressing
c the fuel andd after that thhe fuel is deelivered to thhe
common rotating disstributor. Th
he distributorr supplies thhe fuel to eacch cylinder. The functioon
of the diistributor is to select thee cylinder too receive th
he fuel accorrding the caam coming in
i
contact with
w the distrributor.
2.13.3 Esssential Req

quirements of Fuel Injeection System:
(i) The fuell should be injected

i in a fined autom
mized conditiion.
(
(ii) The fuell should be properly
p disttributed in thhe combustioon chamber.
(iiii) The fuell injection timing shouldd occur at coorrect momennt.
(iiv) Quantity
y of fuel injeected shouldd meet the load conditionn of the enginne.
( The beg
(v) ginning and end
e of the innjection shou
uld takes place sharply.
2.14 IGN
NITION SY
YSTEM
T
There d in Petrol engines: (a) battery
are twoo ignition syystems usuallly employed b or cooil
ignition system (b) magneto
m ignnition system
m. In both there
t ignitionn system suupplies a verry
66
high voltage up to 20,000 volts for igniting the compressed air fuel mixture by producing
spark in the plug. The following are the requirements of an ignition system:
(a) The voltage from the source must be stepped up to a very high value to produce
spark.
(b) The intensity of spark should lie within specified limit.
(c) The high voltage should be supplied to each spark plug at the correct moment.
(d) There should be no failure of spark.
2.14.1 Coil (or) Battery ignition system
This system is used in cars and other vehicles using petrol engines. Figure 2.shows the circuit
diagram of a battery or coil ignition system. The main components of this system are: (i)
battery of 6 to 12 volts, (ii ignition switch, (iii) induction coil, (iv) circuit of contact breaker,
(v) condenser, (vi) distributor and (vii) spark plugs.
There are two circuits in this system – one is the primary circuit and the other is the
secondary circuit. The primary circuit consists of a battery, ignition switch, ammeter, primary
winding in the induction coil, contact breaker and a condenser. The secondary circuit consists
of induction coil which has large number of fine wire turns, distributor, rotor and spark plugs.
The primary winding and secondary winding are wounded on a laminated soft iron core and
are insulated each other. One end of secondary winding is earthed and the other end is
connected to the distributor cap. The contact breaker is driven by a cam which rotates at half
the engine speed. The condenser prevents the sparking at the contact breaker points.
67
Working of the battery or coil ignition system
When the ignition switch is switched on and the contact breaker point touches a
current flow from the battery through the switch to the primary winding of the coil to the
contact breaker points and the circuit is completed through the ground. The current flows
through the primary winding of the coil produce a magnetic field in the coil. When the
primary circuit is opened by the contact breaker points, the magnetic field collapses.
Electromotive force is induced in the secondary winding of the coil. A condenser is
connected across the contact breaker in the primary circuit which helps to collapse the field
very quickly and produces a very high voltage in the secondary coil as there are more turns of
fine wire than in the primary coil. The voltage is increased up to 20,000 volts. One end of the
secondary coil is connected to the ground and the other end is connected to the external
terminal of the distributor. The distributor connects the secondary coil to the different spark
plugs. The distributor directs this high voltage to the proper spark plug where it jumps the air
gap of the spark plug electrodes and the charge in that cylinder is ignited.
In a single cylinder engine the distributor is not required as in the case of motor cycle engine,
scooter engine and a single cam is sufficient for giving that spark.
2.14.2 Magneto ignition system

Figure shows the circuit diagram of a magneto ignition system. The system consists of a
magneto instead of battery, which produces and supplies current in the primary winding. The
magneto consists of a fixed armature having primary and secondary windings and a rotating
assembly which is driven by the engine. It consists of a contact breaker, condenser,
distributor rotor, distributor and spark plugs. As the magnet turns, a magnetic field is
produced from a positive maximum to negative maximum and back again. As this value falls
from a positive maximum value, an alternating current is induced in the primary winding.
This current flow in the primary circuit till that contact points are closed. When the contact
points are open, a very high voltage is induced in the secondary winding. This high voltage is
then directed to the proper spark plug by the distributor. This ignition system is generally
used in small spark ignition engines.
68
2.15 COOLING SYSTEM
The peak temperature that occurs during combustion in internal combustion engines
varies from 1500C to 2000C. This large amount of heat produced due to fuel combustion is
absorbed by the piston, cylinder head and cylinder walls.
The internal combustion engine at best can transform only 30% of the heat generated
by burning the fuel in to “useful” work. About 30% has to be removed by the cooling system
and the reminder by the exhaust and lubrication systems. Whatever may be the amount of
heat carried away by the coolant, it must be noted that it is a dead loss, because not only no
useful work can be obtained from it, but a part of engine power is also used to remove this
heat. Therefore it goes without saying that heat loss must be kept minimum by the designer.
2.15.1 NECESSITY OF ENGINE COOLING
i. The high temperature reduces the strength of the materials used for piston and piston
rings.
ii. The large temperature differences between the engines parts may cause unequal
expansion, resulting in cracking of the parts and thereby the engine failure.
iii. At high temperature, the lubricating oil may be heated up to such an extent heat
decomposition of lubricating oil occurs and viscosity changes may render it unfit for
effective lubrication.
69
iv. At high temperatures, the lubricating may even evaporate and burn, injuring position
and cylinder surfaces. Piston seizure due to overheating, resulting from the
failure of the lubrication is quite common.
v. The overheating causes excessive thermal stresses in the engine parts, which may load
to their distortion.
vi. The overheating may cause burning of valves and valve seats.
vii. In petrol engines, the pre-ignition of the charge is possible, if the ignition parts
initially are at high temperature.
viii. The overheating reduces the efficiency of the engine.
2.15.2 METHODS OF COOLING

All the heat rejected from the engine ultimately goes to air. Nevertheless, two basic
systems are used to cool the engine. These are:
(i) Direct or air cooling
(ii) Indirect or Water cooling or Liquid cooling
2.15.2.1 Air Cooling
In this method, the heat after being conducted through the cylinder walls is dissipated directly
to the air. For this purpose fins and flanges are provided on the outer surfaces of the cylinder
and cylinder head. An air current is flowing continuously over the heated surface of the
engine from where heat is to be removed. The amount of heat dissipated depends upon the
following factors:
a. Surface area of metal in contact with air
b. Rate of air flow
c. Temperature difference between the heated surface and the air.
d. Conductivity of the metal.
70
2.15.2.2 Water cooling
In this method of cooling, the water is circulated through water jackets around each of the
combustion chambers, cylinders, valve seats and valve stems. The circulating air while
passing takes heat of the combustion. When it passes through the radiator it is cooled by air
drawn through the radiator by a fan and by air flow developed by the forward motion of the
vehicle. After passing through the radiator, the water is again circulated.
Systems of water cooling
There are two systems of water cooling:
(a) Thermosiphon system or natural circulation systemIn this system of cooling, the
circulation of water is obtained due to the difference of densities of hot and cold regions of
the cooling water. There is no pump to circulate the water. The hot water from the engine
jacket rises up in the hose pipe as it is lighter and goes to the radiator from the top. Then it is
cooled there and goes down to the bottom of the radiator. From there it goes again in engine
jacket. This system is quite simple and cheap, but cooling is rather slow. To maintain
continuity of the water flow, the water must be maintained up to a certain minimum head. If
the water level falls down, the circulation will discontinue and the cooling system will fail.
(b) Forced circulation system In this system of water cooling the circulation of water is
obtained by a pump which is driven by a V-belt from a pulley on the engine crankshaft. This
system is more effective. The circulation of water becomes faster as the engine speed
increases. It is not necessary to maintain the water up to a particular level.
2.16 COMPARISON BETWEEN AIR COOLING AND WATER COOLINGSYSTEMS
Air Cooling System Water Cooling System

1. It is a direct cooling system. 1. It is an indirect cooling system.
71
2. The design of this system is simple and 2. The design of this system is complicated
less costly. and more costlier.
3. It does not depend on any coolant. 3. It is dependent on supply of water.
4. There is no danger of leakage of the 4. There is danger of leakage of the coolant.
coolant. 5. The installation is comparatively difficult;
5. The installation is easier as it does not size of the engine is big with an increase in
require radiator and water jacket. Hence size weight by about 20%.
is small, causing reduction in weight.
6. It works smoothly and continuously. An 6. If this system fails, it may cause serious
air cooled engine can take up some degree of damage to the engine within a short time.
damage. A broken fin does not affect much.
7. Maintenance is easier. 7. It requires more maintenance.
8. used for small capacity engines. 8. Used for medium and large capacity
engines.
9. Uniform cooling of cylinder, cylinder head 9. Uniform cooling is possible with water
and valve may not be possible. cooling.
2.17 LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Lubrication is the admittance of oil between two surfaces having relative motion. As a matter
of fact, almost all the parts of the I.C. engines have relative motion and rub each other. Due to
this, friction increases and the power is lost in the engine the parts are subjected to wear and
tear and reduces the life of the engine. The lubrication is required to reduce the wear of parts
earlier and to carry out the part of the heat generated inside the engine. Lubrication also
reduces the power required to overcome the friction of the moving parts by introducing a thin
film of lubrication between them.
2.17.1 Functions of Lubrication system

(i) To reduce the friction and wear between the parts having relative motion
(ii) To cool the surface by carrying away the heat generated due to friction
(iii)To seal the clearance between two mating parts.
(iv) To clean the surfaces by carrying away the carbon particles caused by wear.
(v) To absorb shock between bearings and other parts as well as to reduce the nosie
simultaneously
72
(vi) To decrease the power required to overcome the friction
(vii) To control the corrosion and rusting of parts.
(viii) To provide balance between high and low temperature oil thickening.
2.17.2 Properties of lubricant oil
Viscosity
Viscosity describes the flow behaviour of a fluid. The viscosity of lubricating oils diminishes
as temperature rises and consequently is measured at a given temperature (e.g. 40°C).
The viscosity of a lubricant determines the thickness of the layer of oil between metallic
surfaces in reciprocal movement.
The most widely used unit of measurement of viscosity is the centistoke (cSt).
Viscosity index
The viscosity index is a characteristic used to indicate variations in the viscosity of
lubricating oils with changes in temperature.
The higher the level of the viscosity index, the lower the variation in viscosity at temperature
changes.
Consequently, if two lubricants with the same viscosity are considered at a temperature of 40
°C, the one with the higher viscosity index will guarantee:
 better engine start up at low temperatures (lower internal friction)
 a higher stability of the lubricating film at high temperatures
Pour Point
The pour point refers to the minimum temperature at which a lubricant continues to flow.
Below the pour point, the oil tends to thicken and to cease to flow freely.
Flash point and Fire point
The flash point is the minimum temperature at which an oil-vapour-air-mixture becomes

inflammable. It is determined by progressively heating the oil-vapour-air-mixture in a
standard laboratory receptacle until the mixture ignites.
Fire point of oil is the lowest temperature at which the given oil gives sufficient vapour to
form a continuous flame, when a flame is passed across the surface.
Cloud point
73
It is the lowest temperature of the fluid at which it starts solidifying or the oil changes from
the liquid to plastic or solid stage which makes the oil to appear to be cloudly.
2.17.3 Types of lubrication systems

The various lubrication systems is used for internal combustion engines may be classified as
(i) Wet sump lubrication system
(ii) Dry sump lubrication system
(iii) Petroil (mist) lubrication system
(i) Wet sump lubrication system

This system employs a large capacity sump at the bottom of the crankcase and oil is drawn
and delivered to the different engine parts with a help of low pressure oil pump. There are
three major categories of wet sump lubrication system. They are (a) Splash system (b) semi-
pressure system (c) full pressure system.
a) Splash system
In this system, the connecting rod is always provided with a drilled hole through its body
or a hollow pipe portion to transfer the oil from bigger end to the smaller end. The caps of
the big end bearing of connecting rods are fitted with scoops and point towards the
direction of the rotation of the crankshaft. When the piston is at BDC the scoops is just
dipped in to oil troughs and thus transferring the oil through holes to the small end
bearings from the bigger end bearings of the connecting rod. The level of the oil in trough
is maintained constant by the oil sump. Due to the centrifugal action of the revolving
crank, the oil is splashed in all directions and a thin layer of oil is coated on the surface of
the cylinder and all other parts which need lubrication. The dripping from the cylinders is
also connected in the sump. Figure shows the splash lubrication system for multi-cylinder
engine. It may be noted that for a single cylinder engine, there is no oil sump as the
crankcase acts as a sump and hence the oil filter and the oil pump are absent.
74
b) Semi pressure system
This method is a combination of splash and pressure system. It is similar to splash system
except that the oil trough is eliminated and the oil is directly supplied to the parts which
need lubrication. Oil is drawn by a low pressure pump through oil filter from the oil sump
and is supplied to the main bearings and camshaft bearings by means of a gear pump at a
pressure of 1 bar. Oil is also delivered to pipes under pressure which directs a stream of
oil to the big end of the connecting rod by means of a spray through nozzle and thus
crankpin bearings are also lubricated.
c) Full pressure system
In this system oil is drawn by a gear pump through filter under a pressure of 2 to 5 bar.
The oil is then led to the main gallery which is then supplied to the various parts such as
bearings, piston and cylinder walls as shown in figure through diagonal holes. Some of
the oil from the main lead is supplied at high pressure to the crankshaft main bearings
from where the oil flows to the connecting rod big end bearings through the diagonal
holes drilled along the section. It is then flows to the piston and cylinder walls. Camshaft
is also lubricated along the path of the oil from the main lead to the cylinder.
75
(ii) Dry sump lubrication system
In dry sump lubrication system, the sump does not contain any oil and all the oil required
for lubrication remains in the circulation only. An auxiliary storage tank is required to
supply the oil to the main bearings with the help of the pump. Storage tank is located
outside the engine cylinder and it gets oil from the sump through a filter by means of
sump pump. The pressure of the oil is used in this system lies between 3 to 8 bar. If the
filter is clogged, the pressure relief valve opens allowing the oil to flow through it and
reaches the supply tank. A separate oil cooler is used to cool the oil to remove the heat
from the oil.
(iii) Mist Lubrication system

Mist lubrication system is also known as petroil lubrication system and hence most
widely in the two stroke engines fitted to the light weight motor cycle and scooters. The
lubrication is accomplished by mixing the petrol thoroughly with the lubricating oil (upto
6%) in the fuel tank. Now, when the mixture is flow through a carburetor, the fuel
vaporizes and the oil is in the form of mist, lubricates the main and connecting rod
76
bearings while the remaining oil is flows through cylinder and lubricates the piston,
piston rings and cylinder.
Advantages of mist lubrication:

1. System is simple and low cost due to the absence of oil pump, strainer etc.
2. Formation of deposits and corrosion of bearings are eliminated.
Disadvantages:
1. Burning of lubrication oil leads to heavy exhaust emissions and formation of heavy
deposit on piston crown,ring grooves and exhaust port which affected engine
efficiency.
2. The system requires proper mixing of lubrication oil with fuel for efficient
lubrication.
3. Most of the engines are over oiled because of petrol vaporization.
2.18 FUELS
The performance of an I.C engine is satisfactory only when the properties of fuel used is
good and hence the fundamental knowledge of types of fuels and their characteristics is
essential.
2.18.1 Requirements of fuel

A good fuel should fulfill the following requirements.
1. High energy density.
2. Easy to handle and store.
3. High thermal stability.
4. Low toxility.
5. Easy availability.
6. Free from hazard and chemical reaction.
7. Low deposit forming tendency.
8. Good combustion qualities.
9. Products of combustion should be non-corrosive to the engine parts.
10. Air pollution effect should be minimum.
77
2.18.2 Types of fuels
I.C engines are mostly operated on liquid or gaseous fuels. So, these two types are
described briefly below
Gaseous fuel
Gaseous fuels are most widely used in S.I engines. The various gaseous fuels used in
IC engines are natural gas, By-product gas, Bio gas plants. Natural gas is available with oil
wells and it does not have any color or odour. Manufactured gases such as coal gas in
manufactured by heating soft coal in closed vessel and water gas is formed by using steam.
By-product gases are produced during the manufacture of other substances. The biogas
produced from the cow dug which ia available in large quantities in India. It can be easily
manufactured with any chemical reaction and therefore it is easy to manufacture and use
locally.
Advantages ofGaseous fuel

1. It can be easily carried through pipes.
2. It can be easily compressed and stored.
3. Less starting troubles and freezing problems are eliminated.
4. Engine can be operated on lean mixture.
5. Less deposits.
Disadvantages:
1. Storage volume per unit energy is very comparatively large.
2. High cost and size and weight of the engine is comparatively large.
3. Purification cost is high.
4. Capital and running costs are also high.
Liquid Fuels
All over the world, 99% of the I.C engines employs liquid fuels such as petrol and
diesel. All liquid fuels used in I.C engine are derived from crude petroleum which is naturally
available in large quantities. The two most commonly used liquid fuels are petrol and diesel.
Petrol gets vaporized easily in the combustion chamber during combustion. Diesel oil is
injected directly into the combustion chamber which also vaporizes when it makes contact
with air. Petroleum is a compound of paraffin, Naphthalene and aramatics. Sometimes olefins
are added to this .they form gummy deposits and their percentages are kept as low as possible
in the fuel used.
78
Advantages
1. Higher calorific value

2. Elimination of wear and tear of grate
3. Easy starting and stopping
4. Easy combustion control
5. Easy handling and supply
6. Less space and cleanliness of the surrounding
2.19 PERFORMANCE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
2.19.1 Indicated mean effective pressure:

Area of Indicator Diagram  Scale of the diagram
Mean effective Pressure (mep) =
Length of theindicator diagram
AS
=
L
Where, A is the area of the indicator diagram in mm2
S is the scale of the indicator diagram in bar/mm
L is the length of the indicator diagram in mm.
Hence the mep will obtained in terms of bar.
2.19.2 Indicated Power:
It is the power available inside the engine cylinder
I.P. = Mean Effective Pressure X Stroke Volume

LAn 3
Stroke volume  , m / sec
60
Pm .L. A.n
I .P. 
60
Where L = Stroke length in ‘m’

A = Area of the piston in m2
79
n = Number of working strokes per min.
= N for two stroke engines
= N/2 for two stroke engines
N = Speed in rpm
Pm= Mean Effective Pressure in N/m2 and
I.P= Indicated power in Watts.
For multi cylinder engines, if K is the number of cylinders, the Indicated power is given by,
KPm LAn
I .P. 
60
2.19.3 Efficiencies of Internal Combustion Engine
Brake Thermal Efficiency
BP
bte 
Heat in fuel
BP  3600

m f  CV
Where, mf = mass flow rate of fuel in kg/hr

CV = Calorific Value of the Fuel in kJ/kg
BP = Brake Power developed in kW
Indicated Thermal Efficiency:
IP
ite 
Heat Supplied
IP  3600

m f  CV
80
Mechanical Efficiency:
BP
m 
IP
Relative Efficiency:
Indicated Thermal Efficiency ite

Relative efficiency = 
Air Standard Efficiency ase
Volumetric Efficiency:
Actual volume of air taken Va

vol = 
swept volume Vs
Va = Actual Volume of air taken

 3
= Cd d 2 a 2 gha m
4 s
Vs = Swept Volume
 D 2 Ln m 3
= K
4 60 s
Where, D = Diameter of the cylinder in m

L = Stroke length in m
K = Number of the cylinder and
n = Number of working cycles per min.
81
2.20 TESTING OF I.C. ENGINES
2.20.1 Measurement of Indicated Power (I.P)
The power developed inside the engine cylinder is known as indicated power and is
designated as I.P.
The indicated power is measured by indicator card with the help of an instrument called
indicator. An indicator card is the graphical representation of the pressure-volume variation
during the one working cycle. The indicator diagram has a positive loop and a negative loop.
The area between the compression and expansion lines is called positive loop and the area
between suction and exhaust lines is called negative loop. The positive loop represents the
work gross work during the cycle and negative loop represents the pump loss due to
admission of fresh charge and removal of exhaust gases.
Net work done per cycle = area of positive loop – area of negative loop.
The areas of positive loop and negative loop are measured with the help of planimeter.
Let, A area of positive loop in mm
A area of negative loop in mm
h = mean height of indicator diagram
L = length of the indicator diagram in mm
n = no. of explosions per minute
S = spring scale in N/m /
A A
Then,
A A
N/m
Generally area of the negative loop is negligible as compared with positive loop.
Indicated power per cylinder

60 1000
2.20.2 Measurement of Brake Power (B.P)

The power available at the engine crankshaft is known as brake power. The brake power is
less than the indicated power because of different losses such as pump losses, mechanical
losses in bearings, power required to drive the fuel pump, water pump and governor.
The brake power is measured by coupling the brake dynamometer to the engine shaft.
82
Let, W load measured on the dynamometer in N
R arm length in m
N rpm of engine
T torque in Nm
WR2πN
Brake power kW
60 1000
2.20. 3 Measurement of I.P. of Multi-cylinder Engine

The difference between the indicated power and the brake power is the friction power and it
depends on engine speed. Friction power also depends on the indicated power as the
increased pressures on piston increases friction.
2.20.4 Morse test

Morse test is conducted to find indicated power of multi-cylinder engines. When a cylinder is
disconnected by short circuiting spark plug or fuel supply, the brake power developed by it is
reduced. The reduction in brake power corresponds to the indicated power of that cylinder if
the friction power remains constant.
For a four cylinder engine, when all cylinders are working
, , , , , , , , ,
When cylinder no. 1 is disconnected,

Indicated power , , Friction power , , , Brake power , ,
Subtracting,
Indicated power Brake power , , , Brake power , ,
As the friction power is same in both cases even when cylinder 1 is not producing power.
Similarly
Indicated power of the engine IP IP IP IP

In spark ignition engines, the morse test will be conducted by disconnecting the spark plug
lead of each engine successively. The high voltages are dangerous and there will also be un-
burnt mixture entering the exhaust system. But in Multi-point fuel injection engines it is easy
83
to electrically isolate an injector. In diesel engines, the injectors can be disconnected, either
mechanically 9by disconnecting the fuel supply) or electrically as appropriate.
2.20.5 Willans’ Line method
The friction power of a single cylinder engine can be found out by plotting experimental
values of fuel consumption and brake power as shown in fig.This line representing the linear
variation of TFC with brake power is known as Willans’ line. It is assumed in this method
that at constant speed the friction power is constant. Willans’ line can be extrapolated to zero
fuel flow rate to determine the friction power. At zero power output, the fuel consumption is
to overcome only the friction to run the engine at rated rpm. The equivalent power is obtained
by extending the line on the left hand side to meet the power axis. Same scale is to be
maintained on both sides of zero on the power axis.
2.20.6 Measurement of Air Consumption

Orifice chamber method is used in laboratory for measuring the consumption of air. The
arrangement of system is shown in fig. It consists of an air tight chamber in which sharp
edged orifice is fitted. The orifice is situated away from the suction connection to the engine.
A rubber diaphragm is provided to further reduce the pressure pulsations. There is a pressure
depression due to the suction of the engine which causes the flow through orifice for
obtaining steady flow; the volume of the chamber should be sufficiently large as compared
with swept volume of the cylinder. Generally 500 to 600 times the swept volume. The
pressure difference which causes the flow through the orifice is
84
measured with the help of manometer fitted the air box. The pressure difference is kept to 10
cm of water to make the compressibility effect negligible.
Let, A area of orifice in m
h head of water in cm
d diameter of orifice in m
ρ density of air in kg/m
C Coefficient of discharge of orifice
Head interms of air in m is given by
h
H. ρ ρ
100
h ρ h
H 10 m
100 ρ ρ
The velocity of air passing through the orifice is given by
V 2gH m/s
The volume of air passing through the orifice is given by
h h m
V A V C AC 2g10 14 C A
ρ ρ s
Mass of air passing through the orifice is given by,
h
m V ρ 14 C A ρ 14 C A ρ h
ρ
The density of atmospheric air is given by,

PV m R T
m P
ρ
V R T
N
Where, P is the atmospheric pressure in
m
T atmospheric temperature in K
The volumetric efficiency of the engine is given by,
14 C A 60
actual volume of air taken
η
displacement volume D LN No. of cylinders
When the volumetric analysis of the exhaust gases is known, then the mass of air supplied per
kg of fuel is given by,
85
m N C
kgof fuel 33 C C
Where, N= Percentage of nitrogen by volume in exhaust gases.

C1= Percentage of carbon dioxide by volume in exhaust gases.
C2= Percentage of carbon monoxide by volume in exhaust gases.
C = Percentage of carbon in fuel by weight.
2.20.7 Measurement of fuel consumption
An arrangement for measuring the fuel consumption rate is shown in
fig.
A small glass tube is fitted to the main fuel tank. When the fuel
consumption rate is to be measured the valve closed and the fuel is
consumed from the burette as shown in figure. For a known value of
fuel consumption, the time is measures and the fuel consumption rate
is calculated as under,
kg V Sp. gravity of fuel
Fuel consumption
hr 1000 t
2.20.8 Measurement of heat carried away by cooling water
The heat carried away by cooling water is generally measured by measuring the water
flowrate through the cooling jacket and the rise in temperatures of the water during the
flowthrough the engine.
The inlet and out let temperatures of the water are measured by the thermometers insertingin
the pockets provided at inlet to and outlet from the engine. The quantity of waterflowing is
measured by collecting the water in a bucket for a specified period or directlywith the help of
flow meter in case of large engine. The heat carried away by cooling wateris given by
Where, m mass of water per minute

C specific heat of water generally taken as 4.1868 kJ/kg
T outlet temperature of water
T inlet temperature of wate
2.20.9 Measurement of heat carried away by exhaust gases

The mass of air supplied per kg of fuel used can be calculated by using the equation.
86
N C
m
33 C C
The heat carried away by exhaust gas per kg of fuel is given by
1
Where, m 1 mass of exhaust gas formed per kg of fuel supplied
C specific heat of exhaust gases
T temperature of exhaust gases coming out from the engine
T ambient temperature
2.21 HEAT BALANCE SHEET

A heat balance sheet is an account of heat supplied and heat utilized in different ways in a
system. The performance of the engine is obtained from the heat balance sheet.
A heat balance account includes the following items.
Heat supplied by the fuel to the engine m L. C. V
Where, m = Total fuel consumption in kg/hr

LCV = Lower Calorific value of the fuel in kJ/kg
(a) Heat equivalent of brake power = brake power x 60 kJ/min
(b) Heat lost to jacket cooling water =
(c) Heat lost to exhaust gases =
(d) The rest of the heat is lost by convection and radiation. This cannot be measured and so
this is known as unaccounted loss. This is calculated by the difference of heat supplied
and the sum of (a) + (b) + (c).
Heat kJ % Heat expenditure per minute kJ %

supplied
per minute
Heat 100 (a) heat equivalent of brake power ------- -----
supplied by
the (b) heat lost to jacket of cooling water ------- -----
combustion
of fuel (c) heat lost to exhaust gases ------- -----
87
(d) unaccounted heat loss(heat supplied – (a)+(b)+(c)) ------- -----
Total -- 100 Total ----- 100
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. The following observations were taken during trial on a single cylinder oil engine. During
of test=1 hour, Total number of revolutions = 12000, load on the brake=2 KN, spring reading
= 0.5 KN, mean effective pressure = 6 bar, fuel consumption = 7.6 kg, temperature of
exhaust gases = 300○C, C.V of fuel =45000KJ/kg, total cooling water circulated =550 kg,
inlet temperature of cooling water = 15○C, outlet temperature of cooling water =60○C, brake
drum diameter = 1.83 m, Bore = 30cm, atmospheric temperature =20○C, air consumption
=360 kg, Cp for exhaust gases =1 KJ/kgK. Determine i) brake power, ii) mechanical
efficiency, iii) indicated thermal efficiency of B.H.P basis and iv) draw up the heat balance
sheet.
Solution
a) Brake power:
2
.
60
2 0.5 10 0.915 1372.5
2 12000 1372.5
. 28.746
3600
b) Mechanical efficiency:
.
.
0.3 0.0706858
4 4
12000
. 600 0.45 0.0706858 31.809
60 3600 2
28.746
90.371 %
31.809
c) Brake thermal efficiency:
88
3600
. . .
7.6
. . . . 0.2644 ⁄
. 28.746
3600
30.26%
0.2644 45000
d) Heat balance sheet:
1) Quantity of heat supplied
.
. 45000 95 5700 ⁄
2) Heat in B.P per minute

28.746 28.746 60 1724.76 ⁄
3) Heat carried away by cooling water
550
∆ 4.187 60 15 1727.1375 ⁄
60
4) Heat carried away by exhaust gases,
∆
360 7.6
6.12667 ⁄
60
6.12667 1 300 20 1715.4667 ⁄
5) Unaccountable heat loss,
5700 1724.76 1727.1375 1715.4667

532.636 ⁄
Heat balance sheet
Heat supplied ⁄ % Heat distributed ⁄ %
Heat supplied 1) Heat in B.P
1724.735 30.26
by the fuel 2) Heat carried by
1727.1375 30.3
cooling water
5700 100
3) Heat in dry exhaust
1715.4667 30.1
gases
532.636 9.34
4) Heat in steam
Heat in 5700 100 Heat out 5700 100
89
2. A four cylinder, four stroke cycle stroke cycle petrol engine 82mm bore, 130 mm
stroke develops 28.35 KW brake power while running at 1500 rpm and using a 20% rich
mixture. If the volume of mercury is 70% of the swept volume, the theoretical air fuel ratio is
14.8, the heating value of petrol used is 44000kJ/kg and the mechanical efficiency of the
engine is 90%, find the indicated thermal efficiency. Take R =0.287 kJ/Kg K.
Solution
.
.
28.35
0.9
.
. 31.5
ℓ 4
4 2
1500
0.082 0.13 4 2.06 ⁄
4 2
0.7
0.7 2.06 1.442 ⁄
101.325 1.442 0.287 2.885

760 1 .
1.765 ⁄
14.8
1.765
14.8
0.1192 ⁄
For 20% rich mixture,
1.2 0.1192 0.1431 ⁄ 8.585 ⁄
3600
. . .
8.585
S. F. C based on indicated power 0.2725 ⁄
I. P 31.5
3600
0.2725 44000
30.022%
90
3. A six cylinder gasoline engine operates on four-stroke cycle. The bore and stroke of
each cylinder is 100 mm and 120 mm respectively. The clearance volume per cylinder
is 80 cc. AT a speed of 4000rpm, the fuel consumption is 20 kg/hr and the torque
developed is 200N-m. Calculate a) Brake power, b)brake mean effective pressure, c)
brake thermal efficiency if C.V = 43MJ/kg, d) relative efficiency on brake power
basis assuming the engine works on constant volume cycle.
Solution
a) Brake power:
2 2 4000 200
.
60 60
. 83.776
b) Brake mean effective pressure:
83.776
. 13.963
6
.
60
0.1 7.854 10
4 4
0.12 7.854 10
13.963
60
. 444.456
c) Break thermal efficiency
3600
. . .
S. F. C based on brake power
20
0.2387 ⁄
B. P 31.83.9605
3600
0.2387 43000
35.069 %
d) Relative efficiency:
1
1
91
ℓ 100 12 942.478
4 4
942.478 80
12.781
80
1
1 .
63.911%
12.78
0.35069
54.872 %
0.63911
4. A test on a single cylinder four stroke oil engines having bore and stroke of 180mm
and 360 mm gave the following results. Speed=290 rpm, brake torque =392 N-m,
IMEP=7.2 bar ,oil consumption =3.5kg/hr, coolant flow =270 kg/hr, cooling water
temperature rise =35○ C,A:F ratio =25, exhaust gas temperature =415○ C, room
temperature =21○ C, C.V of fuel = 45200 KJ/kg and take Cpfor exhaust gases as
1.0035 KJ/KgK. Calculate a) indicated thermal efficiency, b) heat balance sheet in
KJ/min basis.
Solution
Indicated thermal efficiency

3600
. . .
. . . .
.
.
60
0.18 0.02545
4 4
720 0.36 0.02545
15.94
60
3.5
. . 0.2196 ⁄
15.94
3600
36.273%
0.2196 45200
Heat balanced sheet:
1) Heat supplied by the fuel

3.5
. 45200
60
92
2636.667 ⁄
2) Heat in B.P
.
2 2 290 392
.
60 60
11.905
11.905 60
714.3 ⁄
3) Heat carried away by cooling water,
270
∆ 4.187 36 678.294 ⁄
60
4) Heat carried away be exhaust gases,
∆
25
25
3.5
87.5 ⁄
87.5
1.0035 415 21
60
576.594 ⁄
5) Unaccountable heat loss,
2636.667 714.3 678.294 576.594

667.478 ⁄
HEAT BALANCE SHEET

Heat supplied ⁄ % Heat distributed ⁄ %
Heat supplied 1) Heat in B.P 714.3 27.091
by the fuel
2) Heat carried by
2636.6667 100
exhaust gases 576.594 21.868
3) heat carried by 678.294 25.725
93
cooling water
4) Heat in steam 667.478 25.316

Heat in 2636.6667 100 Heat out 2636.6667 100
5. An eight cylinder four stroke engine of 9 cm bore and 8 cm stroke has a compression
ratio of 7 is tested at 4500 rpm on a dynamometer which has a 54 cm arm. During a
ten minute test , the dynamometer load reading was 45 MJ/kg. Air at 27○ C and 1 bar
was supplied to the carburetor at the rate of 6 kg/min. Find for petrol engine i) brake
mean effective pressure, ii) specific fuel consumption and specific air consumption,
iii) Relative efficiency, iv) Volumetric efficiency.
Given Data:
D = 9 cm = 0.09 m
L = 8 cm = 0.08 m
rk = 7
N = 4500 rpm
X = 54 cm = 0.54 m
t = 10 min
W = 42 kg = 42 x 9.81 = 412.02 N
4.4
4.4. 0.44 ⁄ 26.4 ⁄
10
C.V = 44 MJ/kg = 44000 KJ / kg
T = 270 C = 300 K
P = 1 bar = 100 Kpa
6 ⁄ 360 ⁄
a) Break mean effective pressure
412.02 0.54 222.49
2 2 4500 222.49
.
60 60
. 104.846
0.09 6.362 10
4 4
104.846
. 13.106
8
94
.
60
0.08 6.362 10
13.106
60
686.67 6.87
b) SFC and SAC
26.4
0.252 ⁄
. 104.846
360
3.43 ⁄
. 104.846
c) Relative efficiency
1 1
1 1 .
54.08 %
7
3600 3600
32.47%
. . . 0.252 44000
0.3247
60%
0.5408
d) Volumetric efficiency
0.287 360 300

3600 100
0.0861 ⁄
ℓ
2 60
4500
6.362 10 0.08
2 60
0.019086 ⁄
0.0861
56.39 %
0.019086
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. In a four stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in
(a) One revolution of the crank shaft (b) two revolutions of the crank shaft
95
(c) three revolutions of the crank shaft (d) four revolutions of the crank shaft
2. A two stroke cycle engine gives ________ the number of power strokes as compared to
the four stroke cycle engine, at the same engine speed.
(a) half (b) same (c) double (d) four times
3. The thermal efficiency of a two stroke cycle engine is ________ a four stroke cycle
engine.
(a) equal to (b) less than (c) greater than
4. The theoretically correct mixture of air and petrol is
(a) 10:1 (b) 15:1 (c) 20:1 (d) 25:1
5. The thermodynamic cycle on which the petrol engine works, is
(a) Otto cycle (b) Joule cycle (c) Rankine cycle (d) Stirling cycle
6. A diesel engine has
(a) one valve (b) two valves (c) three valves (d) four valves
7. If petrol is used in a diesel engine, then
(a) low power will be produced (b) efficiency will be low
(c) higher knocking will occur (d) black smoke will be produced
8. A petrol engine has compression ratio from
(a) 6 to 10 (b) 10 to 15 (c) 15 to 25 (d) 25 to 40
9. The function of a distributor in a coil ignition system of I.C. Engines is
(a) to distribute the spark (b) to distribute the power
(c) to distribute the current (d) to time the spark
10. Super charging _________ the power developed by the engine.
(a) has no effect on (b) increases (c) decreases
10. Supercharging --------------- the power developed by the engine.
(a) has no effect on (b) increases (c) decrease
11. A carburetor is used to supply
(a) Petrol, air and lubricating oil (b) air and diesel
(c) Petrol and lubricating oil (d) petrol and air
12. A spark plug gap is kept from
(a) 0.3 to 0.7mm (b) 0.2 to 0.8mm (c) 0.4 to 0.9mm (d) 0.6 to 1.0mm
13. The knocking tendency in spark ignition engines may be decreased by
(a) Controlling the air fuel mixture (b) controlling the ignition timing
(c) reducing the compression ratio (d) all of these
14. The violent sound pulsations within the cylinder of an I.C. Engine are due to
96
(a) detonation (b) turbulence (c) pre-ignition (d) none of these
15. Which of the following does not relate to a spark ignition engine?
(a) Ignition coil (b) Spark plug (c) Distributor (d) Fuel Injector
16. In an internal combustion engine the fuel is
(a) burnt outside the cylinder (b) inside the cylinder
(c) not burnt anywhere (d) none of the above
17. The power produced inside the cylinder of an internal combustion engine is known as
(a) brake power (b) indicated power (c) frictional power (d) none of the above
18. The power available at the shaft of an internal combustion engine is known as brake horse
power and is equal to
(a) total power produced – frictional power (b) net I.P. - frictional power
(c) net I.P. + frictional power (d) net I.P. / frictional power
19. In a two stroke engine, the working cycle is completed in the number of revolutions of the
crank shaft equal to
(a) one (b) two (c) three (d) four
20. The indicator of an internal combustion engine is used to determine
(a) Temperature (b) B.P (c) Speed (d) I.P. and mean effective
pressure
21. The pressure at the end of compression in petrol engine as compared to that of diesel
engine
(a) higher (b) lower (c) same (d) none of the above
22. Morse test is performed on internal efficiency engines to determine mechanical efficiency
of
(a) Single cylinder spark ignition engine (b) Single cylinder compression ignition engine
(c) Multi cylinder engines (d) none of the above
23. For a four cylinder inline internal combustion engine, the most popular firing order is
(a) 1-4-3-2 (b) 1-3-4-2 (c) 1-2-3-4 (d) 1-2-4-3
24. The increase in cut off ratio, of a diesel cycle with fixed compression ratio, would
(a) decreasedm.e.p. (b) increasem.e.p. (c) keep same m.e.p. (d) none of the
above
25. Fuel injector is used for a
(a) Spark ignition engine (b) Compression ignition engine
(c) Steam engine (d) Gas engine
97
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between an I.C engine and E.C engine?
2. What is a four stroke engine?
3. What is as two stroke engine?
4. What is the material with which the following components are made up of ?
(i) Cylinder block (ii) Piston (iii) Connecting rod (iv) Crank Shaft
5. Draw the valve timing diagram of a four stroke petrol engine?
6. Draw the port timing diagram of a two stroke diesel engine?
7. What is scavenging ?
8. What is carburetion?
9. What is fuel injection pressure of an air less injector ?
10. Name two types of ignition systems used in petrol engine?
11. What is the function of a flywheel ?
12. What is the necessasity for cooling an I.C engine?
13. What is lubrication ?
14. Why pressure lubrication is prefered for muti cylinder engine?
15. What is Petro-oil lubrication ?
16. What is the difference between Knocking and Detonation?
17. Draw the Actual P-V diagrams of four stroke Petrol and Diesel Engines
18. Define ‘Brake power’ and ‘Brake thermal efficiency’.
19. Define ‘Indicated Power’ and ‘Indicated Thermal Efficiency’.
20. Define ‘Mechanical Efficiency’ and ‘Volumetric Efficiency’.
1. What are the difference between S.I and C.I engines ?
2. What are the merits and demerits of a two stroke engine over four stroke engine?
3. How are I.C engines classified?
4. Explain the working of four stroke petrol engine with neat sketches.
5. Describe the purpose of the different parts of a four stroke C.I engine with neat
sketches
6. Explain the working of two stroke Diesel engine with neat sketches.
7. Describe the working of single Jet carburetor with neat sketch. What are its
limitations?
98
8. What are the fundamental requirements of a fuel injection system used in Diesel
engines?
9. Draw the critical diagram and describe the working of a battery ignition system used
for a four cylinder petrol engine.
10. With neat sketches describe the working of water cooling system used for multi
cylinder engines
11. Explain with neat sketch the working of a pressure lubrication system.
12. Explain the phenomena of knocking in S.I engine .what are the different factors which
influence knocking? Describe the methods used to suppress it.
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1) A petrol engine uses per brake power hour 0.36kg of fuel of calorific value 44080 kJ/kg.
The mechanical efficiency is 78%, compression ratio is 5.6. Calculate 1) Brake thermal
efficiency 2) Indicated thermal efficiency 3) Ideal air standard efficiency. Take γ = 1.41.
2) The output of an IC engine is measured by a rope brake dynamometer. The diameter of
the brake pulley is 75 mm and rope diameter is 52mm. The dead load on the tight side of
the rope is 410N and the spring balance reading is 50N. The engine consumes 4kg/h of
fuel at rated speed of 1000rpm. The calorific value of fuel is 44150kJ/kg. Calculate brake
specific fuel consumption and the brake thermal efficiency.
3) A compression ignition engine rated condition develops 7.5kW brake power. The
mechanical losses are 1.5Kw. If the indicated thermal efficiency is 42%; air fuel ratio 22
and calorific value of fuel 43250kj/kg. Determine 1) Fuel consumption is kg/hr 2) air
intake in kg/hr and 3) brake thermal efficiency.
4) A four cylinder, two stroke cycle petrol engine develops 30kw brake power at 2500rpm.
The MEP on each piston is 8bar and the mechanical efficiency is 80%. Calculate the
diameter and stroke of each cylinder if the stroke to bore ratio is 1.5. Also calculate the
brake specific fuel consumption of the engine, if brake thermal efficiency is 28%. The
calorific value of the fuel is 44150kJ/kg.
5) An engine is used on a job requiring 110kw B.P., the mechanical efficiency of the engine
is 80% and the engine uses 50kg fuel/hr under the conditions of operation. A design
improvement is made which reduces the engine friction by 5kw. Assuming the indicated
thermal efficiency remains the same, how many kg of fuel per hour will be saved?
99
6) A four stroke, six cylinder gas engine with a stroke volume of 1.75litres develops 25kW
at 480rpm. The mean effective pressure is 6 bar. Find average number of times each
cylinder misfired in one minute.
7) An engine uses 6.5kg of oil per hour of calorific value 3000kj/kg. if the B.P of the engine
is 22Kw and mechanical efficiency 85%, calculate, 1) indicated thermal efficiency 2)
Brake thermal efficiency and 3) specific fuel consumption in kg/B.P/hr.
8) A four cylinder two stroke cycle petrol engine develops 23.5kw brake power at 2500rpm.
The mean effective pressure on each piston is 8.5bar and the mechanical efficiency is
85%. Calculate the diameter and stroke of each cylinder, assuming the length of stroke
equal to 1.5 times the diameter of cylinder.
9) Four stroke petrol engine has a piston displacement of 221cm3. The compression ratio is
6.4. The fuel consumption is 0.13kg/min. The calorific value of fuel is 45000kJ/kg. The
brake power developed while running at 2500rev/min is 50.25kW. Determine the brake
mean effective pressure and the relative efficiency based on brake thermal efficiency.
10) A petrol engine is to deliver 6.5kW when running at 2000re/min with a mechanical
efficiency of 80%. The stroke-bore ratio is 2.5. Expansion and compression are assumed
to be adiabatic. The clearance volume is one-fifth the swept volume of the piston. The
maximum pressure reached is three times the pressure at the end of the compression. The
inlet pressure is 1.0bar. Calculate the diameter and stroke of the piston.
11) A four cylinder four stroke petrol engine working on the Otto cycle consumes 7kg of
petrol per hour. The compression ratio of the engine is 5. The thermal efficiency of the
engine is 62% of the air standard efficiency. Calculate the thermal and air standard
efficiencies. The calorific value of the fuel is 45000kJ/kg. Determine the power
developed per cylinder.
12) How do you measure the Brake power of an engine? A four stroke engine is loaded by
means of a rope brake mounted on a brake drum of mean diameter 1.37m. The dead
weight is 27.5kg and the spring balance reading is 1.82kg. The speed is 250rev/min., the
bore and stroke are 150mm and 230mm respectively. The mean effective pressure based
on indicated power is 7.0bar. Determine (i) mechanical efficiency (ii) thermal efficiency
on the I.P basis, if the engine uses 1.22 kg of fuel per hour of calorific value 42000kJ/kg.
13) A Morse Test on a four cylinder engine resulted in the following data:
Brake Power with all cylinders working = 21.7 kW
Brake Power with No.1 cylinder cut-off = 15.5 kW
100
Calculate the mechanical efficiency and indicated thermal efficiency, if the engine uses
0.07 kg of fuel per minute. CV of fuel is 40899 kJ/kg.
14) A stroke petrol engine 70mm bore and 90mm stroke, is tested at full throttle at constant
speed condition. The fuel supply is found to be 0.065kg/min. and the plugs of the four
cylinder are successfully short circuited without change of speed, the brake torque being
correspondingly adjusted. The power measurements are,
i. With all cylinders working = 21.85 kW
ii. With No.1 cylinder cut-off = 15.28 kW
iii. With No.2 cylinder cut-off = 15.55 kW
iv. With No.3 cylinder cut-off = 15.58 kW
v. With No.4 cylinder cut-off = 15.48 kW
Determine the mechanical efficiency and brake thermal efficiency if the calorific value of
fuel is 43370 kJ/kg.
15) The following observation were made during a trial of a constant speed compression
ignition engine operating on the four stroke cycle: Brake wheel diameter = 600mm; Band
thickness = 5mm; speed = 45rpm; Load on band = 206N; Spring balance reading = 3.0N;
Area of indicator diagram = 14.15cm2; Length of indicator diagram = 6.25cm; spring
value = 108.0N/cm2 ; Bore = 100mm; Stroke = 150mm; specific fuel consumption =
0.295kg/kW/hr; Heating value of fuel = 41700 kJ/kg. Determine: (i) Mechanical
efficiency and (ii) Brake Thermal efficiency.
16) A four cylinder four stroke diesel engine is to develop 30Kw at 1000re/min. The stroke is
1.4 times the bore and the indicated mean effective pressure is 6.0 bar. What should be
the stroke and diameter of the engine?
17) In a test on a two stroke oil engine, the following results were obtained:
Speed = 350 rev/min; Net brake load = 600N; MEP =2.66bar; Fuel consumption =
3.2kg/hr; cooling water used = 495kg/hr; temperatures of jacket water at inlet and
outlet = 30oC and 50oC; Exhaust gases per kg of fuel = 32 kg; Temperature of
exhaust gases = 432oC; specific heat of exhaust gases = 1.005 kJ/kgK; Inlet air
temperature = 32oC. Draw up a heat balance for the engine if its cylinder
diameter = 205mm and stroke = 275mm; Brake drum diameter = 1.0m;
calorific value of fuel = kJ/kg.
101
18) The following particulars refer to the full load test of a single cylinder, petrol engine
working on the four cycle:
Speed = 2500 rpm; Brake power = 118kW; Cylinder bore = 110mm; Cylinder
stroke = 120mm; Lower calorific value of fuel = 41150 kJ/kg; Petrol consumption
= 40kg/hr; Jacket water rate = 2800kg/hr; Jacket water inlet temperature = 20 oC;
Jacket water outlet temperature = 65.5oC; Fuel-air ratio = 1:16; Room
Temperature = 29 oC; Exhaust Temperature = 399 oC; Hydrogen in fuel = 15% by
mass; Sp.heat of dry exhaust gases = 0.9945 kJ/kgK; Sp.heat of water vapour =
1.838 kJ/kgK. Draw the heat balance sheet. Calculate the brake thermal efficiency
and volumetric efficiency of the engine.
19) Calculate the brake specific fuel consumption, indicated thermal efficiency and obtain a
heat balance sheet on minute basis from the following test data obtained in a four stroke
two cylinder diesel engine: Duration of test = 1 hour; Brake power = 15kw; Total
indicated power = 17.8kw; Fuel consumption = 4.24 litres of specific gravity 0.875;
Lower calorific value of fuel = 43340 kJ/kg, Jacket water circulated = 215kg; Inlet and
outlet cooling water temperature = 32oC and 80oC. The heat in exhaust gases is measured
by an exhaust gas calorimeter as 808kJ/minute.
20) Calculate the bore and stroke of a four stroke single cylinder oil engine to the following
particulars. Brake power 18kw at 250rpm when running on oil having composition by
mass C-85%, H-15%, and a lower calorific value of 42000kJ/kg. The oil is burnt with
25% excess air. The volumetric efficiency reckoned on atmospheric conditions of 1.013
bar and 10oC is 0.8. The mechanical efficiency is 0.9 and indicated thermal efficiency is
0.35. Bore-Stroke ratio is 1:1.2.
a. Take R = 0.287kJ/kgK.
21) A Six cylinder, four stroke S.I Engine, having a piston displacement of 700 x 10-6 m3 per
cylinder developed 78kw at 3200rpm and consumed 27 kg of petrol per hour. The CV of
petrol is 44MJ/kg. Estimate 1) the volumetric efficiency of the engine if the air fuel ratio
is 12 and the intake air is at 0.9bar and 32oC; 2) the brake thermal efficiency and 3)the
brake torque. For air R = 0.287KJ/kgK.
22) A four cylinder four stroke petrol engine produces 56kW indicated power when running
at 4400rpm with a volumetric efficiency of 81.5%. the air-fuel ratio is 16:1 and the
thermal efficiency is 35%.The fuel used has a calorific value of 44100kJ/kg. If the bore to
stroke ratio is 1:1.04, calculate the cylinder dimensions. Assume the charge to have the
density of air equal to 1.293kg/m3 at N.T.P.
102
23) A diesel engine has a relative efficiency of 0.55 on the brake. If the compression ratio is
13.8 and the expansion ratio is 7.4 and the calorific value of fuel is 45000 kJ/kg. Find the
consumption of fuel oil in kg/kW/hr.
24) A twin cylinder oil engine coupled to an electric D.C generator, when tested forfuel
consumption recorded the following data: Line current = 20Amps at 220volts; time for
consumption of 10c.c of fuel = 17.8 seconds; RPM of the engine = 1000; Efficiency of
generator = 79%; Specific gravity of fuel = 0.835; calorific value of the fuel oil = 45000
kJ/kg. Calculate the specific fuel consumption in kg/kW/hr and brake thermal efficiency.
103
CHAPTER – III
STEAM NOZZLES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A steam nozzle is a passage of varying cross section, which converts heat energy of
steam into kinetic energy. During the first part of the nozzle, the steam increases its velocity.
But in its later part, the steam gains more in the volume than in the velocity. Since the mass
of steam, passing through any section of the nozzle remains constant, the variation of the
steam pressure in the nozzle depends upon the velocity, specific volume and dryness fraction
of the steam. A well designed nozzle converts the heat Energy of steam into kinetic Energy.
3.2 TYPES OF STEAM NOZZLES
Nozzles are classified into three types based on the shape.
(1) Convergent nozzle.

When the cross sectional area of a nozzle decreases continuously from entrance to exit, is
called convergent nozzle. It is shown in Fig. 3.1. This nozzle is used where back pressure is
equal or more than the critical pressure.
(2) Divergent nozzle.

When the cross sectional area of a nozzle increases continuously from entrance to exit, is
called divergent nozzle. It is shown in Fig. 3.2. This nozzle is used where back pressure is
less than the critical pressure.
(3) Convergent – divergent nozzle

When the cross sectional area of a nozzle first decreases gradually from entrance to throat,
and then increases from throat to exit, is called convergent-divergent nozzle. It is shown in
Fig. 3.3. Throat is the area where cross sectional area is minimum, after throat area increases.
This nozzle is used where back pressure is less than the critical pressure.
104
Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2
Fig. 3.3
3.3 FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH NOZZLE
When steam is following through the nozzle, the following assumptions are considered
i. No heat is supplied to or rejected from steam
ii. No external work done during the flow
iii. Frictionless adiabatic expansion of steam
3.3.1 Velocity of steam
Consider a flow of steam through nozzle as shown in fig. 3.2. At inlet pressure P1, enthalpy
h1 and velocity V1 is to be increased to a high velocity using a nozzle. Applying steady flow
105
energy equation between the entrance and exit where the pressure is P2, enthalpy h2 and
velocity V2, we get
Mass of steam flowing is 1 kg/s,
V V
h Z h Z
2 2
Z1 = Z2 because nozzle is kept horizontal
V V
h h
2 2
V 2 h h V
V 2 h h V
V1 is negligible when compared to V2

V
h h
2
V 2 h h
V 2 h h
Where h1 and h2 in kJ/kg and V1 and V2 are in m/s
3.4 MASS OF STEAM DISCHARGED THROUGH NOZZLE
We have already discussed that the flow of steam, through the nozzle is isentropic, which is
approximately represented by the general law:
Pvn = Constant
We know that gain in kinetic energy
V2 2
= ……….(Neglecting initial velocity of steam)
2
n
Heat drop =  p1v1  p2v2 
n 1
Since gain in kinetic energy is equal to heat drop, therefore
106
V2 2 n
  p1v1  p2 v2 
2 n 1
n  pv 
  p1v1 1  2 2 
n 1  p1v1 
we know that p1v1n  p2v2 n
1 1

v2  p1  n  p2  n
   
v1  p2   p1 
1

p  n
v2  v1  2 
 p1 
v1
Substituting the value of
v2
  
1
V2 2  
p1v1  1  2  2  
n
n p p

2 n 1  p1  p1  

 
 n 1

 
p1v1 1    

n
n p
= 2
n 1   p1  
 
 
 n 1

 
 p1v1 1    

n
n p
V2  2  2
n 1   p1  
 
 
Now the volume of the steam flowing per second
= Cross sectional area of nozzle× velocity of steam = AV2
and volume of 1kg of steam i.e., specific Volume of steam at pressure P2
= V2 m3/kg
Mass of steam discharged through nozzle per second,

volume of steam flowing per sec ond
m=
volume of 1kg of steam at pressure p2
107
 n 1

 
 p1v1 1    

n
AV2 A n p
  2 2
n 1   p1  
v2 v2  
 

1
 n 1

A p   
 p1v1 1    

n n
n p
  1 2 2
v1  p2  n 1   p1  
 
 
1
 n 1

A p n 2n  
 p1v1 1    
 p n
  2 2
v1  p1  n 1   p1  
 
 
2
 n 1

 p2  n 2n p1   p2  n 
A    1  
 p1  n  1 v1   p1  
 
 2 n 1

2n p1   p2  n p  n

A     2 
n  1 v1   p1   p1  

 
3.5 CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO
A nozzle is normally designed for maximum discharged by designing a certain throat

pressure which produces this condition.
Let P1 = Initial pressure of steam in N/m2
P2 = Pressure of steam at throat in N/m2
V1= Volume of 1kg of steam at pressure P1 in m3
V2= Volume of 1kg of steam at pressure P2 in m3, and
A = cross sectional area of nozzle at throat, in m2.
 2 n 1

2n p1   p2  n  p2  n 
m A     
n  1 v1   p1   p1  
 
There is only one value of the ratio P2/P1, which produces maximum discharge from the
nozzle. This ratio P2/P1 is obtained by differentiating the right hand side of the equation. We
108
see from this equation that except P2/P1, all other values are constant. P2/P1 is differentiated
and equated to zero for maximum discharge.
 2 n 1

d  p2  n  p2  n 
    0
 p2   p1   p1  
d    
 p1 
2 n 1
1 1
2  p2  n n  1  p2  n
     0
n  p1  n  p1 
2 n n 1
1
2  p2  n
n  1  p2  n
     0
n  p1  n  p1 
2 n 1

 p2  n p  n
n 1 n
   2   
 p1   p1  n 2
2 n 1

 p2  n n
n 1
  
 p1  2
1 n
 p2  n
n 1
  
 p1  2
n n
1 n 1n 
p2  n  1   n 1 
   
p1  2   2 
n
n 1
 2 
 
 n 1
3.5.1 VALUES FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE THROUGH A NOZZLE:
The relationship for maximum discharge through a nozzle is,
 2

2n p1   2  n 1 
mmax A   
n  1 v1   n  1  
 
The values of maximum discharge for the following three conditions:

(i) When the steam is initially dry saturated:
We know that for dry saturated steam, n= 1.135.
109
Therefore maximum discharge is,
p1
mmax  0.637 A
v1
(ii) When the steam is initially superheated:

For superheated steam, n=1.3.
p1
mmax  0.666 A
v1
(iii) For gases:

For gases, n=1.4.
p1
mmax  0.685 A
v1
3.5.2 VALUES FOR CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO

n
n 1
p2  2 
 Critical pressure ratio   
p1  n 1 
For the following conditions Critical pressure ratios are,
(i) When the steam is initially saturated
We know that for dry saturated steam, n=1.135
p2
=0.577 ; P2 = 0.577 P1
p1
(ii) When the steam is initially superheated:
We know that for superheated steam, n=1.3
p2
=0.546 ; P2 = 0.546 P1
p1
(iii) When the steam is initially wet
It has been experimentally found for wet steam,
p2
=0.582 ; P2 = 0.582 P1
p1
(iv) For gases:
We know that for gases, n=1.4
110
p2
=0.528 ; P2 = 0.528 P1
p1
3.5.3 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO
Now consider two vessels A and B connected by a convergent nozzle as shown in

Fig. 3.4 (a). Let the vessel A contains steam at a high and steady pressure (P1), and the
vessel B contains steam at another pressure (P2) which may varied at will.
Let the pressure P2 in the vessel B be made equal to the pressure (P1) in the vessel
A. There will be no flow of steam through the nozzle. Now if the pressure (P2) in the
vessel B gradually reduced, the discharge through the nozzle will increase gradually as
shown in Fig 3.4 (b). As the pressure (P2) in the vessel B approaches the critical value, the
rate of discharge will also approach its maximum value. If the pressure (P2) in the vessel
B is further reduced, it will not increase the rate of discharge. The ratio of exit pressure to
the inlet pressure is called critical pressure ratio.
We know that the velocity of steam at any section in the nozzle
 n 1

 
 p1v1 1    

n
n p
V2  2  2
n 1   p1  
 
 
and the critical pressure ratio for maximum discharge ,
111
n n 1
p2  2  n 1  p2  n
2
  or   
p1  n  1   p1  n 1
n  2  n  n 1 2 
V2  2   p1v1  1    2  p1v1  
n 1  n 1  n 1  n 1 
n 2n p1  1 
= 2  p1v1   Volume(v )  
n 1 n  1 1  Density    
we also know that for isentropic expansion ,

p1v1n  p2 v2 n
p1 p2

1 n
2n
1
1 1  p2  n
  
1  2  p1 
1
p1 p  p n
 1 2
1  2  p1 
1 1 n
p2 p  p n p p  n
  1  2   2  2 
 2 p2  p1   2  p1 
1 n
p  2  n
 2 
 2  n  1 
n 1 n

p2  n  1 
= 2  
p 2  n 1 n
 
 2  n  1   2  2 
Substituting the value of P1/ in the V2 equation,
2n p2  n  1  nP2 p2  n  1 
V2 =     
n  1 2  2  2  2  2 
This is the value of velocity of sound in the medium at pressure P2 and it is known as
sonic velocity.
112
3.6SUPERSATURATED FLOW OR METASTABLE FLOWTHROUGH NOZZLE
The expansion of steam in an ideal nozzle is isentropic, which is accompanied by

condensation process. If the steam is initially superheated, the condensation should start
after it has become dry saturation. This is possible when the steam has proceeded through
some distance in the nozzle and in a short interval of time. But from practical point of
view, the steam has a great velocity. Equilibrium between the liquid and vapour phase is
delayed and the steam continues to expand in a dry state. The steam in such a set of
conditions, is said to be supersaturated or in metastable state. It is also called super cooled
steam, as its temperature at any pressure is less than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure. The flow of supersaturated steam, through the nozzle is
called supersaturated flow or metastable flow.
Experiment of supersaturated flow of steam has shown that there is a limit to which the
supersaturated flow is possible. This limit is represented by Wilson line on T-s diagram in
113
Fig. 3.6(a). The Wilsonline closely follows the 0.97 dryness fraction line. Beyond this
Wilson line, there is no super saturation.
Fig. 3.6(b) shows the isentropic expansion of steam in a nozzle. The point A represents
the position of initial dry saturated steam at pressure P1. The line AB represents the
isentropic expansion of steam in the supersaturated region. The metastable state (point C)
is obtained by drawing a vertical line through A to meet the Wilson line. At C, the steam
condenses suddenly. The line CD represents the condensation of steam at constant
enthalpy. The point D is obtained by drawing a horizontal line through C to meet the
throat pressure (P2) of the nozzle. The line DF represents the isentropic expansion of the
steam in the divergent portion.
3.7 EFFECTS OF SUPERSATURATION

The following effects in the nozzle, in which super saturation occurs, are,
(i) Since the condensation does not take place during super saturation expansion, so
the temperature at which the super saturation occurs will be less than the
saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure. Therefore, the density of
supersaturated steam will be more than for the equilibrium conditions, which
gives the increase in mass of steam discharged.
(ii) The super saturation increases the entropy and specific volume of the steam.
(iii) The super saturation reduces the heat drop below that for thermal equilibrium.
Hence the exit velocity of the steam is reduced.
(iv) The super saturation increases dryness fraction of the steam.
3.8 FRICTION IN A NOZZLE AND NOZZLE EFFICIENCY
When the steam flows through a nozzle, some loss in its enthalpy or takes place due
to friction between the nozzle surface and the flowing steam. This can be understood with the
help of h-s diagram and Mollier chart.
114
Fig. 3.7
(i) First of all, locate the point A for the initial condition of the steam. It is a point
where the saturation line meets the initial pressure (P1) line.
(ii) Now draw a vertical line through A to meet the final pressure (P2) line. This is
done as the flow through the nozzle is isentropic, which is expressed by a
vertical line AB. The heat drop (h1-h2) isentropic heat drop.
(iii) Due to friction in the nozzle the actual heat drop in the steam will be less than
(h1-h2). This heat drop is shown as AC instead of AB.
(iv) As the expansion of the steam ends at the pressure P2, therefore final condition
of the steam is obtained by drawing a horizontal line through C to meet the final
pressure (P2) line at B’.
(v) Now the actual expansion of the steam in the nozzle is expressed by the curve
AB’ (adiabatic expansion) Instead of AB (isentropic expansion). Actual heat
drop (h1-h3) is known as useful heat drop.
Now the coefficient of nozzle or nozzle efficiency is defined as the ratio of useful heat
drop to the isentropic heat drop.
Useful heat drop AC h1  h3
K  
Isentropic heat drop AB h1  h2
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 11 bar expanded in a nozzle to 2 bar. If the flow is
isentropic. Find (i) Velocity at throat, (ii) Exit velocity, (iii) Ratio of cross-sectional area
of exit to throat (iv) Also find the area of throat and exit if the mass flow rate of steam is
15 kg/sec.
Given data:
p 11 bar
115
p 2 bar
m 15 kg/sec
Solution
Critical pressure ratio,
p 2
p n 1
.
p 2 .
Assume n 1.135 for dry saturated steam,
11 1.135 1
p 6.35 bar
From Mollier chart,
kJ
At p 11 bar, h 2785
kg
kJ
At p 6.35 bar, h 2680 ,v 0.35 m /kg
kg
kJ
At p 2 bar, h 2490 ,v 0.8 m /kg
kg
i Velocity at throat C 2000 h h 2000 2785 2680
458.26 m/sec
ii Exit Velocity C 2000 h h 2000 2785 2490 768.11 m/sec
A C
iii Throat area A , m
v
A 458.26
15
0.35
15 0.35
A 0.01146 m
458.26
A C
iv Exit area A , m
v
A 768.11
15
0.8
15 0.8
A 0.01562 m
768.11
A 0.01562
v Ratio of cross sectional area from exit to throat 1.36
A 0.01146
2. Steam enters through a convergent-divergent nozzle at 21 bar and 270○ C. The discharge
pressure is 0.07 bar the expansion is uniform throughout the operation. At convergent
116
portion there is no frictional loss. At divergent portion 10% friction is loss. Calculate the
throat area and exit area of the nozzle if the mass flow rate of steam is 14kg/sec.
Given data:
p 21 bar , T 270
p 0.07 bar
m 14 kg/sec
Solution:
From Steam tables,
At 21 bar, saturated temperature is 214.8 which is less than the inlet temperature, so
the condition of steam is in superheated condition at inlet of Convergent-Divergent
nozzle.
p 2
p n 1
.
p 2 .
Assume n 1.3 for superheated steam,
21 1.3 1
p 11.46 bar
From Mollier chart,
kJ
At p 21 bar, T 270 h 2940
kg
kJ
At p 11.46 bar, h 2810 ,v 0.18m /kg
kg
kJ
At p 0.07 bar, h 2040 ,v 20 m /kg
kg
Velocity at throat C 2000 h h 2000 2940 2810 509.90 m/sec
Exit Velocity C 2000ηN h h 2000 .9 2940 2040

1272.79 m/sec
A C
i Throat area A , m
v
A 509.90
14
0.18
14 0.18
A 0.004942 m or 49.42 cm
509.90
A C
ii Exit area A , m
v
117
A 1272.79
14
20
14 20
A 0.219989 m or 2199.89 cm
1272.79
3. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 8 bar enters a Convergent-divergent nozzle and leave
at 1.5 bar. If the flow is isentropic and the corresponding expansion index 1.135. Find the
ratio of Cross-sectional area at exit and throat for maximum discharge. Use steam tables
only.
Given data:
p 8 bar
p 1.5 bar
n 1.135
Solution:
p 2
p n 1
.
p 2 .
8 1.135 1
p 4.62 bar
From steam tables,
For isentropic flow, s s s
kJ kJ
At p 8 bar, h h 2767.4 &s s 6.66 s s
kg kg
At p 4.62 bar, s s x s ,v v x v
6.66 1.829
6.66 1.829 x 5.018 x 0.963
5.018
h h x h h 626.7 0.963 2117.2 2665.56 kJ/kg
v v x v v 0.001090 0.963 0.40526 0.001090
0.3903 m /kg
At p 1.5 bar,
6.66 1.433
6.66 1.433 x 5.79 x 0.903
5.79
h h x h h 467.1 0.903 2226.3 2477.45 kJ/kg
118
v v x v v 0.001053 0.903 1.159 0.001053
1.0467 m /kg
Velocity at throat C 2000 h h 2000 2767.4 2665.56

451.31 m/sec
Exit Velocity C 2000 h h 2000 2767.4 2477.45
761.51 m/sec
A C A C
Mass flow rate m
v v
A C v
Ratio of cross sectional area from exit to throat for maximum discharge
A C v
A 451.31 1.0467
1.589
A 761.51 0.3903
4. Steam at 10.5 bar and 0.95 dryness is expanded through a Convergent divergent nozzle.
The steam pressure at nozzle. The steam pressure at nozzle is 0.85 bars. Find ,i) the
velocity of steam at throat for maximum discharge, ii) the area at the exit, iii) the steam
discharge if the throat area is 1.2cm2. Assume the flow is isentropic and there are no
friction losses. Take n= 1.135.
Given data:
p 10.5 bar, x 0.95
p 0.85 bar
A 1.2 cm 1.2 10 m
n 1.135
Solution
p 2
p n 1
.
p 2 .
10.5 1.135 1
p 6.06 bar
From Mollier chart,
kJ
At p 10.5 bar and x 0.95, h 2680
kg
119
kJ
At p 6.06 bar, h 2580 ,v 0.30 m /kg
kg
kJ
At p 0.85 bar, h 2275 ,v 1.6 m /kg
kg
i Velocity at throat C 2000 h h 2000 2680 2580
447.21 m/sec
ii Exit Velocity C 2000 h h 2000 2680 2275 900 m/sec
A C
iii Steam discharge m
v
1.2 10 447.21
m
0.3
m 0.178 kg/sec
A C
iv Exit area A , m
v
A 900
0.18
1.60
0.18 1.6
A 3.2 10 m or 3.2 cm
900
5. Dry saturated steam at 2.8 bar is expanded through a Convergent nozzle to 1.7 bar. The
exit area is 3cm2. Calculate the exit velocity and the mass flow rate, assuming i)
isentropic expansion and ii)super saturated flow.
Given data:
p 2.8 bar
p 1.7 bar
A 3 cm 3 10 m
Solution
For isentropic expansion
From Mollier Chart,
kJ
At p 2.8 bar, h 2725
kg
kJ
At p 1.7 bar, h 2640 ,v 1.0 m /kg
kg
i Exit Velocity C 2000 h h 2000 2725 2640 412.31 m/sec
A C
ii Steam discharge m
v
120
3 10 412.31
m
1
m 0.124 kg/sec
For supersaturated flow
Assume n =1.3
n p
i Exit Velocity C 2000 p v 1
n 1 p
From Steam tables, v v 0.646 m /kg
.
1.3 1.7 .
C 2000 280 0.646 1
0.3 2.8
C 413 m/sec
A C
ii Mass flow rate m
V
p V p V
V p /
V p
/ .
2.8
V 0.646 0.9483 m /kg
1.7
3 10 413
m
0.9483
m 0.1307 kg/sec
6. The inlet Condition of steam to a Convergent-divergent nozzle is 2.2MN/m2 and 260○ C.
The exit pressure is 0.4 MN/m2. Assuming frictionless flow upto the throat and a nozzle
efficiency of 85 percent, determine i) flow rate for a throat area of 32.2 cm 2, ii) Exit area.
Given data
MN
p 2.2 22 bar, T 260 533 K
m
MN
p 0.4 4 bar
m
A 32.2 cm 32.2 10 m
ηN 85%
Solution
121
p 2
p n 1
.
p 2 .
22 1.3 1
p 12 bar
From Mollier chart,
kJ
At p 22 bar, h 2920
kg
kJ
At p 12 bar, h 2780 ,v 0.16 m /kg
kg
kJ
At p 4 bar, h 2580 ,v 0.46 m /kg
kg
Exit Velocity C 2000ηN h h 2000 .85 2920 2580

760.26 m/sec
A C
iii Flow rate m
v
32.2 10 529.15
m
0.16
m 10.65 kg/sec
A C
ii Exit area A , m
v
A 760.26
10.65
0.46
10.65 0.46
A 6.443 10 m or 64.43 cm
760.26
7. Steam at 3 bar with 10○ C superheat is passed through a Convergent nozzle. The velocity
of steam entering the nozzle is 91.5 m/sec. The back pressure is 1.5 bar. Assuming nozzle
efficiency of 90%, determine the area of the nozzle at exit. Discharge through the nozzle
is limited to 45 kg/sec. Take Cps(Superheated steam)=2.2 kJ/Kg○ C.
Given data:
p 3 bar, Degree of super heat 10
p 1.5 bar,
m 0.45 kg/sec
C 91.50 m/sec, ηN 90%
122
Cps (Superheated steam)=2.2 kJ/Kg○ C
Solution:
T
s s c ln
T
From steam tables,
kJ
at 3 bar, s 6.991 ,T 133.5 406.5 K
kgK
kJ
T 10 133.5 143.5 416.5 K, h 2724.7
kg
416.5 kJ
s 6.991 2.2ln 7.045 s
406.5 kgK
s s x s
7.045 1.433 x 5.79
7.045 1.433
x 0.9692
5.79
h h x h h 467.1 0.9692 2226.3 2624.83 kJ/kg
v v x v v 0.001053 0.9692 1.159 0.001053
1.1233 m /kg
h h c T T 2724.7 2.2 10 2746.7 kJ/kg
C C 2000ηN h h 91.5 2000 0.90 2746.7 2624.83
477.22 m/sec
A C
Mass flow rate m
v
A 477.22
0.45
1.1233
A 1.0592 10 m or 10.592 cm
8. A Convergent-divergent adiabatic steam nozzle is supplied with steam at 10 bar and 250○
C. The discharge pressure is 1.2 bar. Assuming that the nozzle efficiency is 100% and
initial velocity of seam is 50m/sec, find the discharge velocity.
Given Data:
p 10 bar, T 250
p 1.2 bar
123
C 50 m/sec
Solution:
From Mollier chart,
kJ
At p 10 bar, h 2940
kg
kJ
At p 1.2 bar, h 2530
kg
Discharge Velocity C C 2000 h h 50 2000 2940 2530
906.92 m/sec
9. Dry saturated steam at 10 baris expanded in a nozzle to 0.4 bar. The throat area is 7cm2
and the inlet velocity is negligible. Determine the mass flow and exit area. Assume
isentropic flow and take the index n=1.135 for dry saturated steam.
Given Data:
p 10 bar
p 0.4 bar
A 7 cm 7 10 m
n = 1.135
Solution:
p 2
p n 1
.
p 2 .
10 1.135 1
p 5.77 bar
From Mollier chart,
kJ
At p 10 bar, h 2780
kg
kJ
At p 5.77 bar, h 2675 ,v 0.33 m /kg
kg
kJ
At p 0.4 bar, h 2250 ,v 3.8 m /kg
kg
124
Exit Velocity C 2000 h h 2000 2780 2250 1029.56 m/sec
A C
i Steam discharge or mass flow rate m
v
7 10 458.28
m
0.33
m 0.9721 kg/sec
A C
iv Exit area A , m
v
A 1029.56
0.9721
3.8
0.9721 3.8
A 3.59 10 m or 35.90 cm
1029.56
10. In a steam nozzle, steam expands from 16 bar to 5 bar with initial temperature of 300○ C
and mass flow rate of 1kg/sec. Determine the throat and exit area considering i)expansion
to be frictionless and ii) friction loss of 10% throughout the nozzle.
Given Data:
p 16 bar, T 300 573 K
p 5 bar
m 1 kg/sec
Solution:
At 16 bar, saturated temperature is 214.8 which is less than the inlet temperature, so the
condition of steam is in superheated condition at inlet of nozzle.
n = 1.3
p 2
p n 1
.
p 2 .
16 1.3 1
p 8.73 bar
From Mollier chart,
kJ
At p 16 bar, h 3035
kg
kJ
At p 8.73 bar, h 2905 ,v 0.26 m /kg
kg
125
kJ
At p 5 bar, h 2790 ,v 0.38 m /kg
kg
Velocity at throat C 2000 h h 2000 3035 2905 509.90m/sec
Exit Velocity C 2000 h h 2000 3035 2790 700 m/sec

A C
Steam discharge or mass flow rate m
v
A 509.90
1
0.26
A 5.099 10 m or 5.1 cm
A C
Exit area A , m
v
A 700
1
0.38
1 0.38
A 5.429 10 m or 5.43 cm
700
Velocity at throat C 2000ηN h h 2000 0.90 3035 2905

483.74 m/sec
Exit Velocity C 2000ηN h h 2000 0.90 3035 2790
664.08 m/sec
A C
v
A 483.74
1
0.26
A 5.375 10 m or 5.375 cm
A C
Exit area A , m
v
A 664.08
1
0.38
1 0.38
A 5.722 10 m or 5.72 cm
664.08
11. A Convergent-divergent nozzle is to be designed in which steam initially at 14 bar and
80○ C of superheat is to be expanded down to a back pressure of 1.05 bar. Determine the
necessary throat and exit diameters of the nozzle for a steam discharge of 500kg/hr,
assuming that the expansion is in thermal equilibrium throughout and friction reheat
126
amounting to 12% of the total isentropic enthalpy drop to be effective in the divergent
part of the nozzle.
Given Data:
p 14 bar, T 80 195 275 548 K
p 1.05 bar
m 500 0.1388 kg/sec,ηN 88%
Solution:
n = 1.3
p 2
p n 1
.
p 2 .
14 1.3 1
p 7.64 bar
From Mollier chart,
kJ
At p 14 bar, h 2980
kg
kJ
At p 7.64 bar, h 2850 ,v 0.3 m /kg
kg
kJ
At p 1.05 bar, h 2490 ,v 1.6 m /kg
kg
Exit Velocity C 2000ηN h h 2000 0.88 2980 2490

928.65 m/sec
A C
v
A 509.90
0.1388
0.3
π
A 8.166 10 m d
4
d 1.04 10 m or 10.40 cm
A C
Exit area A , m
v
127
A 928.65
0.1388
1.6
1.6 0.1388 π
A 2.391 10 m d
928.65 4
d 3.046 10 m or 30.46 cm
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The steam leaves the nozzle at a
(a) High pressure and low velocity (b) low pressure and high velocity
(c) High pressure and high velocity (d) low pressure and low velocity
2. The effect of friction in a nozzle_____________ dryness fraction of steam
(a) Increase (b) decrease
(c) neither increase nor decrease (d) Initially increase and then
increase
3. The velocity of steam leaving the nozzle is given by

(a) V=44.72 hd (b) V=44.72 khd (c) V=44.72 hd k (d)V=44.72 k
hd
4. The critical pressure ratio is
a) P2/P1 (b) (P2/P1) (c) P1/P2 (d)  (P1/P2)
5. Critical pressure ratio for dry saturated steam is
(a) 0.528 (b) 0.546 (c) 0.577 (d)0.582
6. The ratio of saturation pressure to the super saturation pressure is
(a) Degree of under cooling (b) Degree of super saturation
(c) degree of super heat (d) None of these
7. The difference of the super Saturated temperature and saturation at that pressure is
known as
a) Degree of under cooling (b) Degree of super saturation
(c) degree of super heat (d) None of these
8. In a nozzle the effect of super saturation is to
a) decrease the dryness fraction of the steam (b) decrease the specific volume of the
steam (c) decrease the enthalpy drop (d) decrease the enthalpy
9. The cross section of a convergent divergent nozzle
a) Goes on increasing (b) Goes on decreasing
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(c) remains uniform (d) Initially decreases and then increases
10. The critical pressure ratio is given by
p2  n / n 1 p2  n / n 1
a)   2 / n  1 (b)   2 / n  1
p1 p1
p2  n / n 1 p2  n / n 1
(c)   2 / n  1 (d)   2 / n  1
p1 p1
11. In a nozzle isentropic heat is always___________ the actual heat drop
a) Less than (b) equal to (c) greater than (d) greater than or Less than
12. In a convergent divergent nozzle maximum mass flow rate occurs at
a) The exit (b) the throat (c) the entrance (d) in between throat and
exit
13. Nozzle efficiency is given by
hI ha
a) K=ha-hI (b) K= (c) K= ha * hI (d)
ha hI
14. The device used to increase the velocity of the steam is called
(a) Diffuser (b) Turbine (c) Throttle Valve (d) Nozzle
15.Nozzle is used to increase____________________ of the steam
(a) The pressure (b) Mass flow rate (c) the velocity (d) the
density
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. What is metastable flow?
2. What is a Nozzle?
3. Explain the term ‘critical pressure ratio’ as applied to steam nozzles?
4. Define ‘nozzle efficiency’.
5. What are all the different types of Steam Nozzles?
6. Define ‘Throat’.
7. What are the effects of supersaturation in a steam nozzle?
8. Define the following (i) Sonic Flow (ii) Subsonic Flow (iii) Supersonic Flow
9. What is the steady flow energy equation as applied to steam nozzles ?
10. Define the following
(i) Degree of supersaturation (ii) Degree of under cooling
1. Derive an expression for the velocity and mass flow through nozzles.
129
2. Prove that the critical pressure ratio of a steam nozzle is
n
P2  2  n 1

P1  n  1 
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. Steam is supplied to a nozzle at 3.5 bar and 0.96 dry. The steam enters the nozzle at
240m/sec. The pressure drops to 0.8 bar. Determine the velocity and dryness fraction
of the steam when it leaves the nozzle.
2. Calculate the throat area of nozzle supplied with steam at 10bar and 200 oC. The rate
of flow of steam is 1.2 kg/sec. Neglect friction and assumes the velocity at inlet to be
small.
3. Dry air at a temperature of 27oC and a pressure of 20 bar enters a nozzle and leaves at
a pressure of 4 bar. Find the mass of air discharged if the area of nozzle is 200 m2.
4. Steam enters of group of convergent- divergent nozzle at a pressure of 22 bar and
with a temperature of 240 oC. The exit pressure is 4 bar and 9% of the total heat drop
is lost in friction. The mass flow rate is 10kg/sec and the flow up to the throat may be
assumed friction less. Calculate
(i) the throat and exit velocities
(ii) the throat and exit areas
5. Steam at 42 bar and 260 oC enters a nozzle and leaves at 28 bar. Neglecting initial
kinetic energy and considering super-saturation, determine the discharge area for a
flow of 10350 kg/hr and a nozzle velocity coefficient of 96%.
6. Compare the mass of discharge from a convergent-divergent nozzle expanding from 8
bar and 210oC to 2 bar, when
(i) the expansion takes place under thermal equilibrium
(ii) the steam is in super-saturated condition during a part of its expansion
Take area of nozzle as 2400mm2
7. Steamexpands in a nozzle under the following conditions: Inlet pressure = 15 bar;
Inlet temperature = 250oC; Final pressure = 4 bar; Mass flow = 1 kg/sec. Calculate
the required throat and exit areas, using Mollier diagram, when,
(i) the expansion is frictionless
(ii) the friction loss at any pressure amounts to 10percent of the total heat drop
down to that pressure.
130
8. A gas expands in a convergent-divergent nozzle from 5 bar to 1.5 bar, the initial
temperature being 700oC and the nozzle efficiency is 90%. All the losses takes place
after the throat. For 1 kg/sec mass flow rate of the gas, find throat and exit areas.
9. The throat diameter of a nozzle is 5 mm. If dry and saturated steam at 10 bar is
supplied to nozzle, calculate mass flow rate. The exhaust pressure is 1.5 bar. Assume
frictionless adiabatic flow and n = 1.135.
10. Five kg of steam per sec expands from 16 bar, 250oC to a pressure of 3.5
barisentropically. If the expansion is superheated, determine the diameter of nozzle at
exit, degree of under cooling, degree of superheating and % increase in mass flow rate
due to metastable expansion to the thermal expansion.
131
CHAPTER – IV
STEAM TURBINES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the

gradual change of momentum of the steam. In a steam turbine, the force exerted on the blades
is due the velocity of steam.
In general, a steam turbine, essentially, consists of the following two parts:
(i) The nozzle in which the heat energy of high-pressure steam is converted into
kinetic energy, so that the steam issues from the nozzle with a very high
velocity.
(ii) The blades, which change the direction of, steam issuing from the nozzle, so that
a force acts on the blades due to change of momentum and propel them.
Thus, the basic principle of operation of a steam turbine is the generation of

high velocity steam jet by the expansion of high-pressure steam and then conversion of
kinetic energy, so obtained into Mechanical work on rotor blades.
4.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINES OVER RECIPROCATING STEAM

ENGINES
Following are the important advantages of steam turbines over reciprocating steam engines:
(i) A steam turbine may develop higher speeds and a greater steam range is
possible.
(ii) The efficiency of a steam turbine is higher.
(iii) The steam consumption is less.
(iv) Since all the moving parts are enclosed in a casing, the steam turbine is
comparatively safe.
132
(v) A steam turbine requires less space and lighter foundations, as there are little
vibrations.
(vi) There is less frictional loss due to fewer sliding parts.
(vii) The applied torque is more uniform to the driven shaft.
(viii) A steam turbine requires less attention during running, Moreover, the repair
costs are generally less.
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES:
The steam turbines may be classified into the following types:
(i) According to the mode of steam action

 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
 Impulse-Reaction turbine
(ii) According to the direction of steam flow
 Axial flow turbine
 Radial flow turbine
(iii) According to exhaust condition of steam
 Condensing turbine
 Non condensing turbine
(iv) According to pressure of steam

 High pressure turbine
 Medium pressure turbine
 Low pressure turbine
(v) According to the number of stages
 Single stage turbine
 Multi stage turbine
4.3 IMPULSE TURBINE
Impulse turbine consists of a set nozzle and set of moving blades are arranged as
shown in figure. Expansion of steam takes in nozzle where steam is expanded to its final
pressure because of this drop in pressure increases the velocity of steam. After the expansion,
133
high velocity steam from nozzle hits the set of moving blades mounted on the wheel. The
velocity of the steam decreases and pressure remains constant. De-Laval turbine is the
example for a simple impulse turbine.
Fig. 4.1 Impulse turbine

4.4VELOCITY TRIANGLES FOR MOVING BLADE OFAN IMPULSE TURBINE
We have already discussed that in an impulse turbine, the steam jet after leaving the
nozzle impinges on one end of the blade. The jet then glide over the inside surface of the
blade and finally leaves from other edge, as shown in the figure. It may be noted that the jet
enters and leaves the blade tangentially for shockless entry and exit.
Consider the steam jet entering a curved blade after leaving the nozzles. Now let us
draw the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet tips of the moving blade, as shown in figure.
Let, U Linear velocity of the moving blade m/s
V Absolute velocity of steam entering the moving blade
V Relative velocity of the jet to the moving blade. It is the vectorial
difference between U and V .
V Velocity of flow at entrance of the moving blade.
It is the vertical component of V .
V Velocity of whirl at entrance of the moving blade. It is the horizontal
component of V .
β Angle which the relative velocity of jet of the moving blade V makes
with the direction of motion of the blade.
 Angle with the direction of motion of the blade at which the jet enters the
blade.
V , V , V , V , β ,  Corresponding values at exit of the moving blade
134
It may be seen from the above, that the original notations
( V ,V ,V ,V ,β , stand for the inlet triangle. The notations with suffix
2 V ,V ,V ,V ,β , stand for the outlet triangle.
It may be noted that as the steam jet enters and leaves the blades without any shock (or in
other words tangentially), therefore shape of the blades will be such that V and V will be
along the tangents to the blades at inlet and outlet respectively. The angle β is called the
blade at inlet and angle β is the blade at exit of the moving blade.
Fig. 4.2 Velocity triangle of Impulse turbine
Nozzle delivers the steam jet with a high velocity (V ) at an angle  with the direction of
motion of the blade. The jet impinges on a series of turbine blades mounted on the runner
disc.
The axial component ofV , which does no work on the blade, is known as
velocity of flow (V ). It causes the steam to flow through the turbine and also an axial thrust
on the rotor. The tangential component of V is known as velocity of whirl at inlet (V ).
According to combined velocity diagram given below, the linear velocity or mean velocity of
135
the blade (U) is represented by AB in magnitude and direction. The length AC represents the
relative velocity (V ) of the steam jet with respect to the blade.
The jet now glides over and leaves the blade with relative velocityV , which
is represented by AD. The absolute velocity of jet (V ) as it leaves the blade, is represented by
BD inclined at an angle β with the direction of blade motion. The tangential component of
V (represented by BF) is known as velocity of whirl at exit (V ). The axial component of V
(represented by FD) is known as the velocity of flow at exit (V ).
4.4.1 COMBINED VELOCITY TRIANGLE FOR MOVING BLADES

(i) Draw a horizontal line, and cut off AB equal to velocity of blade (U) to some
suitable scale.
(ii) Now at B, draw a line BC equal to (V ) at an angle  (i.e. velocity of steam jet
at inlet of blade) to the scale.
(iii) Join AC, which represents the relative velocity at inlet (V ). Now at A, draw a
line AC at an angle  with AB.
(iv) Now with A as center and radius equal to AC, draw an arc meeting the line
through A at D, such that AC = AD or V V
(v) Join BD, which represents velocity of jet at exit (V2) to the scale.
(vi) From C and D, draw perpendiculars meeting the line AB produced at E and F
respectively.
(vii) Now BE and EC represent the velocity of whirl and velocity of flow at inlet
(Vw1andVf1) to the scale. Similarly, BF and FD represents the velocity of whirl
and velocity of flow at outlet (Vw2and Vf2) to the scale.
4.4.2Performance of an impulse turbine
With the help of the combined velocity triangle, following performance parameter are
easily calculated.
Force
Let ‘m’ kg be the mass of steam passing through the moving blades in‘t’ seconds.
Force in the tangential direction,
F rate of change of momentum in tangential direction
mass per ssecond change of velocity
136
F m V V ,N
Axial thrust or force in the axial direction,
F rate of change of momentum in axial direction
mass per ssecond change of velocity
F m V V ,N
Work done
Work done by steam on blades,
W tangential force distance travelled per unit time in tangential direction
Nm
W m V V U,
s
Power developed
Power developed by the turbine,
m V V U
P kW
1000
this developed power is known as rim power, different from the shaft power.
Blade efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of work done on the blade per second to the energy supplied
to the blade per second. It is denoted by η .
m V V U 2 V V U
η
mV V
Energy lost
Due to the friction between blades some amount of energy loss is taking place in the
form of heat generation.
m V V
Energy lost due to blade friction kW
1000
Stage efficiency
It is the ratio of work done on the blade per kg of steam flowing through the stage.
m V V U V V U
η
m h h h
where, h heat drop in the nozzle ring
Blade Velocity coefficient
It is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of steam at outlet to the relative velocity
of steam at inlet.
137
V
Blade velocity coefficient K
V
It is mainly due to surface friction. The flow of steam over the surface blade is
resisted by the surface friction. In general, there is a loss of 10 – 15% in relative velocity
of steam while passing through the blades.
Maximum diagram efficiency and maximum work
From the combined velocity diagram the whirl velocity at inlet
V V cosα V cosβ U 1
Whirl velocity at outlet
V V cosα V cosβ U 2
Adding 1 & 2 , we get,
V V V cosβ U V cosβ U V cosβ V cosβ
V cosβ
V cosβ 1 V cosβ 1 KC
V cosβ
V cosβ
K ,C
V cosβ
V V V cosα U 1 KC
work done per kg of steam per second V cosα U 1 KC U
m V V U V cosα U 1 KC U
Diagram efficinecy η
mV V
η 2 ρcosα ρ 1 K. C. 3
U
where ρ blade speed ratio
V
From equation (3), it may be noted that the diagram efficiency depends upon,
(i) Nozzle angle α
(ii) Blade speed ratio ρ
(iii)Blade angles at inletβ and at outlet β and
(iv) Blade velocity y coefficient K
The values of α, K and C are constant for a particular turbine. So the diagram efficiency
depends mainly upon the value of blade speed ratioρ.
138
The optimum value of blade speed ratio can be obtained by differentiating (3) w.r.t
ρ and equating it to zero.
dη
0
dρ
2 1 . . 0
2 1 . . 2 0
2 0
4
2
The above equation (4) gives the condition for maximum diagram efficiency.
Substituting (4) in (3) we get,
2 1 . .
2 4
1 . . 5
2
If the blades are symmetrical and there is no friction, i.e.
, 1 1 4 ,
6
Maximum work done per kg of steam,
1
2
1 1 1 2 7
From the above equation, we came to know that for the maximum efficiency or
maximum work developed per kg of steam, the blade velocity would be approximately
half of the absolute velocity of steam coming out of the nozzle.
4.5 REACTION TURBINES
In a reaction turbine, the steam pressure gradually decreases from moving blades to
fixed blades during expansion. Reaction turbine consists of large number of stages; each
stage consists of a set of fixed and moving blades. The fixed blade directs the steam to enter
the moving blades, at as a nozzle by increasing the velocity of the steam and also reduces the
139
pressure of steam. The pressure drop and heat drop takes place both in moving and fixed
blades. The expansion of steam in moving blades creates a reaction on moving blades. So the
turbine is called as reaction turbine. The moving blades are fixed in a rotor whereas fixed
blades are attached with casing. In this turbine pressure drop is small; number of stages is
more than that of a simple impulse turbine for the same capacity. A Parson’sReaction turbine
is the simplest type of reaction steam turbine, and is commonly used. A Parson’s turbine is
also known as 50% reaction turbine.
4.6 VELOCITY DIAGRAM OF A SIMPLE REACTION TURBINE
Figure shows the velocity diagram for flow of steam on a moving blade of a simple
reaction turbine with usual notations.
In case of impulse turbine, the relative velocity remains constant or slightly reduced due
to friction. But in reaction turbine the relative velocity of steam is increased due to
continuous expansion of steam while flowing through the blades.
Fig. 4.4 (a)

Figure shows the combined velocity diagram for flow of stea on a moving blade of a simple
reaction turbine with usual notations.
140
Fig. 4.4 (b)
4.6.1Performance of simple reaction turbine
Degree of reaction
It is defined as the ratio of heat drop over the moving blade of a stage to the total heat
drop in that stage.
heat drop in moving blades
Degree of reaction R
total drop in that stage
Heat drop in moving blade is increase in relative velocity of steam flowing through
the blade.
V V
increase in relative velocity
2
Total heat drop is nothing but the total work done by the seam in the stage
Total work done = V V U
V V
V V
Degree of reaction R 1
V V U 2 V V U
From the combined velocity diagram
V V cosecβ
V V cosecβ
V V V cotβ V cotβ
The flow velocity is almost constant while flowing through the blades i. e. V V V
Substituting V , V , V V and V V V in (1), we get,
141
V cosec β cosec β V 1 cot β 1 cot β
Degree of reaction R
2 cotβ cotβ U 2 cotβ cotβ U
V
R cotβ cotβ 2
2U
In Parson s reaction turbine, the degree of reaction is 50% which results α β
and α β i. e. , the moving and fixed blades are having same profile.
For simple impulse turbine, 0
For pure reaction turbine, 1
Condition for maximum efficiency
The following assumptions are made while deriving condition for maximum
efficiency:
(i) Degree of reaction is 50 %
(ii) The fixed and moving blades are having symmetrical shape
(iii)There is no velocity drop between the adjacent fixed and moving blades.
V
The kinetic energy supplied to the fixed blade per kg of steam
2
V V
The kinetic energy supplied to the moving blade per kg of steam
2
V V V
Total energy supplied
2 2
V
Total energy supplied V V V
2
From the velocity diagram,
V V U 2UV cosα
V
Total energy supplied V
2
V U 2UV cosα
Total energy supplied V
2
The work done per kg of steam (W) = V V U
From the velocity diagram,
V V cosα and V V cosβ U
work done per kg of steam W V cosα V cosβ U U
α β ,V V and α β
work done per kg of steam W 2V cosα U U
142
workdone
We know that, Diagram efficiency η
total energy suplied
2V cosα U U
V U UV
V
U
2 2V cosα U U 2UV 2cosα
V
η U U
V U 2UV cosα V 1
V V
2ρ 2cosα ρ
η 3
1 ρ 2ρcosα
U
where ρ blade speed ratio
V
Diagram efficiency is maximum if the denominator value of equation (3) is minimum or
d 1 ρ 2ρcosα
0
dρ
2ρ 2cosα 0
ρ cosα 4
Sustotuting 4 in 3 , we get,
2cosα 2cosα cosα
η
1 cos α 2cos α
2cos α
η
1 cos α
Height of blades of reaction turbines
The steam enters the moving blades over the whole circumference. As a result of this,
the area through which the steam flows is always full of steam. Now consider a reaction
turbine whose end view of the blade ring is shown in figure.
Let, D diameter of the drum

h Height of blades
143
D mean diameter of the blade ring
V V V velocity of flow at exit
For negligible bade thickness, the are of steam flow A π D h π D h h
volume of steam flowing through the turbine, V A V π D h h V

We know that volume of 1 kg of steam at the given pressure is Vg (from steam tables).
Therefore mass of steam flowing,
V D V
m
Where, x dryness fraction of steam &v specific volume of steam
4.7 COMPARISON BETWEEN IMPULSE AND REACTION TURBINE
S.
Impulse Turbine Reaction turbine
No.
The steam flows through the nozzles and The steam first through guide mechanism
1
impinges on the moving blades. and then through the moving blades.
The steam impinges on the buckets with The steam guides over the vanes with
2
kinetic energy. pressure and kinetic energy.
The steam may or may not be admitted The steam must be admitted over the
3
over the whole circumference. whole circumference.
The steam pressure remains constant The steam pressure is reduced during its
4 during its flow through the moving flow through the moving blades.
blades.
The relative velocity of steam while The relative velocity of steam while
5 gliding over the blades remains constant gliding over the blades increases
(assuming no friction). (assuming no friction).
6 The blades are symmetrical. The blades are not symmetrical.
The number of stages required are less The number of stages required are more
7
for the same power developed. for the same power developed.
144
4.8 COMPOUNDING OF IMPULSE STEAM TURBINES (METHODS OF
REDUCING ROTOR SPEEDS)
In the recent years, high pressure (100 to 140 bar) and high temperature steam is used in the
power plants to increase their thermal efficiency. If the entire pressure drop (from boiler
pressure to condenser pressure (say from 125 bar to 1 bar) is carried out in one stage only,
then the velocity of steam entering into the turbine will be extremely high. It will make the
turbine rotor to run at a very high speed (even up to 30000 rpm). Form practical point of
view, such a high speed of the turbine rotor is bound to have a number of disadvantages.
In order to reduce the rotor speed, various methods are employed. All of these methods
consist of a multiple system of rotors, in series, keyed to a common shaft and the steam
pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed in stages as it flows over the rotor blades. This process
is known as compounding. The following three methods are commonly employed for
reducing the rotor speed:
1. Velocity compounding, 2. Pressure compounding and 3.pressure - velocity compounding
4.8.1 Pressure Compounding (RATEAU)
The expansion of steam from boiler pressure to exhaust pressure is carried out in a number
of steps or stages. Each stage has a set of nozzles and a row of moving blades. The rows of
moving blades are separated from each other by partitions or diaphragms, into which the
nozzles are set. As only a portion of the velocity available is developed in each set of
nozzles, the blade velocity is kept down to a reasonable amount. This type of
compounding is known as the pressure compounding and the nozzle and blade
arrangement for a pressure compounded impulse turbine is sketched. In this arrangement,
the pressure of the steam drops in each set of nozzles as indicated by the pressure graph.
The steam velocity is increased by each pressure drop and then decreases again in each
row of moving blades, as the velocity graph shows.
145
Fig. 4.6 Pressure Compounding
This amounts to a number of simple impulse turbines in series, the nozzle of one stage
receiving steam discharged by the preceding ring of moving blades. The distribution of the
total enthalpy drop to a number of sets of nozzle will be about the same and the velocity of
steam at the outlet of each set of nozzles will be lower than the maximum velocity
obtainable by single expansion.The work output of a pressure compounded turbine is the
sum of that produced by theseparate impulse stages. However, the velocity of steam at
entrance to nozzles particularly after the first stage must be taken into account.
4.8.2VELOCITY COMPOUNDING (CURTIS)
This design consists of one set of nozzles in which the steam is expanded from initial to
exhaust pressure. The velocity of the steam resulting from this expansion is absorbed in two
or more rows of moving blades.Rows of fixed or guide blades, attached to the casing, are set
between rows of moving blades and receive and redirect the steam to the next row of moving
blades. As the velocity is absorbed in more than one row of moving blades, the blade speed is
less than if the velocity was all absorbed in one row of blades.
This type of compounding is known as the velocity compounding and the blade and nozzle
arrangement for a velocity compounded impulse turbine is shown in fig. 4.7.
146
The pressure drops from inlet pressure to exhaust pressure in the single set of nozzles as the
pressure graph shows. This large single pressure drop produces high steam velocity, which is
absorbed in the two rows of moving blades. Note that there is no pressure or velocity drop in
the fixed guide blades.
4.8.3PRESSURE-VELOCITY COMPOUNDING
This is a combination of the first two methods of compounding, namely pressure

compounding and velocity compounding. The steam is expanded in two or more sets of
nozzles in series, each set having velocity compounded blades to receive the steam issuing
from the nozzles.The arrangement showed in Figure features two sets of nozzles. The steam
pressure drops in each set of nozzles and the resulting velocity increase in each case is
absorbed by in two rows of moving blades having a row of stationary blades in between
them. The methods of reducing rotor speeds, namely, pressure compounding, velocity
compounding, and pressure-velocity compounding have all applied to impulse turbines.
In the case of the reaction turbine, it is not necessary to make special blade arrangements to
reduce rotor speed. This is because the pressure drops across each row of moving blades as
well as across each row of fixed blades and consequently the pressure drops in every stage
and in small amounts all through the machine.
147
Fig. 4.8 Pressure - Velocity Compounding
This requires, however, a large number of alternate rows of fixed and moving blades resulting
in a long machine.Therefore, in order to reduce the number of blade rows necessary, reaction
turbines frequently have a velocity compounded impulse stage at the inlet end of the
machine.
4.9 GOVERNING OF STEAM TURBINE

The process of providing any arrangement, which will keep the speed constant
(according to the changing load conditions), is known as governing of steam engines. Though
there are many methods of governing steam turbines, yet the throttle governing is important
from the subject point of view.
4.9.1 THROTTLE GOVERNING OF STEAM TURBINES:
The throttle governing of a steam turbine is a method of controlling the turbine output
by varying the quantity of steam entering into the turbine. This method is also known as
servometer method, whose operation is given below:
The centrifugal governor is driven form the main shaft of turbine by belt or gear
arrangement. The control valve controls the direction of flow of the oil (which is pumped by
gear pump) either in the pipe AA or BB. The servometer or relay valve has a piston whose
motion (towards left or right depends upon the pressure of the oil flowing through the pipes
AA or BB) is connected to a spear or needle which moves inside the nozzle, as shown in the
figure.
148
Fig. 4.8 Thrrottle Governning
We know
w that when the turbine is running aat its normall speed, the positions off piston in thhe
servo meeter, control valve, fly balls
b of centrrifugal goverrnor will be in their norrmal positionns
as shown
n in the figurre. The oil iss pumped byy the gear puump into thee control vallve, will com
me
back into
o the oil sum
mp as the moouths of bothh pipes AA or
o BB are cllosed by the tow wings of
o
control valve.
v
N
Now let us coonsider an innstant, whenn load on thee turbine incrreases. As a result of loaad
b decreasedd. This decreease in the sppeed of the turbine wheel
increase, the turbine speed will be
will also decrease thhe speed of the
t centrifuggal governorr. As a resullt of this, thee fly ball wiill
come doown (due to decrease inn centrifugall force) thuss decreasingg their ampllitude. As thhe
sleeve is connected to
t the centraal vertical bbar of the ceentrifugal goovernor, therrefore cominng
down of the fly ballss will also brring down thhe sleeve. This
T down ward momentt of the sleevve
will raisee the controll valve rod, as the sleeve is connectted to the coontrol valve rod through a
lever pivvoted on the fulcrum. No
ow, a slight upward moovement of tthe control valve
v rod wiill
open the mouth of thhe pipe AA (still keepinng the mouth
h of the pipee BB closed)). Now the ooil
under preessure will rush from thhe control valve
v to the right side of
o the pistonn in the servvo
meter thrrough the piipe AA. Thiis oil, underr pressure, will
w move thhe piston as well as speaar
towards left,
l which will
w open more area of tthe nozzle. This
T increasse in the areaa of flow wiill
increase the rate of steam
s of steaam flow intoo the turbinee. As a resullt of increasee in the steam
m
flow, theere will be an
a increase in
i increase iin the turbinne output ass well as its speed. Wheen
speed of the turbine wheel will come
c up to its
i normal raange, fly balls will movee up. Now thhe
149
sleeve ass well as conntrol valve ro
od will occuupy its normal position aand the turbiine will run at
its normaal speed.
Itt may be notted that when
n load on thhe turbine decreases, it w
will increase the speed. As
A
a result of
o this, the fly
f balls willl go up (duee to increasee in centrifuugal force) and
a the sleevve
will also go up. Thiss will push the
t control vvalve rod downwards. T
This downwaard movemennt
of the coontrol valve rod will opeen the moutth of the pippe BB (still kkeeping the mouth of thhe
pipe AA closed). No
ow the oil unnder pressuree, will rush form
f the conntrol valve to the left sidde
of the piston in the servo
s meter through thee pipe BB. This
T oil undeer pressure will
w move thhe
nd spear tow
piston an wards right, which
w will ddecrease thee area of thee nozzle. Thiis decrease in
i
the area of the flow
w will decrease the ratee of steam flow
f into the turbine. As
A a result of
o
decrease in the steam
m flow, theree will be a decrease
d in thhe turbine ouutput as welll as its speed.
When thee speed of the
t turbine is reduced too its normal range, the ffly balls willl come downn.
Now the sleeve as well
w as contro
ol valve rod will occupyy its normal positions, annd the turbinne
will run its
i normal sppeed.
4.9.2 NOZZLE
N GO
OVERNING
G
A diagrammatic arraangement off nozzle conttrol governinng is shown in figure. Inn this nozzlees
uped in 3 too 5 or moree groups annd each gro
are grou oup of nozzzle is suppliied steam by
b
controlled valves. Thhe arc of addmission is limited to 1880 degree orr less. The nozzle
n controol
governin
ng is restrictted to the first
f stage oof the turbine, the nozzzle area in other stagees
remainin
ng constant. It is suitablee for simple impulse turrbine and for larger unitts which havve
an impulse stage followed b an im
mpulse turbiine.
Fig. 4.8 Noozzle Govern

ning
150
Y-PASS GOV
4.9.3 BY VERNING
The higgh pressure impulse turrbine, generrally have a number oof stages off small meaan
diameter of wheel. These turbiines are gennerally desiggned for maaximum effficiency at an
a
economicc load whichh is about 80
8 % of the maximum continuous
c rrating. Due to small heat
drop in th
he first stagee nozzle gov
verning cannnot be efficieently used. S
Secondly it is
i desirable to
t
have fulll admission into high pressure
p stage at the raated econom
mic load to eliminate thhe
partial addmission losses. In such case bypasss governing used.
u
In this arrrangement for
f high loadds a bypass line
l is proviided for the steam from the first stagge
ox into late stage wheree work outpput increasess. The bypasss steam is automaticallly
nozzle bo
regulated
d by the lift of the valvee. The bypaass valve is under
u the coontrol of thee speed of thhe
governorr for all load
ds within its range. In laater stags tho
ough there iis increase in
n work inpuut,
the efficiiency is low due to throtttling effect.
Fig. 4.9 By--pass Governning
OBJECT
TIVE QUES
STIONS
1. The action
a of steaam in a steam
m turbine is
(a) static (b) dynam
mic (c) static annd dynamic (d)
( neitherr static o
or
mic
dynam
2. In an impulse turrbine
(a) th
he steam is exxpanded in nozzles
n onlyy and there iss a pressure drop and heaat drop
151
(b) the steam is expanded both in fixed and moving blades continuously
(c) the steam is expanded in moving blades only
(d) the pressure and temperature of steam remains constant
3. In impulse turbines, when friction is neglected, the relative velocity of steam at outlet tip
of the blade is __________ the relative velocity of steam at inlet tip of the blade.
(a) equal to (b) less than (c) greater than
4. The blade friction in the impulse turbine reduces the velocity of steam by _________
while it passes over the blades.
(a) 10 to 15% (b) 15 to 20% (c) 20 to 30% (d) 30 to 40%
5. In a reaction turbine
(a) the steam is allowed to expand in the nozzle, where it gives a high velocity before it
enters the moving blades
(b) the expansion of steam takes place partly in the fixed blades and partly in moving
blades
(c) the steam is expanded from a high pressure to a condenser pressure in one or more
nozzles
(d) the pressure and temperature of steam remains constant
6. The Parson’s reaction turbine has
(a) only moving blades (b) only fixed blades
(c) identical fixed and moving blades (d) fixed and moving blades of different shape
7. The degree of reaction is defined as the ratio of
(a) heat drop in the fixed blades to the heat drop in the moving blades
(b) heat drop in the moving blades to the heat drop in the fixed blades
(c) heat drop in the moving blades to the total heat drop in the fixed and moving blades
(d) total heat drop in the fixed and moving blades to the heat drop in the moving blades
8. In a reaction turbine, when the degree of reaction is zero, then there is
(a) no heat drop in the moving blades (b) no heat drop in the fixed blades
(c) maximum heat drop in the moving blades (d) maximum heat drop in the fixed
blades
9. The maximum efficiency of a De-Laval turbine is
(a) sin 2  (b) cos 2  (c) tan 2  (d) cot 2 
10. The purpose of governing in steam turbine is to
152
(a) reduce the effective heat drop (b) reheat the steam and improve its
quality
(c) completely balance against end thrust (d) maintain the speed of the turbine
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. How turbines are classified?
2. What are the essential components of a steam turbine?
3. What is an Impulse turbine?
4. What is a Reaction turbine?
5. What are the differences between impulse and reaction turbines?
6. Draw the velocity triangles of an Impulse Turbine.
7. What is the effect of friction on Impulse Turbine?
8. Define ‘Blade Velocity Coefficient’.
9. What is meant by axial discharge in an Impulse turbine?
10. Define ‘Degree of reaction’ of reaction turbine.
11. What do you understand by the term ‘Height of Blades’ as applied to a Reaction
Turbine?
12. Define the terms : (i) Diagram efficiency (ii) Stage Efficiency
1. With the help of velocity diagram derive an expression for the work done by an
impulse turbine.
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of velocity compounding
3. What are the methods of governing steam turbine? Describe any one method of
governing steam turbines.
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. The following data relates to a single stage impulse turbine. Steam velocity = 600 m/s.
Blade speed = 250 m/s. Nozzle angle = 20°. Blade outlet angle = 25°. Neglecting effect of
friction, calculate the absolute velocity of steam leaving the blade and the power
developed by the turbine for the steam flow rate of 20 kg/s. Also calculate the axial thrust
on the bearings.
2. The mean diameter of the blades of a single flow impulse turbine is 2 m. The speed is
3000 rpm. The nozzle angle is 18° and the blade to steam speed ratio at the inlet is 0.42.
The ratio of the relative velocity at the outlet to inlet of the blade is 0.84. The blade outlet
153
angle is 3° less than the inlet angle. The steam flow rate is 7 kg/s. Draw the velocity
diagram of the blade and calculates the power developed by the turbine and the axial
thrust.
3. In a stage of impulse turbine provided with a single row wheel, the mean diameter of the
blade ring is 800 mm and the speed of rotation is 3000 rpm. The steam issues from the
nozzles with a velocity of 300 m/s and the nozzle angle is 20° C. The inlet and outlet
blade angles are equal and the blade friction factor is 0.86. What is the power developed
in the blade when the axial thrust on the blade is 140 N.
4. Steam with absolute velocity of 400 m/s is supplied through a nozzle to a single stage
impulse turbine. The nozzle angle is 25°. The mean diameter of blade rotor is 1 m and it
has a speed of 2000 rpm. Find suitable blade angles for zero axial thrust. If blade velocity
coefficient is 0.9 and the steam flow rate is 10 kg/s. Calculate the power developed.
5. The steam supply to an impulse turbine with a single row of moving blades is 5 kg/s. The
turbine developed 250 kW. The blade velocity is 100 m/s. The steam flows from a nozzle
with a velocity of 300 m/s and velocity coefficient of blade is 0.9. Fine the nozzle angle,
blade angle at the entry and exit, if the steam flows axially after passing over the blades.
6. A single row impulse turbine receives 3 kg/sec. of steam with a velocity of 425m/sec.
The ratio of blade speed to jet speed is 0.4 stage output is 170Kw Determine the blade
efficiency and blade coefficient if the internal losses due to friction is 15kw. The nozzle
angle is 16° and the blade exit angle is 17°.
7. A steam turbine running at 3600rpm takes 4.5 kg of steam per second. The nozzle angle is
16° and the mean diameter of the blade ring 1.2 meters. The blade outlet angle is 180 and
the isentropic heat drop in the nozzle is 165kj/kg of steam. The shaft power is 485Kw.
Assuming nozzle efficiency as 92% and blade velocity coefficient 0.85; find 1) Blade
efficiency 2) Stage efficiency 3) Power lost in friction.
8. Steam is supplied to a simple impulse turbine at 10 bar, 2500C. The pressure in the wheel
casing is 1.2 bar and the nozzle efficiency is 91%. Determine the exit area required for a
steam flow rate of 5000kg/hr. The nozzles are inclined to the plane of rotation at 200. The
blades are equiangular and have a velocity coefficient of 0.8. Assuming that the ratio of
mean blade speed to steam at nozzle exit to be 0.45. Calculate 1) the blade angles 2) the
power developed 3) the stage efficiency.
9. A reaction turbine running at 360rpm consumes 5kg/sec of steam. The outlet angles of
both moving and fixed blades are 20°. The power developed is 4.8kw. Determine the
drum diameter and blade height at a section where the pressure is 2 bar and dryness
154
fraction is 0.95. Assume 10% of steam leaks from the stage. Take blade angle at inlet as
35°.
10. A Parson’s reaction turbine consumes 30tonnes of steam per hour and it runs at 400rpm.
The steam at a certain stages is at 1.6 bar with dryness fraction of 0.9 and the stage
develops 10kw. The axial velocity of flow is constant and is equal to 0.75 times the blade
velocity. Find mean diameter and volume of steam flowing per second. Take blade angles
at inlet and outlet as 35° and 20° respectively.
11. A reaction turbine runs at 300rpm and its steam consumption is 257kg/min. The pressure
of steam at a certain point is 1.9 bar with 0.93 dry. The power developed by the pair is
3.5kw. The exit blade angle is 20° for both moving and fixed and the flow velocity is 0.72
times the blade velocity. If the leakage is 8%, determine drum diameter and blade height.
12. A reaction turbine with mean blade diameter of 1m runs at a speed of 50 rps. The blades
are designed with exit angles of 50°and inlet angles of 30°. If the turbine is supplied with
steam at the rate of 20 kg/sec and stage efficiency of 85% determine power output,
enthalpy drop in the stage.
155
CHAPTER– V
AIR COMPRESSORS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
An air compressor is a machine to compress the air to raise its pressure. The air compressor
sucks air from the atmosphere, compresses it and then delivers the same under a high
pressure to a storage vessel; it may be conveyed by the pipe line to the place where the supply
of air compressed air is required. Since the compression of air requires some work to be done
on it, therefore the compressor must be driven by some prime mover.
The compressed air is used for many purposes such as for operating pneumatic
drills, riveters, road drills, paint spraying, in starting and supercharging of internal
combustion engines, in gas turbine plants, Jet engines and air motors, etc. It is also utilized in
the operation of lifts, rams, pumps and variety of devices. In industry, compressed air is used
for producing blast of air in blast furnaces and Bessemer converters.
5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR COMPRESSORS

The air compressor may be classified into the following considerations:
(a) According to the number of stages
(i) Single stage: delivery pressure below 10 bar
(ii) Multi stage : delivery pressure above 10 bar
(b) According to the number of cylinders
(i) Single cylinder
(ii) Multi cylinder
(c) According to working method
(i) Reciprocating compressors
(ii) Rotary compressors
(d) According to the action of air
(i) Single acting
(ii) Double acting
(e) According to the capacity
(i) Low capacity: volume of air delivered 0.15 m3/sec or less
(ii) Medium capacity:volume of air delivered 0.15 m3/sec to 5 m3/sec
(iii) High capacity: volume of air delivered above 5 m3/sec
156
TERMINOLOGIES
Inlet pressure
It is the absolute pressure of air at the inlet of a compressor.
Discharge Pressure
It is the absolute pressure of air at the outlet of a compressor.
Pressure Ratio
It is the ratio of discharge pressure to the inlet pressure .Since the discharge pressure is
always more than the inlet pressure; therefore the value of compression ratio is more than
unity.
Compressor Capacity
It is the volume of air delivered by the compressor and it expressed in m3/minor m3/sec.
Free air delivery
It is the actual volume delivered by the compressor when reduced to the normal temperature
and pressure condition. The capacity of compressor is generally given in the terms of free air
delivery.
Swept Volume:
It is the volume of air sucked by the compressor during its suction stroke. Mathematically,
the swept volume or displacement of a single acting air compressor is given by,

Vs   D2  L
4
D = Diameter of cylinder bore, and
L = Length of piston stroke.
Air pressure on the compressor piston keeps on changing with the movement of the piston in
the cylinder. The mean effective pressure of the compressor is equal to the ratio of working
done per cycle to the stroke volume.
157
5.3 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
5.3.1 Construction of single acting reciprocating compressor

The construction of a compressor is similar to that of the internal combustion engine except
for the suction and delivery valves. Crank shaft connected to the machine, through
connecting rod, produces reciprocating motion of the piston in the cylinder. Flywheel in the
compressor maintains uniform turning moment throughout the operation. Water or air is
circulated through the jackets of the cylinder to cool it. The valves are designed in such way
that to operate automatically without any complicated mechanism. The various types of
valves used in compressors are reed, plate and thimble and poppet valves.
5.3.2 Working of single acting, single stage reciprocating compressor
When the piston moves downwards from T.D.C to B.D.C., the pressure inside the cylinder
eventually falls below the atmospheric pressure. Due to this pressure difference inlet valve
opens automatically and the atmospheric air is sucked into the cylinder. The suction of air
takes place until the piston reaches the B.D.C. At this time the delivery valve is in closed
position.
When the piston starts to move in upward direction, a slight increase in pressure inside the
cylinder leads to closure of inlet valve. Since both inlet and outlet valves are closed, the
continuous upward movement of piston increases the pressure until it reaches the delivery
pressure. At this stage, the delivery valve opened and the compressed air is delivered through
this valve may be stored in the storage tank.
158
5.4 WORK DONEOF SINGLE STAGE COMPRESSOR (WITHOUT CLEARANCE)
A Single stage reciprocating air compressor, in its simplest form, consists of a

cylinder,piston, inlet and discharge valves.
Fig. 5.2
4 – 1 Suction: Inlet valve is opened at pressure P1
1 – 2 Polytropic Compression Pvn = C
2 – 3 Delivery at pressure P2 Outlet valve is opened
Work done per cycle or work of compression or Indicated work is is obtained by calculating
the area under the P V diagram 41234
W Area under 1 2 area under 2 3 area under 4 1
PV PV 1
PV PV PV PV 1
n 1 n 1
n
PV PV
n 1
n PV
W PV 1
n 1 PV
we know that, for polytropic process P V PV
V P P
V P P
n P P
W PV 1
n 1 P P
n P
work done per cycle W PV 1
n 1 P
159
if m kg os air is compressed per cycle, then pV mRT
n P
work done per cycle W mRT 1
n 1 P
n T
mRT 1
n 1 T
5.5 WORK DONE OF SINGLE STAGE COMPRESSOR (WITH CLEARANCE)
In order to avoid the damage to the piston when it moves upwards and not to strike the
cylinder head a minimum amount of space is provided to accommodate valves, a clearance is
necessary in reciprocating compressors. The minimum clearance is desirable and the ratio of
clearance volume to the displacement volume is known as clearance ratio. It is denoted by C.
Fig. 5.3
4– 1 Suction
1– 2 Polytropic Compression
2– 3 Delivery
3– 4 Polytropic Expansion of Clearance Volume
Work done / cycle = Area 41234
= Area 61256 – Area 64356
160
 n 1
  n 1

n   P2  n  n   P3  n 
= 1 1   1 -  1
 P1   n  1 4 4  P4 
PV P V
n 1 
   
But P3 = P2 , P4 = P1
 n 1

n  P2  n   PV  P V 
Work done / cycle =    1
n  1  P1   1 1 4 4
 
 n 1

n  P2  n  P V  V 
=    1
n  1  P1   1 1 4
 
 n 1

n  2 P  n

Work done / cycle = 1 a   1 ----------------- (1)
 P1 
PV
n 1 
 
Where Va  V1  V4  = Free air delivered
 n 1

 
ma RT1  2   1
n P n
Work done / cycle =
n 1  P1  
 
 n 1

 
RT1  2   1
n P n
Work done / kg of air = ------------------- (2)
n 1  P1  
 
Equation (4) is same as Equation (2), (i.e) the clearance will not affect the work of
compression per kg of air.
Clearance 100
5.6VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:
The actual volume of air passing through a reciprocating compressor with clearance is less
than the stroke volume during the suction stroke. The ratio of actual volume of air to the
swept or stroke volume is called volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
161
Fig. 5.4
It is the ratio of the actual volume of free air delivered to the displacement volume.
Va
(i.e) vol 
Vs
V1  V4 Vs  Vc   V4
= =
Vs Vs
Vs  V4  Vc 
=
Vs
V  V 
= 1  4 c 
 Vs 
  V   
Vc  4   1 
  Vc   
= 1   
 Vs 
 
 
  1

  V    V  P3  n  1 
Vc  4   1   c  P4  
  V3       
= 1    = 1  
 Vs   Vs 
   
   
 
162
1
 
V4  P4  n 
3 3  PV  
n n
PV 4 4
V3  P3 
  1

 
V  2 n  1 
P
 c  P1  
   
vol = 1     P3  P2 ; P4  P1
 Vs 
 
 
 
 1

V 
 2  1
P  n
= 1 c
Vs  P1  
 
1 1 .
5.7 ISOTHERMAL EFFICIENCY: PV = C
P 2’
3 2
P2
PVn=C
PV=C
P1 4 1
V2’ V1V
Fig. 5.5
Fig. 5.5
Isothermal Work done / cycle = Area 412134

= Area under 321 + Area under 211 – Area under 41
 V1 
2 2  PV  PV
1 1
= PV 2 2 log e  1  1 1
 V2 
163
 V1 
= 1 1 log e 
PV 1 
 V2 
PV
2 2  PV
1 1

1 1 ,12 Isothermal process 
V  P 
= mRT1 log e  11   mRT1 log e  2 
 V2   P1 
P 
(i.e) Work done / cycle = mRT1 log e  2 
 P1 
P 
Work done / kg = RT1 log e  2 
 P1 
P 
RT1 log e  2 
 Iso 
IsothermalWorkdone
  P1 
ActualWorkdone  n 1

 
RT1    1

n
n P2
n 1  P1  
 
P 
log e  2 
 Iso   P1 
 n 1


n  P2 n  
   1
n  1  P1  
 
5.8 MULTI STAGE COMPRESSORS
A single stage air compressor suffers the following drawbacks:
(i) The size of the cylinder will be too large.

(ii) Due to compression, there is a rise in temperature of the air .It is difficult to reject
heat from the air in the small time availableduring compression.
(iii)The temperature of air, at the end of compression, is too high. Itmay heat up the
cylinder head or burn the lubricating oil.
In order to overcome the above mentioned difficulties, two or more cylinders are
provided in series with intercooling arrangement between them. Such an arrangement is
known as multistage compression.
164
5.8.1 Advantages of Multi Stage Compression
Following are the main advantages of multistage compression over single stage compression:
i. The work done per Kg of air is reduced in multistage compression withinter-cooling

as compared to single stage compression for the same delivery pressure.
ii. It improves the volumetric efficiency for the given pressure ratio.
iii. The size of the cylinders may be adjusted to suit the volume and pressure ofthe air.
iv. It reduces the leakage loss considerably.
v. It gives more uniform torque, and hence a smaller size flywheel is required.
vi. It provides effective lubrication because of lower temperature range.
vii. It reduces the cost of compressor.
5.8.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TWO STAGE COMPRESSOR WITH

INTERCOOLER
Air is sucked into the Low Pressure (L.P) cylinder from atmosphere, where it
is compressed to an intermediate pressure and high temperature. After the
compression process, air flows into an intercooler. In the inter-cooler, air is cooled to
its atmospheric temperature or initial temperature. Then air is flowing to the High
Pressure (H.P.) cylinder, air is compressed to the final required pressure. The
compressed air from the H.P. cylinder is also passed through an after cooler to reduce
the temperature of the compressed air before going to the storage receiver.
Fig. 5.6
165
The following assumptions are to be considered for a two stage compressor with
intercooler.
a. The effect of clearance is neglected
b. Suction and delivery of air takes place at constant pressure
c. No pressures drop in the intercooler
d. Both cylinders follow .
Case (i): when the inter-cooling is imperfect
Figure shows the P-V diagram of a two stage air compressor with imperfect
inter-cooling.
Fig. 5.7
If the inter-cooling is imperfect, the point 2 will not lie on the iso-thermal line
1 3
Let, P suction pressure , N/m
V Volume of L. P. cylinder, m
N
P intermediate pressure ,
m
V Volume of H. P. cylinder, m
N
P delivery pressure ,
m
n index of compression for both cylnders
Work done in L.P. cylinder = area under curve 1-2’-5-6
Work done in H.P. cylinder = area under curve 5-2-3-4
166
n p
Workdone in L. P. cylinder p v 1
n 1 p
n p
Workdone in H. P. cylinder p v 1
n 1 p
Total work done W
n p n p
p v 1 p v 1 1
n 1 p n 1 p
W N
Indicated power of the compressor watt
60
If the compression is adiabatic should be substituted in place of in (1)
Case 2: when the inter-cooling is perfect
Figure shows the P-V diagram of a two stage air compressor with perfect
inter-cooling.
Fig. 5.8
If the inter-cooling is perfect, the point 2 will lie on the isothermal line, then
. substituting this condition in equation (1), we get
n p p
Total work done W p v 2 2
n 1 p p
W N
Indicated power of the compressor watts
60
5.8.3 Condition for minimum work required in two stage compressor with
intercooling
167
When the suction pressure and delivery pressure are fixed then the least value of
inter cooler pressure can be obtained by differentiating equation (2) w. r.t. and
equating to zero.
n p p
W p v 2
n 1 p p
n
k
n 1
p p
W k p v 2
p p
For minimum work,
dW
0
dp
k p v is constant
dW p p
k k 0
dp p p
p p
k k
p p
p p p p p p
p p
3
p p
p p p 4
for minimum work or maximum efficiency p p p

p
Substituting the value of in 2 , we get,
p
Minimum work required per cycle is given by W
n p p
p v 2
n 1 p p
n p
W p v 2 2
n 1 p
2n p 2n p
p v 1 or mRT 1 5
n 1 p n 1 p
If N number of stages in an air compressor then,
168
Minimum work required per cycle,
Nn pN N Nn pN N
W p v 1 or mRT 1 6
n 1 p n 1 p
5.8.4 RATIO OF CYLINDER DIAMETERS

Let, D diameter of L. P. cylinder
D diameter of H. P. cylinder
L – length of stroke of cylinder
V – volume of L. P. cylinder
V Volume of H. P. cylinder
For perfect intercooling,P V PV
P V D L D
P V D L D
/
D P
7
D P
For two stages compressor with perfect intercooling
/
P P
8
P P
Sub 8 in 7 , We get,
/
D P
D P
5.9 ROTARY AIR COMPRESSOR:
In a rotary air compressor the air is entrapped between two sets of engaging surface and the
pressure of the air is increased by squeezing action of back flow of air.
Though there are many types of rotary air compressors, yet the following are
important types:
(i) Roots blower compressor
(ii) Vane blower compressor
(iii) Centrifugal blower compressor
(iv) Axial flow compressor
The first two compressors are popularly known as Positive displacement compressor,
whereas the last two as Non- Positive displacement compressor.
169
5.9.1 ROOTS BLOWER COMPRESSOR
Rotary Lobe type Air Compressor has two mating lobe-type rotors mounted in a case. The
lobes are gear driven at close clearance, but without metal-to-metal contact. The suction to
the unit is located where the cavity made by the lobes is largest. As the lobes rotate, the
cavity size is reduced, causing compression of the vapor within. The compression continues
until the discharge port is reached, at which point the vapor exits the compressor at a higher
pressure
Fig. 5.9
5.9.2 VANE BLOWER COMPRESSOR
Rotary slide vane type Air Compressor has longitudinal vanes, sliding radially in a slotted
rotor mounted eccentrically in a cylinder. The centrifugal force carries the sliding vanes
against the cylindrical case with the vanes forming a number of individual longitudinal cells
in the eccentric annulus between the case and rotor. The suction port is located where the
longitudinal cells are largest. The size of each cell is reduced by the eccentricity of the rotor
as the vanes approach the discharge port, thus compressing the air.
Fig 5.10
170
5.9.3 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Introduction
Air compressors of various designs are used widely throughout DOE facilities in numerous
applications. Compressed air has numerous uses throughout a facility including the operation
of equipment and portable tools. Three types of designs include reciprocating, rotary, and
centrifugal air compressors.
Centrifugal Compressors
The centrifugal compressor, originally built to handle only large volumes of low pressure gas
and air (maximum of 40psig), has been developed to enable it to move large volumes of gas
with discharge pressures up to 3,500 psig. Centrifugal compressors are now most frequently
used for medium volume and medium pressure air delivery. One advantage of a centrifugal
compressor is the smooth discharge of the compressed air. The air particles enter the eye of
the impeller, designated D in Figure 5.11. As the impeller rotates, air is thrown against the
casing of the compressor. The air becomes compressed as more and more air is thrown out to
the casing by the impeller blades. The air is pushed along the path designated A, B, and C in
Figure 5.11. The pressure of the air is increased as it is pushed along this path. Note in Figure
5.11 that the impeller blades curve forward, which is opposite to the backward curve used in
typical centrifugal liquid pumps. Centrifugal compressors can use a variety of blade
orientation including both forward and backward curves as well as other designs. There may
be several stages to a centrifugal air compressorand the result would be the same; a higher
pressure would be produced. The air compressor is used to create compressed or high
pressure air for a variety of uses. Some of its uses are pneumatic control devices, pneumatic
sensors, pneumatic valve operators, pneumatic motors, and starting air for diesel engines.
Fig. 5.11
171
5.9.4 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
In axial flow compressor the air flows parallel to the axis. It consists of a number of rotating
blades fixed to a rotating drum. Each stage consists of one row of moving blades and one row
of fixed bades. As the air flows feom one set of stator and rotor to another, it gets
compressed. The cuccessive compression of air in all the sets of stator and rotor increasses its
pressure and the air is delivereed at a high pressure from the putlet. The blades are made of
aerofoil section to reduce the losses caused by turbulence and boundary sepeartion. The
number of stages may vary from 14 to 16. The pressure ratio per stage is from 1.2 to 1.3.
Fig. 5.12
5.10 COMPARISION OF RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY AIR COMPRESSORS
Following are the main points of comparison of reciprocating and rotary air compressor:
Rotary Air Compressors

S.No. Reciprocating Air Compressor
1. The maximum delivery pressure may be as The maximum delivery pressure

high as 1000 bar. is10 bar only.
2. The maximum free air discharge is about 300 The maximum free air discharge is
m3/min. as high as 3000 m3/min.
3. They are suitable for low discharge of air at They are suitable for large
very high pressure. discharge of air at low pressure.
172
4. The speed of air compressor is low. The speed of air compressor is high.
5. The air supply is intermittent. The air supply is continuous.
6. The size of air compressor is large for the The size of air compressor is small
given discharge. for the given discharge.
7. The balancing is a major problem. There is no balancing problem.
8. The lubricating system is complicated. The lubricating system is simple.
9. The air delivered is less clean, as it comes in The air delivered is more clean, as
contact with the lubricating oil. it does not comes in contact with
the lubricating oil.
10. Isothermal Efficiency is used for all sorts of
calculation. Isentropic Efficiency is used for all
sorts of calculation.
5.11 COMPARISION OF CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW AIR

COMPRESSORS
Following are the main points of comparison of the centrifugal and axial flow air
compressors:
S. Centrifugal Compressors Axial Flow Compressors

No.
1. The flow of air is perpendicular to the axis The flow of air is parallel to the axis of
of compressor compressor
2. It has low manufacturing and running It has high manufacturing and running
cost. cost.
3. It requires low starting torque. It requires high starting torque.
4. It is not suitable for multi- staging It is suitable for multi- staging
173
5. It requires large frontal area for a given It requires less frontal area for a given
rate of flow. rate of flow. It makes the compressor
suitable for air crafts.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A single stage, single acting reciprocating compressor delivers 15m3 of free air per
minute, from 1 bar to 8 bar. The speed of the compressor is 300 rpm. If the clearance is
th of the swept volume, determine the diameter and stroke of the compressor. Take =
1.5 and n=1.3.

Given Data:
15 /
1
1
8 , , 300
16
1.5, 1.3
Solution
1 8 .
1 1 1 1 75.31%
16 1
15 1
, 0.0664
300 . 7531
4
0.0664 1.5
4
4 0.0664
0.3835
1.5
1.5 1.5 0.3835 0.5752

2. A small single acting compressor has a bore and stroke of 10 cm driven at 400 rpm. The
clearance volume is 80 cm3. The index of compression and expansion is 1.2. The suction
pressure is 0.95 bar and the delivery is 8 bar. Calculate i) volume of freed air at 1.03bar
and 20○ C per minute, if the temp at the start of compression is 30○ C, ii) mean effective
pressure of the indicator diagram assuming constant suction and deliver y pressure.
174
Given Data:
10 0.1 , 10 0.1
400
80
1.2
0.95
8
Solution:
0.1 0.1 785.40 10

4 4
V 80 10
, 0.10186
785.40 10
8 .
1 1 1 0.10186 1 50.04%
0.95
0.5004 785.40 10 393.08 10
393.08 10 500 0.1965 @ 30 0.95
i 1.03 20
0.95 0.1965 293
0.1753
303
1
1
.
1.2 800 .
95 393.08 10 1 0.09553
1.2 1 95
0.09553 10
121.632
785.40 10
175
3. A two stage single acting air compressor having capacity 4.5m3/min measured under free
air conditions of 1.01325 bar and 15○ C. the pressures during suction stroke is 0.98 bar.
The temperature of air at the start of compressor in each stage is 27○ C. The delivery
pressure in 15 bar. The clearance volume in LP cylinder is 15% of the stroke. The index
of compression and expansion is 1.3 and the speed is 140 rpm. The intercooler pressure is
such that the work is shared equally between 2 cylinder V1=105 m3/min, V2=5 m3/min.
Determine i) the indicated power, ii) Diameter and stroke of LP cylinder if bore is equal
to stroke.
Given Data:
4.5 , 1.01325 101.325 , 15 15 273 288
0.98 98 , 30 30 273 303

15 1500 , 1.3, 140 ,
0.15 , 105 , 5
Solution:
101.325 4.5
5.516 /
0.287 288
√0.98 15 3.834 383.40
For isentropic compression process (1- 2 )
.
3.834 .
300 410.99 411
0.98
. .C ,
2
1
. .
1.3 4.5 383.40 . 1500 .
101.325 2
1.3 1 60 98 383.40
. . 24.368
383.40 .
1 1 1 0.15 1 72.165 %
98
176
,
4.5
6.236
0.72165
6.236
4
6.236 140
4
6.236 4
0.3842
3.14 140
4. A two stage compressor delivers 2 cm3 free air per minute. The temperature and Pressure
of air at the suction are 27○ C and 1 bar. The pressure at the delivery is 50 bar. The
clearance is 5% of the stroke in LP cylinder as well as in HP cylinder. Assume perfect
inter-cooling between the two stages, find i) The minimum power required to run the
compressor at 200 rpm, ii) The diameters and strokes assuming the strokes of the cylinder
are equal to the diameter of L.P cylinder. Law of compression and re-expansion in both
the cylinders is PV1.35=constant. Also. Assume that the ambient air condition is same as
suction condition.
Given Data:
1 100 , 27 30 273 300

50 5000 , 1.35, 200 ,
0.05 ,
Solution:
√1 50 7.071 707.10
2
1
. .
1.35 2 707.10 . 5000 .
100 2
1.35 1 60 100 707.10
177
. . 16.98
707.10 .
1 1 1 0.05 1 83.70 %
100
2
2.389
0.8370 n
. . &
. . &
2.389
4
2.389 200
4
2.389 4
0.2478 24.78
3.14 200
/
,
/
0.2478 50
1
0.2478
0.09318 9.32
2.6591
5. A single acting two stage compressor with complete inter cooling delivers 5kg/min of air
at a pressure of 15 bar. The intake state of air is 1bar and 15○ C. The clearance volumes of
L.P and H.P cylinders are 5% and 6% of the respective cylinder swept volumes. The
speed of the compressor is 420 rpm. Assuming the compression and expansion processes
are polytropic with n=1.3. Calculate i) The power required, ii) Isothermal efficiency, iii)
Swept and clearance volumes of the L.P and H.P cylinders.
Given Data:
5 / 0.0833 /
1 100 , 15 15 273 288 K
15 1500 , 1.3, . 0.05
. 0.05, 420
178
Solution:
0.0833 0.287 288
0.06885
100
√1 15 3.873 387.30
387.30 .
. 1 1 1 0.05 1 90.83 %
100
387.30 .
. 1 1 1 0.06 1 88.99 %
100
2
1
. .
1.3 387.30 . 1500 .
100 0.06885 2
1.3 1 100 387.30
21.9
1500
100 0.06885 18.65
100
18.65
85.16 %
21.90
. . ,
60 0.06885 60 4.131
4.131
0.9083
4.131 4.55
4.55 0.01083
0.9083 420
179
. . 0.05 0.01083
5.4167 10 541.67
. . ,
04.131
0.8899 .
4.131 1.1985
1.1985 2.854 10
0.8899 3.873 420
. . 0.06 2.854 10
1.7124 10 171.24
6. A single stage double acting compressor has a free air delivery (F.A.D) of 14 m3/min
measured at 1.013bar and 15○ C. The pressure and temperature in the cylinder during
induction are 0.95 bar and 32○ C respectively. The delivery pressure is 7 bar and index of
compression and expansion n=1.3. The clearance volume is 5% of the swept volume.
Calculate the indicated power required and the volumetric efficiency.
Given data:
14 , 1.013 101.3 , 15 15 273 288
0.95 95 , 32 32 273 305

7 700 , 1.3, 0.05
Solution:
1.013 14 305
15.81
288 0.95
..
1.3 15.81 700 .
1 95 1
1 1.3 1 60 95
63.51
63.51
180
700 .
1 1 1 0.05 1 81.76 %
95
7. Consider a single-acting 2- stage reciprocating air compressor running at 300 rpm. Air is
compressed at a rate of 4.5 kg/min from 1.013 bar and 288K through a pressure ratio of 9
to 1. Both the stages have the same pressure ratio and the index of compression and
expansion in both stages is 1.3. Assume a complete inter cooling, find the indicated
power and the cylinder swept volumes required. Assume that the clearance volumes of
both stages are 5% of their respective swept volumes.
Given Data:
300
4.5
4.5 / 0.075 /
60
1.013 101.30 , 288
1.3, 0.05
Solution:
0.075 0.287 288
0.061196
101.3
2 2 1.3 .
1 101.3 0.061196 9 . 1
1 1.3 1
15.504 W . .
1 1 1 0.05 9 . 1 77.90 %
. . ,
0.061196
0.779
0.061196 4.713
0.0786 4.713 0.01571
0.779 300
181
. . ,
0.061196
0.779
9
0.061196 0.5237
0.00873 0.5237 1.7457 10
0.779 9 300
OBJECTIVEQUESTIONS
1. The volume of air delivered by the compressor is called
(a) free air delivery (b) compressor capacity
(c) swept volume (d) none of these
2. The volume of air sucked by the compressor during its suction stroke is called
(a) free air delivery (b) compressor capacity
(c) swept volume (d) none of these
3. The ratio of work done per cycle to the stroke volume of the compressor is known as
(a) compressor capacity (b) compression ratio
(c) compressor efficiency (d) mean effective pressure
4. inter cooling in a multi stage reciprocating compressor helps the process of compression
come nearer to
(a) isothermal (b) adiabatic (c) polytropic (d) constant
volume
5. For a reciprocating compressor
(a) isothermal> adiabatic  (b) isothermal < adiabatic 
(c) compressor = isothermal  (d) compressor  = adiabatic 
6. The clearance volume in a reciprocating compressor has no effect on
(a) power of compressor (b) volumetric efficiency of compressor
(c) discharge of compressor (d) intake of compressor
7. The volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor normally lies between
(a) 40 to 50% (b) 55 to 65% (c) 70 to 90% (d) 95 to 100%
8. Which process does not take place in reciprocating compressor?
(a) constant temperature (b) constant volume (c) adiabatic (d) polytropic
9. For equal work in two cylinders of a compressor
(a) pressure ratio of two cylinders must be same
182
(b) index of compression in two cylinders must be same
(c) perfect inter cooling between the cylinders must be obtained
(d) all the three conditions must be fulfilled
10. In conjunction with a gas turbine the compressor used is
(a) reciprocating type (b) centrifugal type (c) axial flow type (d) screw type
11. The ideal process in a rotary compressor is
(a) isothermal (b) polytropic (c) adiabatic (d) none of these
12. The rotary compressors are used for delivering
(a) small quantities of air at high pressures (b) large quantities of air at high
pressures
(c) small quantities of air at low pressures (d) large quantities of air at low
pressures
13. The maximum delivery pressure in a rotary compressor is
(a) 10 bar (b) 20 bar (c) 30 bar (d) 40 bar
14. If the flow of air through the compressor is perpendicular to its axis, then it is a
(a) reciprocating compressor (b) centrifugal compressor
(c) axial flow compressor (d) turbo compressor
15. A compressor mostly used for super charging of I.C. engines is
(a) radial flow compressor (b) axial flow compressor
(c) roots blower (d) reciprocating compressor
16. Air is a mixture of gases (a) True (b) False
17. The positive displacement compressor is
(a) roots blower compressor (b) vane blower compressor
(c) centrifugal compressor (d) both (a) and (b)
18. In a reciprocating air compressor work done is minimum during __________
compression
(a) Isothermal (b) Isentropic (c) Polytropic (d) None of these
19. The pressure of air at the beginning of the compression is called as
(a) Compressor pressure (b) back pressure (c) initial pressure (d) delivery
pressure
20. Compression means
(a) decreasing the volume at constant pressure
(b) increasing the pressure at constant volume
(c) increasing the pressure by decreasing the volume
183
(d) decreasing the volume and increasing the temperature
21. Swept volume is given by

(a) VS   D
4 L
2
(b) VS  4 D 2 L 
(c) VS   D
2
4L  (d)

VS   D
2
4 L
22. Volumetric efficiency is given by
(a) 1 1 (b) 1 1
(c) 1 1 (d) 1 1
23. Clearance ratio does not have any effect on the

(a) work done / cycle (b) work done / kg of air
(c) work done / minute (d) none of the above
24. The clearance ratio is given by
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Where VS = Stroke volume, Va = Actual volume, VC = Clearance volume

25. In a reciprocating air compressor one cycle is completed in
(a) Each and every revolution of the crank (b) every two revolutions of the crank
(c) Four strokes of the piston (d) one stroke of the piston
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Mention any four uses of compressed air.
2. Define ‘Compression’.
3. What is the difference between a Reciprocating and a RotaryAir compressor?
4. What is meant by ‘Free air delivered’?
5. How is air compressors classified?
6. Define ‘Compressor Capacity’.
7. Define the following terms :
8. (i) Inlet pressure (ii) Discharge Pressure
9. Define the following terms :
10. (i) Pressure Ratio (ii) Swept volume.
11. What is the necessity for compressing air in multi stage air compressors?
12. What is ‘Inter cooling’?
184
13. What is the condition for minimum work required for two stage air compressors
with perfect inter cooling?
14. Define ‘Effectiveness’ of the Inter cooler.
15. Define the following ,
16. (i) Clearance ratio, (ii) Volumetric efficiency, (iii) Isothermal Efficiency, (iv)
Mechanical Efficiency.
17. Air is compressed from 1 bar to 7 bar absolute in a two stage air compressor.
What pressure in the inter cooler will give the best efficiency?
18. Write the equation for the work required for a multi stage compressor with N
stages?
19. What is the effect of clearance volume on the work done / Kg of air for a
reciprocating air compressor
20. What is positive displacement compressor?
21. What is centrifugal compressor?
22. What is axial flow compressor?
23. What is the difference between the single acting and double acting reciprocating
air compressor?
1. Describe the working of a single stage reciprocating air compressor with neat sketch.
2. What are the advantages of multi stage compression?
3. Describe an expression for the work done of a single stage reciprocating air
compressor with clearance.
4. Prove that the condition for minimum work required for a two stage reciprocating air
compressor with perfect inter cooling i.e., P2 = P1 P3
5. What are the classification of air compressor ?

6. What are the difference between reciprocating and rotary air compressors?
7. Explain the working of a centrifugal compressor with neat sketch.
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. Find the diameter and stroke of a single acting, single stage air compressor. The
pressure at the inlet and discharge are 1.1atm and 7.7atm respectively. The speed
of the compressor is 240rpm and the speed of the piston is limited to 150m/min.
185
The IP of the compressor is 10kW. Neglect the effect of clearance. Assume n=1.2
for compression and expansion. Also find the Mean Effective Pressure of the
compressor cycle.
2. A two stage compressor delivers 10m3 of free air per minute at 5ata to the
receiver. The temperature and pressure of the ambient air are 15oC and 1 atm.
o
The temperature and pressure of the air entering the HP cylinder are 25 C and
2atm. Assuming the suction and ambient conditions as same find the IP of the
compressor. Assume the compression and expansion are adiabatic. What pressure
in the intercooler would give the heat efficiency? Also determine the BP required
to run the compressor if mechanical efficiency is 90%.
3. A single stage air compressor with 300mm bore and 400mm stroke is required to
compress air from 1bar to 5bar. Find the power required to drive the compressor
running at 200rpm, when the compression of air is (a) Isothermal (b) adiabatic
with γ = 1.4.
4. A two stage air compressor takes in 22.5kg of air per minute at 15oC and 1 bar and
delivers it at 16.5bar. At the intermediate pressure it is cooled to initial
temperature. Compression follows the law PV1.2 =constant. Neglecting clearance,
determine the intermediate pressure that gives least work. Also find heat rejected
in the intercooler per minute and minimum power required to run the compressor.
5. A Compressor draws in 720 m3 / hr of air at 1 bar and 20C and discharges at 5
bar and 90C. Heat rejected by air to the cooling medium is 30 kJ/kg. Determine
the shaft work done on air in kJ/kg and mass of air handled. Neglect change in
kinetic and potential energy. Assume R = 0.284 and CV = 0.71 kJ/kgK.
6. A two stage single acting air compressor having capacity 4.5 m3/min measured
under free air conditions of 1.01325 and 15C. The pressure during the suction
stroke is 0.98 bar. The temperature of air at the start of compression in each stage
is 27C. The delivery pressure is 15 bar. The clearance volume in L.P. cylinder is
5 % of the stroke. The index of compression and expansion is 1.3 and aped is 140
rpm. The intercooler pressure is such that the work is shared equally between the
two cylinders. Determine,
(i) The indicated power and
(ii) The diameter and stroke of the L.P. cylinder if bore is equal to thestroke.
186
7. A small single acting compressor has a bore and stroke both of 10 cm and is
driven at 400 rpm. The clearance volume is 80 cm3 and the index of compression
and expansion is 1.2. The suction pressure is 0.95 bar and the delivery is 8 bar.
Calculate
(i) The volume of free air at 1.03 bar and 20C dealt with per minute, if the
temperature at the start of compression is 30C and
(ii) The mean effective pressure assuming constant suction and deliverypressure.
A single stage, single acting reciprocating air compressor has a bore of 200 mm
and a stroke of 300 mm. It receives air at 100 kPa and 15C and delivers it at 90
KPa. If index of polytropic compression is 1.3 and clearance volume is 4% of
swept volume, determine (a) mean effective pressure and (b) power required to
drive the compressor if it runs at 500 rpm.
8. A two stage double acting compressor compresses air to a delivery pressure of
20bar from atmospheric condition of 1 bar, 20 C. The condition of air at the inlet
of compression stroke is 0.98bar, 32C. Take perfect inter cooling of air between
stages. The size of low pressure cylinder is 400 mm bore with 500mm stroke. The
clearance ratio of both cylinders is 0.04. Speed = 240 rpm index of compression =
1.33. Find power required to run the compressor and heat rejected in the
intercooler.
9. A single stage double acting compressor runs at 300 rpm compress air upto a
delivery pressure of 7bar. The condition of air at atmosphere is 1.013 bar, 27C.
The same at the end of suction stroke is 0.98 bar, 40C. Take C = 0.04 and n =
1.3, L/D = 1.3. Find the volumetric efficiency, indicated power, isothermal
efficiency and cylinder dimensions.
187
CHAPTER – VI
REFRIGERATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration stands for the production of a cool confinement with respect to surroundings. It
may be defined as “The artificial withdrawal of heat, producing in a substance or within a
space a temperature lower than which would exist under the natural influence of surrounding.
Maintaining perishables at their required temperature is done by refrigeration. Not only
perishables but today many human work spaces, in offices and factory buildings are air-
conditioned and refrigeration unit is the heart of the system.
6.2 REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

The most efficient refrigeration cycle is reversed Carnot cycle as shown in figure 6.1. The
refrigerant absorbs heat at a constant temperature during the process 4 – 1 and is compressed
isentropically during the process 1 – 2. Heat rejection from the refrigerant to the cooling
medium takes place isothermally during the process 2 – 3 and then finally the refrigerant
expanded back to its original position through an isentropic expansion process 3 – 4. In
refrigeration cycle, output is to extract the maximum amount of heat in the evaporator for a
net expenditure of work in compressor. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the reversed
Carnot cycle is given as
Heat absorbed
COP =
Work input
Since the compression and expansion are isentropic and there is no heat transfer from the
system to the surroundings, the work input is the difference between heat rejection and heat
absorption.
Heat absorbed
COP =
Heat rejected - Heat absorbed
From the definition of entropy,

dQ T. ds
188
Since,
Where and are the absolute temperature at which heat absorption and heat rejection
takes place. Though reversed Carnot cycle gives the maximum COP for heat transfer between
two temperatures, it is very difficult to achieve this in actual refrigeration systems. A
combination of isentropic processes and isothermal processes is not possible to achieve in
steady flow conditions under which the actual refrigeration systems work.
The upper cycle temperature must be above the temperature of the atmosphere so that the
required rate of heat rejection can be accomplished. Similarly the lower cycle temperature
must be below the temperature of the cold chamber to enable the evaporator function and
these necessary temperature differences place a limit on the coefficient of performance
attainable.
6.2.1 Unit of refrigeration
Refrigeration is the process of heat removal, to produce and maintain a low temperature that
of the surroundings in a closed space. Unit of refrigeration is known as tonne of refrigeration
(TR). One tonne of refrigertiaon is equal to 3.5 kW. One tonne of refrigeration is equivalent
to the rate of heat removal required to produce 1000 kg of ice from water at 0 in one day.
1000 80 kcal
1 tonne of refrigeration 50
24 60 min
50 4.18
3.5 kW
60
6.3 BELL – COLEMAN CYCLE (REVERSED BRAYTON CYCLE)
In the Bell-Coleman cycle, heat absorption and rejection follow constant pressure processes
as shown in figure. The other two processes are isentropic.
Sequence of process
4-1 constant pressure heat absorption
1-2 isentropic compression
2-3 constant pressure heat rejection
3-4 isentropic expansion
189
Air refrigeration system is used mostly in aircrafts and work on Bell-Coleman cycle. Low
temperature air absorbs heat from the cold chamber during the process 4-1. This air is further
compressed isentropically during the process 1-2. Compressed air rejects the heat absorbed
and heat added during compression at constant pressure during the process 2-3. Isentropic
expansion 3-4 brings back to the initial condition. The COP of the Bell-Coleman cycle is,
heat absorbed or refrigerating effect

COP
work input
Compression and expansion are isentropic,
190
Heat absorbed mC T – T
Heat rejected mC T – T
Work input heat rejected heat absorbed mC T – T mC T – T
mC T – T T –T
COP
mC T – T mC T – T T –T T –T
1 1
T –T T
1 T –
T
T –T T 1
T –
T
T T T T
and
T T T T
T
COP
T T
Non-condensing (air) working fluid is used in air-standard refrigeration cycle. This cycle is
the reversed Brayton cycle and is used for the liquefaction of air, helium and also for aircraft
cooling systems.
6.4 VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM (VCR)

In a simple vapour compression system fundamental process are completed in one
cycle. These are:
Compression 2. Condensation
3. Expansion 4. Vapourisation
The flow diagram of such a cycle is shown in fig.
191
The vapour at low pressure and temperature enters the “compressor” which it is
compressed isentropically and subsequently its temperature and pressure increase
considerably. The vapour after leaving the compressor enters the “condenser” where it is
condensed into high pressure liquid and it is passes through the “expansion valve”, here it is
throttled down to a lower pressure and has a low temperature. After finding its way through
expansion valve it finally passes onto an “evaporator” where it extracts heat from the
surroundings or circulating fluid being refrigerated and vaporizes to low pressure vapour.
6.4.1. FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF SIMPLE VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM
Here follows the brief description of various parts of a Simple Vapor Compression System
shown in fig
(i) Compressor
The function of a compressor is to remove the vapour from the evaporator and to raise its
temperature and pressure to a point such that it (vapour) can be condensed with available
condensing media
.
(ii) Discharge Line (or Hot Gas Line)
A hot gas line or discharge line delivers the high pressure, high temperature vapourform the
discharge of the compressor to the condenser.
(iii) Condenser
The function of a condenser is to provide a heat transfer surface through which heat passes
from the hot refrigerant vapour to the condensing medium.
(iv) Receiver Tank

A receiver tank is used to provide storage for a condensed liquid so that a constant supply of
liquid is available to the evaporator as required.
(v) Liquid Line

A liquid line carries the liquid refrigerant from the receiver tank to the refrigerantflow
control.
192
(vi) E
Expansion Valve
V (refriggerant flow control)
Its functiion is to meter the proper amount of
o the refrigeerant to the evaporator and
a to reducce
the pressure of liquid
d entering thhe evaporatorr so that liquuid will vapoourize in the evaporator at
the desireed low tempperature and take out suff
fficient amouunt of heat.
(vii) E
Evaporator
An evapporator provvides a heatt transfer suurface throuugh which heat can pass from thhe
refrigeratted space intto the vapouurising refriggerant.
(viii) Suction Linee
nveys low prressure vapour form the evaporator to the suctioon inlet of thhe
The suctiion line con
compresssor.
6.4.2TH
HERMODYN
NAMIC AN
NALYSIS OF
O VAPOUR
R COMPRE
ESSION CY
YCLE
(i) When the evaporator
e is dry and ssaturated att the end of compressioon:
T T-s diagrram of the Vapour

The V Comppression refrrigeration syystem is giveen below.
A point 2 thhe vapour which
At w is at loow temperatture (T2) andd low pressu
ure enters thhe
compresssor cylinder and is com
mpressed adiaabatically to
o 3 when its temperaturee increases to
t
the tempeerature T1. It is then con
ndensed in thhe condenserr (line 3-4) where
w it givees up its latennt
heat to thhe condensinng medium. It then undeergoes throttling expansiion while paassing througgh
nsion valve and it again reduces to T2, it is reprresented by tthe line 4-1. From the T-s
the expan
diagram it may noted
d that due too this expanssion the liquuid partially evaporates, as its dryness
fraction is
i representeed by the raatio b1 / b2. At 1 it enteers the evaporator where it is furtheer
evaporateed at constaant pressuree and constaant temperatture to the point 2 and
d the cycle is
completeed.
Work done by the coompressor = W = area ‘22-3-4-b-2’
193
orbed = areaa ‘2-1-g-f-2’
Heat abso
C.O.P = (Heat extracted of refrig
gerating effeect / work do
one)
= [ (area 2-1-g-f-2) / (areaa 2-3-4-b-2) ]
C.O.P = (h2-h1) / (h3-h2) = (h2-h4) / (h3-h2)
(h1 = h4 since
s during the throttlin
ng expansionn 4-1 the totaal heat conteent remains unchanged).
u
(ii) W
When the va
apour is sup
perheated affter compression:
Iff the compreession of thee vapour is ccontinued aftter it has beccome dry, thhe vapour wiill
be superrheated, its effect on T-s diagram
m is shownn in figure. The vapou
ur enters thhe
compresssor at condittion 2 and it
i is compresssed to 3 wh
here it is suuperheated too temperaturre
Tsup. Theen it enters the
t condenseer. Here firsstly superheaated vapour cools the teemperature T1
nted by the line 3-31) and
(represen d then it conndenses at coonstant tempperature alonng the line 31-
4; the rem
maining of th
he cycle; how
wever is the same as beffore.
N work do
Now 2-3-31-4-b-2’
one = area ‘2
annd heat extraacted / absorrbed = area ‘‘2-1-g-f-2’
at extracted area '2-1-gg-f-2' h2  h1
Hea
C.O.P   
woork done '2-3-31 -4-bb-2' h3  h2
Inn this case h3 = h31 + CP (Tsup – Tsat) and h31 = en

nthalpy of drry and saturaated vapour at
the point 31.
(iii) When the vapour is wet
w after com
mpression:
194
Worrk done by th
he compresssor = area ‘2-3-4-b-2’
Heat extracted = area ‘2-1-g--f-2’
at extracted area '2-1-gg-f-2' h2  h1

Hea
C.O.P   
woork done '2-3-4-b--2' h3  h2
Note: Iff the vaopurr is not supperheated affter compresssion, the opperation is called ‘WE
ET
COMPRE
ESSION’ an
nd if the vap
pour is superrheated at th
he end of com
mpression, it
i is known as
a
‘DRY CO
OMPRESSION’, in actuual practice is always prreferred as iit gives highher volumetrric
efficiencyy and mechaanical efficieency and theere are less changes of coompressor daamage.
6.4.3 EFFECT OF SUPERHEA

S ATING
As may be seen
n from the fiigure the effe
fect of superhheating is to increase thee refrigeratinng
effeect but this inncrease in reefrigerating effect is at thhe cost of inncrease in am
mount of worrk
speent to attain the
t upper prressure limit. Since the increase in w
work is moree as compareed
to increase
i in refrigerating
r g effect, therrefore overalll effect the superheatinng is to give a
low
w value of C..O.P.
195
FFECT OF SUB-COOL
6.4.4. EF LING OF L
LIQUID
Sub-ccooling is the
t process of coolingg the liquidd refrigerantt below thee condensinng
tempeerature for a given presssure. In the figure the process of suub-cooling iss shown by 4-
4
41. As
A is evident from the figgure the effe
fect of sub-coooling is to increase thee refrigeratinng
effectt. The sub-co
ooling resultts in increasee of C.O.P. provided
p thaat no further energy has to
t
spentt to obtain th
he extra coldd coolant requuired.
The sub-cooling or under

u coolingg may be donne by any off the followiing methods::
(i) Inserting a special coiil between thhe condenserr and expanssion valve.
(ii) Circulatin uantity of cooling water through the condenser.
ng greater qu
196
6.5 PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANT
A substance which absorbs heat through expansion or vaporization is termed as a refrigerant.

An ideal refrigerant should possess chemical, physical and thermodynamic properties which
permit its efficient application in the refrigerating system. An ideal refrigerant should have
the following properties:
(i) Low boiling point
(ii) High critical temperature
(iii) High latent heat of vaporization
(iv) Low specific heat of liquid
(v) Low specific volume of vapour
(vi) Non corrosive to metal
(vii) Non-Flammable and Non- Explosive
(viii) Non- toxic
(ix) Easy to liquefy at moderate pressure and temperature
(x) Easy of locating leaks by odour or suitable indicator
(xi) Low Cost
(xii) Mixes well with oil.
6.6. VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM (VAR)
197
In vapour absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber, a pump and a
generator. In the ammonia absorption system, low pressure ammonia leaving the evaporator
is absorbed in water in an absorber. Heat is to be removed during the process by circulating
the cold water. Thestrong ammonia solution is then pumped to the generator. The pump
increases, pressure of strong ammonia solution to that desired in the condenser. Ammonia is
liberated from the solution as heat is supplied to the generator. Ammonia vapour then goes to
the condenser, where it is condensed. The high pressure liquid ammonia then passes through
the expansion valve or throttle valve. The high pressure liquid is converted into a very wet
vapour at low pressure and temperature during this process.
The Low pressure liquid ammonia goes to the evaporator, where it extracts the latent heat of
evaporation from the substance to be cooled. The ammonia vapor coming out of evaporator is
fairly dry and enters the absorber where it mixes with the cold water. This completes the
cycle.
The hot weak ammonia solution left at the bottom of the generator is first throttled to low
pressure by passing it through pressure reducing valve and then passed into the absorber.
In actual practice, vapour absorption system is fitted with a heat exchanger, an analyzer and a
rectifier to improve the efficiency of the system.
The coefficient of performance of the absorption system is defined as,

Refrigerating effect
COP
heat addition at generator pump work
COP of the absorption system is always (=0.6) lower than that of the vapour compression
system (=3).
In actual practice, the vapour absorption system is fitted with heat exchanger, analyser and a
rectifier as shown in Fig. 6.9 to improve the efficiency of the plant.
198
Heat exchanger
The capacity of water at high temperature for absorbing ammonia vapour is low. So the hot
weak solution coming from the generator to the absorber must be cooled. The heat removed
from the weak solution may be used to raise the temperature of the strong solution coming
from the absorber and going to the generator. The heat transfer is accomplished by replacing
a counter flow heat exchanger between the pump and the generator. It increases the economy
of the plant.
Analyser
The ammonia vapour contains water vapour while leaving the generator. The water vapour is
to be removed before the ammonia vapour enters the condenser otherwise it will freeze at the
throttle valve. The water vapour partly removed by passing the ammonia vapour through an
analyser containing a series of trays.
Rectifier
The rectifier removes the remaining water vapour from the ammonia vapour coming out from
the analyser by providing water cooling. The condensed liquid is returned to the upper part of
the analyser by a drip return pipe. Rectifier is fitted before the condenser.
Water can also be used as refrigerant in a vapour absorption refrigerator at the temperature
levels which prevail in air-conditioning plant and heat pumps. Common absorbent in the case
199
is lithium bromide. It is a good absorber because it does not evaporate at the generator
temperature. Water – lithium bromide system is simpler and its COP is higher than ammonia-
water absorption system
Ammonia vapour absorption refrigerator has a COP of less than unity and is rarely used
unless waste heat is available from existing source.
6.7. COMPARISON BETWEEN VAPOUR ABSORPTION AND VAPOUR

COMPRESSIONREFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Energy:The vapour absorption system operates on thermal energy a comparatively much

cheaper form of energy as compared to the mechanical or electrical energy required for the
operation of the vapour compression system.
Moving parts: The only moving part in the vapour absorption system is the pump for the
delivery of the strong mixture. Since the size of the pump is quite small compared to the
compressor, its cost is very low. However, the two major components are involved such as
the absorber and generator which are not very costly. In addition the compressor causes
vibration for which the strong foundation has to be provided. This is not so for the pump.
Quality of refrigerant: The vapour temperature leaving the generator is slightly superheated
and is controlled by the heat exchangers provided after the generator. But, for the vapour
compression the degree of superheat is governed by the suction state of the vapour.
Evaporator pressure: The capacity of the absorption system is controlled by adjusting the
steam or generator temperature even if the evaporator pressure falls. On the other hand, the
capacity of the compression system decreases rapidly with the reduced evaporator pressure.
COP: The COP the absorption system is usually much lower in magnitude than the
compression system. But this low value of the former is not of much importance since it uses
the waste energy. Thus the selection of the above system should be based on the overall cost.
200
Effect of load variation on COP: The absorption system can be operated at the same COP
as the designed value by the appropriate control of the generator temperature even at part
load or reduced evaporator conditions.
Capacity: The capacity of the absorption system may run into hundreds of tons in asingle
unit since there is no bar like the inertial force of the reciprocating masses of the compression
system. Hence for the large capacity compression systems multi-cylinder compressors are
used with bore and stroke around 100 to 150 mm and operating sped around 900 to 1200 rpm.
Thus the compression system becomes much more costly than the absorption system for a
large tonnage.
Maintenance: Since the only moving parts involved are pumping equipments,
itsmaintenance is comparatively much less than the compression system. The additional
maintenance of absorber, generator, etc., is much less due to static components.
Wastage of refrigerants: There is less wastage of refrigerant in case of absorption system

compared to the compression system due to leakage through the shaft seal.
Space: For all units the absorption system is rather bulky compared to the compression
system. The absorption system is much more compact and less bulky than the compression
system for large capacity.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A dense air machine operates on a reversed Joule cycle and is required for a capacity of 12 TOR.
The cooler pressure is 4.2 bar and the refrigerator pressures is 1.4 bar. The air is cooled in the
cooler to a temperature of 47 and the temperature of air at the inlet of compressor is – 17 .
Determine for the ideal cycle, a) COP, b) mass of air circulated per min, c) theoretical piston
displacement of compressor, d) theoretical displacement of expander, e) net power per ton of
refrigeration.
Given
Tonnage of refrigeration TOR 12 TR 12 3.5 42 kW
T 17 256 K
P P 1.4 bar
T 47 320 K
201
P P 4.2 bar
Solution
Assume both compression and expansion is isentropic
Compression process 1 2
.
4.2 .
256 350.39
1.4
Expansion process 3 4
233.79
233.79
COP 2.71
320 233.79
Refrigerating Effect N mC
Refrigerating Effect 42 kg
m 1.88
C 1.005 256 233.79 sec
Theoretical displacement of compressor
1.88 0.287 256 m
0.986
140 sec
Theoretical displacement of expander
1.88 0.287 233.79 m
0.9
140 sec
Network done heat supplied heat rejected C C
kJ
Network done 1.005 350.39 320 1.005 256 233.79 8.22 1.88 8.22
kg
15.46 kW
15.46 kW 1.29
12 ton
2. A refrigerator works between -7 and 27 . The vapour is dry at the end of the adiabatic
compression. There is no under cooling, the evaporation is done by throttle valve. Determine i)
COP, ii) power of compressor to remove 12140 kJ/hr.
Given
T 7 246 K
202
T 27 300 K
Quantity of heat removed= 12140 kJ/hr
Solution
The following details can be taken from the refrigeration tables
Properties of refrigerant
Temperature Sensible Heat Latent Heat( Entropy of Liquid Entropy of
( kJ/kg kJ/kg ( kJ/kg K Vapour ( kJ/kg
K
-7 -29.3 1297.9 -0.109 4.748
27 117.23 1172.3 0.427 4.333
h h xh
Vapour is dry saturated so x 1
kJ
h h xh 117.23 1172.3 1289.53
kg
s s xs
Vapour is dry saturated so x 1
kJ
s s 4.333
kg K
s s 4.333 s xs
4.333 0.109 x 4.748 0.109
4.333 .109
x 0.914
4.857
h h xh 29.3 0.914 1297.9 1157 kJ/kg
h h 117.23 kJ/kg
h h 1157 117.23
COP 7.85
h h 1289.53 1157
kJ 12140
Quantity of heat removed 12140 3.37 kW
hr 3600
Refrigerating Effect N m h h
3.37 kg
m 0.00324
1039.77 sec
Power of the compressor m h h 0.00324 1289.53 1157 0.429 kW
203
APTITUTDE QUESTIONS
1. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, the refrigerant is in liquid state or very wet
vapour between
(a) compressor and condenser (b) condenser and expansion valve
(c) expansion valve and evaporator (d) evaporator and condenser
2. Which component of the refrigeration system controls the flow of refrigerant?
(a) expansion valve (b) condenser (c) compressor (d) evaporator
3. The highest temperature during the cycle, in a vapour compression refrigeration system
occurs after
(a) compression (b) condensation (c) expansion (d) evaporation
4. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, the lowest temperature during the cycle
occurs after
(a) compression (b) condensation (c) expansion (d) evaporation
5. In a domestic vapour compression refrigerator, the refrigerant commonly used is
(a) CO2 (b) Ammonia (c) Freon-12 (d) all of these
6. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, sub cooling the liquid refrigerant is to COP
(a) increase (b) decrease
7. The leakage of refrigerant from a system is detected by
(a) halide torch test (b) soap and water test
(c) sulphur candle test (d) any of the above
8. An ordinary passenger aircraft requires a cooling system of capacity
(a) 2 TR (b) 4 TR (c) 8 TR
9. The simple air cooling system is good for _____ flight speeds.
(a) low (b) high
10. A boot strap air cooling system has
(a) one heat exchanger (b) two heat exchangers
(c) three heat exchangers (d) four heat exchangers
11. The air cooling system mostly used in transport type aircraft is
(a) simple air cooling system (b) simple evaporative air cooling system
(c) boot strap air cooling system (d) all of the above
State the function of each of the components of a vapour compression refrigerating system
with the help of a neat sketch.
204
1. Mention the advantages of vapour compression refrigeration system over air
refrigeration system.
2. Describe with the help of a diagram the working of a Vapour absorption refrigeration
system
3. What are the merits of vapour absorption refrigeration system over vapour compression
refrigeration system?
4. State the important properties of good refrigerant. What are the normal refrigerants
used?
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. A Bell-Coleman cycle works between 1 bar and 5 bar. The adiabatic efficiency of
compression is 85% and the expansion is 90%. Find the COP of the system and the ton of
refrigeration when the air flow rate is 1 kg/sec. the ambient temperature is 27 and the
refrigerator temperature is 0 .
2. A Bell-Coleman cycle works between 1 bar and 6 bar. Compression follows PV1.25=constant
and expansion follows PV1.3 = constant. Find COP and capacity of unit in tons of refrigeration
if the air flow is 0.5 kg/sec. assume compression and expansion begin at 7 and 37
respectively. Neglect clearance.
3. In an aircraft cooling system, the air at 0.1 MPa and 4 is compressed to 0.3 MPa with an
isentropic efficiency of compressor of 72% after being cooled to 55 at constant pressure in
heat exchanger in a turbine to 0.1 MPa with an isentropic efficiency of 78%. The low
temperature air absorbs a cooling load of 3 tons at a constant pressure before entering the
compressor which is driven by the turbine. Determine a) COP of the refrigerator, ii) the
driving power required, iii) mass flow rate.
4. A 5 ton refrigeration plant uses R12 as refrigerant. It enters the compressor at – 5 as

saturated vapour. Condensation takes place at 32 and there is no under-cooling of
refrigerant liquid. Assuming isentropic compression, find i) COP of the plant, ii) mass flow of
refrigerant, iii) power required to run the compressor in kW. Take Cp(saturated vapour) =
0.615 kJ/ kg K.
5. A vapour compression refrigeration system using R12 has a condensing temperature

of 50 and evaporating temperature of 0 . The refrigeration capacity is 7 tons. The
205
liquid leaving the condenser is saturated liquid and compression is isentropic. The
vapour leaving the evaporator is dry saturated. Assume that the enthalpy at the end of
compression is 210 kJ/kg. determine, i) refrigeration flow rate, ii) power required to
run the compressor, iii) heat rejected in the plant, iv) COP of the system.
6. A refrigeration system has working temperature of -30ºC and 40ºC. What is the
maximum C.O.P. possible? If the actual C.O.P. is 75% of the maximum. Calculate the
actual refrigerating effect produced per kW hour.
7. A Bell - Coleman refrigerator works between 4 bar and 1 bar pressure limits. After
compression, the cooling water reduces the air temperature to 17ºC. What is the
lowest temperature produced by the ideal machine? Compare the coefficient of
performance of this machine with that of the ideal carnot cycle machine working
between the same pressure limits, the temperature at the beginning of compression
being -13ºC.
8. A dense air refrigerating system operating between pressures of 17.5 bar and 3.5 bar
is to produce 10 tonne of refrigeration. Air leaves the refrigerating coils at -7ºC and it
leaves the air cooler at 15.5ºC. Neglecting the losses and clearance, calculate the
network done per minute and the co efficient of performance. For air, CP = 1.005
kJ/kg K and  = 1.4.
9. An air refrigeration system is used for food storage provides 25 TR. The temperature
of air entering the compressor is 7ºC and the temperature at exit of cooler is 27ºC.
Find (a) C.O.P. of the cycle, and (b) power per tonne of refrigeration required by the
compressor. The quantity of air calculated in the system is 3000 kg/hr. The
compression and expansion both follows the law pv1.3 = constant and take  = 1.4 and
CP = 1 for air.
10. The following data refers to a simple aircraft refrigeration system:

Ram air temperature and pressure: 30ºC and 1 atm.
Cabin air temperature and pressure: 27ºC and 1 atm.
Pressure at the exit of main compressor: 4.5 bar.
Cooling load: 21 kW
206
Determine (a) tonnage, (b) mass of the bled air from the main compressor for
refrigeration,
(c) Heat rejection, (d) power, (e) COP and (f) power supplied to the blower.
11. A refrigerator works between -7°C and 27°C. The vapour is dry at the end of
compression. There is no under cooling and evaporation is by throttle valve.
Determine:
(i) The coefficient of performance.
(ii) Power of the compressor to remove 180 kJ/min
The properties of the refrigerant are as under:
Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kgK)

Temp. (°C) Liquid (hf) Latent (hfg) Liquid (Sf) Vapour (Sg)
-7 -30 1298 -0.108 4.75
27 115 1173 427 4.33
12. A F12vapour compression refrigerator system has a condensing temperature of 50°C

and evaporating temperature of 0°C. The refrigeration capacity is 7 tonnes. The liquid
leaving the condenser is saturated liquid and compression is isentropic. Determine:
a. The refrigerant flow rate.
b. The power required to run the compressor
c. The heat rejected in the plant
d. COP of the system
Pressure
Temp (°C) hf (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg) Sf (kJ/kgK) Sg (kJ/kgK)
(bar)
50 12.199 84.868 206.298 0.3034 0.6792
0 3.086 36.022 187.397 0.1418 0.6960
Take the enthalpy at the end of isentropic compression = 210 kJ/kg.
13. An ammonia refrigerator produces 20 tonnes of ice per day from and at 0°C. The
condensation and evaporation takes at 20°C and -20°C respectively. The temperature
207
of vapour at the end of isentropic compression is 50°C and there is no under cooling
of the liquid. The actual COP is 70% of the theoretical COP. Determine:
(i) The rate of NH3 circulation.
(ii) The size of single acting compressor when running at 240 rpm assuming L =
D and volumetric efficiency of 80%.
Take hfg (fusion of ice) = 335 kJ/kg
Use the properties of NH3 as listed below.
Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy (kJ/kgK)
Temp. (°C)
hf hfg Sf Sg
20 274.98 1461.58 1.04341 5.0919
-20 89.72 1419.05 0.3682 5.6204
Take (Vsup) Specific volume of dry vapour at -20°C = 0.624 m3/kg. Specific heat of
superheated vapour = 2.8 kJ/kgK.
14. A commercial refrigerator operates with R-12 between 1.236 bar and 13.672 bar. The
vapour is dry and saturated at the compressor inlet. Assuming isentropic compression,
determine the theoretical COP of the plant. The isentropic discharge temperature is
68ºC. If the actual COP is 80% of theoretical, calculate the power required to run the
compressor to obtain a refrigerating capacity of 1TR. If the liquid refrigerant from the
condenser is sub cooled through 10ºC. Calculate the power/TR. Assume specific heat
of liquid is 1.05 kJ/kg.
15. A refrigeration system of 10.5 tonnes capacity at an evaporator temperature of -12ºC
and condenser temperature of 27ºC is needed in a food storage locker. The refrigerant
ammonia is sub cooled by 6ºC before entering the expansion valve. The vapour is
0.95 dry as it leaves the evaporator coil. The compression is of adiabatic type.
Using ph chart find:
(i) Condition of vapour at outlet of the compressor.
(ii) Condition of vapour at entrance to evaporator.
(iii) C.O.P. and
(iv) Power required in kW.
Neglect valve throttling and clearance effect.
16. An R-134a refrigeration system operates between the pressure limits of 1.6 bar and 10
bar respectively. The heat transfer from the condenser is found to be 72 kJ/min. The
refrigerantvapour leaves the evaporator in the saturated state. The condensate leaves
208
the condenser in just saturated state. The refrigerant flow rate through the system is
found to be 0.4 kg/min.obtain (a) COP, (b) capacity of the plant and (c) the energy
input to the compressor.
Pressure (bar) hf (kJ/kg) hfg (kJ/kg) hg (kJ/kg) Sf (kJ/kgK) Sg (kJ/kgK)

1.6 29.78 208.18 237.97 0.1211 0.9295
10 105.29 162.68 267.97 0.3838 0.9043
209
CHAPTER – VII
AIR-CONDITIONING
7.1 PSYCHROMETRY
It deals with the state of atmosphere with respect to moisture content. On the other hand
psychometrics deals with the thermal properties of air and the control and measurement s of
the moisture content in air in addition to study the effects of atmospheric moisture on
commodities and the human comforts.
7.1.1 IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Dry bulb temperature (DBT)

The temperature of an air or gas is measured by using an ordinary error free thermometer is
called Dry Bulb Temperature. It is denoted by .
Wet bulb temperature (WBT)

The temperature of an air or gas is measured by using an ordinary error free thermometer
whose temperature sensing bulb is covered by a wet cloth is called Wet Bulb Temperature.
The air stream flows across the bulb with a velocity of 4.5 m/s. It is denoted by .
Dew Point Temperature (DPT)

It is defined as a temperature at which moisture present in the humid air starts condensing.
This temperature is saturation temperature of water vapour at its partial pressure. It is denoted
by .
Humidity Ratio or Specific Humidity

It is defined as the ratio of mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air in certain volume of
mixture.
0.622 0.622
Relative humidity
210
It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour in air in a given volume at given temperature to the
mass of water vapour contained in the same volume at same temperature when the air is
saturated. It is denoted by φ.
Saturated air
A mixture of dry air and water vapour in which the partial pressure of the vapourisequal to
saturation pressure of water at same temperature of the mixture, is called saturated air.
Degree of saturation
It is defined as a ratio of the mass of the water vapour at a given temperature associated with
the unit mass of dry air to the mass of the water vapour associated withthe unit weight of
saturated air at same temperature. It is denoted by .
7.2 PSYCHROMETRIC CHARTS
The psychrometric charts are plotted with dry bulb and specific humidity
coordinates. The lines of constant wet bulb temperature, relative humidity, specific volume,
etc are plotted. In some charts other details are also available to help boost the various
calculations. The accurate empherical relations are employed to evaluate various quantities to
a greater accuracy.
211
Unless the chart is made on the large sheets, it is not possible to show the constant
enthalpy and wet bulb temperature lines separately. Hence, on those charts which represent
both the constant wet bulb temperature and enthalpy by a single line give the slight error.
Therefore the enthalpy deviation lines are provided.
Psychrometric charts are also available which can be used to solve problems involving
atmospheric pressures other than standard value. For this saturation lines for other
atmospheric pressures are plotted on the standard chart. The following figure shows the lines
of constant Twb for different pressures. The chart also gives the relation among Tdb, w,
relative humidity, dew point temperature, enthalpy and atmospheric pressure Tdp
7.3 Psychrometric Processes
In the domestic and industrial air conditioning applications some psychrometric processes
have to be performed on the air to change the psychrometric properties of air so as to obtain
certain values of temperature and humidity of air within the enclosed space. Some of the
common psychrometric processes carried out on air are: sensible heating and cooling of air,
humidification and dehumidification of air, mixing of various streams of air, or there may be
5
combinations of the various processes.
Illustrating and analyzing the psychrometric properties and psychrometric processes by using
the psychrometric chart is very easy, convenient and time saving.
7.3.1Sensible Cooling
Cooling of the air is one of the most common psychrometric processes in the air conditioning
systems. The basic function of the air-conditioners is to cool the air absorbed from the room
or the atmosphere, which is at higher temperatures. The sensible cooling of air is the process
in which only the sensible heat of the air is removed so as to reduce its temperature, and there
is no change in the moisture content (kg/kg of dry air) of the air. During sensible cooling
process the dry bulb (DBT) temperature and wet bulb (WBT) temperature of the air reduces,
while the latent heat of the air and the dew point (DPT) temperature of the air remains
constant. There is overall reduction in the enthalpy of the air.
212
In the ordinary window or the split air conditioner the cooling of air is carried out by passing
it over the evaporator coil, also called as the cooling coil. The room air or the atmospheric air
passes over this coil carrying the refrigerant at extremely low temperatures, and gets cooled
and passes to the space which is to be maintained at the comfort conditions.
In general the sensible cooling process is carried out by passing the air over the coil. In the
unitary air conditioners these coils are cooled by the refrigerant passing through them and are
called also called evaporator coils. In central air conditioners these coils are cooled by the
chilled water, which is chilled by its passage through the evaporator of the large air
conditioning system. In certain cases the coil is also cooled by the some gas passing inside it.
The sensible cooling process is represented by a straight horizontal line on the psychrometric
chart. The line starts from the initial DBT of the air and ends at the final DBT of the air
extending towards the left side from high temperature to the low temperature (see the figure
below). The sensible cooling line is also the constant DPT line since the moisture content of
the air remains constant. The initial and final points on the psychrometric chart give all the
properties of the air.
213
7.3.2 Sensible Heating
Sensible heating process is opposite to sensible cooling process. In sensible heating process
the temperature of air is increased without changing its moisture content. During this process
the sensible heat, DB and WB temperature of the air increases while latent of air, and the DP
point temperature of the air remains constant.
Sensible heating of the air is important when the air conditioner is used as the heat pump to
heat the air. In the heat pump the air is heated by passing it over the condenser coil or the
heating coil that carry the high temperature refrigerant. In some cases the heating of air is
also done to suit different industrial and comfort air-conditioning applications where large air
conditioning systems are used.
In general the sensible heating process is carried out by passing the air over the heating coil.
This coil may be heated by passing the refrigerant, the hot water, the steam or by electric
resistance heating coil. The hot water and steam are used for the industrial applications.
Like the sensible cooling, the sensible heating process is also represented by a straight
horizontal line on the psychrometric chart. The line starts from the initial DBT of air and ends
at the final temperature extending towards the right (see the figure). The sensible heating line
is also the constant DPT line.
214
7.3.4 Humidification Process
The process in which the moisture or water vapor or humidity is added to the air without
changing its dry bulb (DBT) temperature is called as humidification process. This process is
represented by a straight vertical line on the psychrometric chart starting from the initial
value of relative humidity, extending upwards and ending at the final value of the relative
humidity. In actual practice the pure humidification process is not possible, since the
humidification is always accompanied by cooling or heating of the air. Humidification
process along with cooling or heating is used in number of air conditioning applications.
(i) Cooling and Humidification Process
Cooling and humidification process is one of the most commonly used air conditioning
application for the cooling purposes. In this process the moisture is added to the air by
passing it over the stream or spray of water which is at temperature lower than the dry bulb
temperature of the air. When the ordinary air passes over the stream of water, the particles of
water present within the stream tend to get evaporated by giving up the heat to the stream.
The evaporated water is absorbed by the air so its moisture content, thus the humidity
increases. At the same time, since the temperature of the absorbed moisture is less than the
DBT of the air, there is reduction in the overall temperature of the air. Since the heat is
released in the stream or spray of water, its temperature increases.
One of the most popular applications of cooling and humidification is the evaporative cooler,
also called as the desert cooler. The evaporative cooler is the sort of big box inside which is a
small water tank, small water pump and the fan. The water from the tank is circulated by the
pump and is also sprayed inside the box. The fan blows strong currents of air over the water
sprays, thus cooling the air and humidifying it simultaneously. The evaporative cooler is
highly effective cooling devise having very low initial and running cost compared to the
unitary air conditioners. For cooling purposes, the cooling and humidification process can be
used only in dry and hot climates like desert areas, countries like India, China, Africa etc.
This cooling process cannot be used in hot and high humidity climates.
The cooling and humidification process is also used in various industries like textile, where
certain level of temperature and moisture content has to be maintained. In such cases large
215
quantity of water is sprayed, and large blowers are used to blow the air over the spray of
water.
During the cooling and humidification process the DBT of the air reduces, its WBT and the
dew point temperature (DPT) increases, while its moisture content and thus the relative
humidity also increases. Also, the sensible heat of the air reduces, while the latent heat of the
air increases resulting in the overall increase in the enthalpy of the air.
Cooling and humidification process is represented by an angular line on the psychrometric

chart starting from the given value of the dry bulb temperature and the relative humidity and
extending upwards toward left.
(ii) Heating and Humidification Process
In heating and humidification psychrometric process of the air, the dry bulb temperature as
well as the humidity of the air increases. The heating and humidification process is carried
out by passing the air over spray of water, which is maintained at temperature higher than the
dry bulb temperature of air or by mixing air and the steam.
When the ordinary air is passed over the spray of water maintained at temperature higher than
the dry bulb temperature of the air, the moisture particles from the spray tend to get
evaporated and get absorbed in the air due to which the moisture content of the air increase.
216
At the same time, since the temperature of the moisture is greater than the dry bulb
temperature of the air, there is overall increase in its temperature.
During heating and humidification process the dry bulb, wet bulb, and dew point temperature
of the air increases along with its relative humidity. The heating and humidification process is
represented on the psychrometric chart by an angular line that starts from the given value of
the dry bulb temperature and extends upwards towards right.
7.3.5 Dehumidification
The process in which the moisture or water vapor or the humidity is removed from the air
keeping its dry bulb temperature (DBT) constant is called as the dehumidification process.
This process is represented by a straight vertical line on the psychrometric chart starting from
the initial value of relative humidity, extending downwards and ending at the final value of
the relative humidity. Like the pure humidification process, in actual practice the pure
dehumidification process is not possible, since the dehumidification is always accompanied
by cooling or heating of the air. Dehumidification process along with cooling or heating is
used in number of air conditioning applications. Let us see how these processes are obtained
and how they are represented on the psychrometric chart.
217
This article describes psychrometric processes like dehumidification, cooling and
dehumidification, and heating and dehumidification. The article describes how these
processes are achieved and how they are represented on the psychrometric chart.
(i) Cooling and Dehumidification Process
The process in which the air is cooled sensibly and at the same time the moisture is removed
from it is called as cooling and dehumidification process. Cooling and dehumidification
process is obtained when the air at the given dry bulb and dew point (DPT) temperature is
cooled below the dew point temperature.
Let us understand the cooling and dehumidification process in more details. When the air
comes in contact with the cooling coil that is maintained at the temperature below its dew
point temperature, its DBT starts reducing. The process of cooling continues and at some
point it reaches the value of dew point temperature of the air. At this point the water vapor
within the air starts getting converted into the dew particles due to which the dew is formed
on the surface of the cooling and the moisture content of the air reduces thereby reducing its
humidity level. Thus when the air is cooled below its dew point temperature, there is cooling
as well as dehumidification of air.
The cooling and dehumidification process is most widely used air conditioning application. It
is used in all types of window, split, packaged and central air conditioning systems for
producing the comfort conditions inside the space to be cooled. In the window and split air
conditioners the evaporator coil or cooling coil is maintained at temperature lower than the
dew point temperature of the room air or the atmospheric air by the cool refrigerant passing
through it. When the room air passes over this coil its Dry Bulb Temperature reduces and at
the same time moisture is also removed since the air is cooled below its Dew Point
Temperature. The dew formed on the cooling coil is removed out by small tubing. In the
central air conditioning systems the cooling coil is cooled by the refrigerant or the chilled
water. When the room air passes over this coil, it gets cooled and dehumidified.
In the general the cooling and dehumidification process is obtained by passing the air over
coil through which the cool refrigerant, chilled water or cooled gas is passed.
During the cooling and dehumidification process the dry bulb, wet bulb and the dew point
temperature of air reduces. Similarly, the sensible heat and the latent heat of the air also
reduce leading to overall reduction in the enthalpy of the air. The cooling and
218
dehumidification process is represented by a straight angular line on the psychrometric chart.
The line starts from the given value of the DBT and extends downwards towards left.
(ii) Heating and Dehumidification Process
The process in which the air is heated and at the same time moisture is removed from it is
called as heating and dehumidification process. This process is obtained by passing the air
over certain chemicals like alumina and molecular sieves. These elements have inherent
properties due to which they keep on releasing the heat and also have the tendency to absorb
the moisture. These are called as the hygroscopic chemicals.
In actual practice the hygroscopic elements are enclosed in the large vessel and the high
pressure air is passed inside the vessel through one opening. When the air comes in contact
with the chemicals the moisture from the air is absorbed and since the chemicals emit heat,
the DBT of the air increases. The hot and dehumidified air comes out from the vessel through
other opening in the vessel. The inlet and outlet openings of the vessel are controlled by the
valve.
The heating and humidification process is commonly used for reducing the dew point
temperature of air. There are number of automatic valves in the chemical plants that are
operated by the compressed air at high pressure. If the dew point temperature of this air is
high, there are chances of formation of dew inside the valves which can lead to their
corrosion and also faulty their operation. Thus it is very important that the air passing to such
automatic valves have very low dew point temperature. The heating and dehumidification
process by using hygroscopic materials is used often in the air drying units.
219
During the heating and dehumidification process dry bulb temperature of the air increases
while its dew point and wet bulb temperature reduces. On the psychrometric chart, this
process is represented by a straight angular line starting from the given DBT conditions and
extending downwards towards right to the final DBT conditions.
7.3.6 Adiabatic Saturation
The thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or adiabatic saturation temperature is the

temperature on which the air might be brought to saturation state, adiabatically, from the
evaporation of water in the flowing air.
The equipment utilized for the adiabatic saturation of air, in its easiest form, contain an
insulated chamber having sufficient quantity of water. There is also an arrangement for
additional water (known as make-up water) to flow into the chamber from its top, as
illustrated in figure
220
Adiabatic Saturation of Air
Consider the unsaturated air enters the chamber at section 1. Since the air flow through the
chamber on a long sheet of water, the water evaporates that is carried with the passing stream
of air, and the specific humidity of the air enhanced. The form water is added to the chamber
at this temperature to do the water level constant. The air and water both are cooled up as the
evaporation occur. This procedure continues till the energy transferred through the air to the
water is equivalent to the energy needed to vaporise the water. While steady conditions are
attained, the air passing on section two is saturated along water vapour. The temperature of
the saturated air at section 2 is called as thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or adiabatic
saturation temperature.
7.3.7 MIXING OF AIR STREAMS
It is another important process where more than one stream of air are mixed such as the
mixing of fresh and return air in the air conditioning, cold storage, etc. The following figure
indicates the two streams air being mixed together.
The states points are represented on the psychrometric chart. Using fundamental equations, it
is written as:
221
m m m 1
m w m w m w 2
And, the energy equation,
m h m h m h 3
Where m, w and h are the mass of dry air, specific humidity and enthalpy both per unit mass
of dry air
Sub 1 in 2 & 3 , We get,
Similarly
Therefore the resulting state of the mixture lies on a straight line on the psychrometric chart.
In some cases the state of mixture of air lies outside the saturation point i.e., 3’ on the line
1’2’. It is often referred to as fog condition. This state is not desirable for an air conditioning
system.
222
7.4 COOLING AND HEATING LOAD CALCULATIONS
Introduction
When a room is to be maintained at a required proper human comfort, cooling and heating
systems is necessary. Studying the inside building conditions (solar radiation, wall load,
infiltration load, load from occupants, electrical application load and others) and outside
building conditions are important to design HVAC systems.
Whenever a confined space is required to be maintained at a temperature lower

thantheambient value, there is heat transfer to the system. This can be broadly classified as:
(i) Energy transfer to the system from the surroundings and
(ii) Heat generation inside the confined space. This broader classification helps
understand the control volume analysis.
The energy transfer through the control surface can further be sub grouped into:
(i) Heat transfer through structure,
(ii) Electrical energy transfer and
(iii) Infiltration of ambient air and ventilation requirements.
The heat generation inside the building arises out of products heat due to metabolic
action going on inside the living commodities. Persons working in the confined space release
heat continuously, the magnitude of which is dependent upon activities.
Then the total heat load is
Qtotal  Qenergy transfer  Qheat generation
However, in some case the modes of energy transfer as well as energy release are
expressed for each mode. Under such circumstances,
Qtotal  in1 Qt
Where i is the ith type of the n modes of energy transfer.

Further, a safety factor (SF) is used to get the design load as
Qdesign  SF  Qtotal
Sensible Heat Factor (SHF)
223
It is defined as the ratio of sensible heat (SH) to total heat (TH), where total heat is the sum of
the sensible heat and latent heat (LH).
Effective Sensible Heat Factor (ESHF)

ESHF is the ratio of effective room sensible heat to the effective room total heat, where
effective room total heat is the sum of effective room sensible heat and effective room latent
heat.
,
ASH outside air sensible heat
OALH outside air latent heat
Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF)
RSHF is defined as the ratio of the room sensible heat (RSH) to the room total heat (RTH),
where room total heat is the sum of room sensible heat and room latent heat (RLH).
RSH RSH
RSHF
RTH RSH RLH
Grand Sensible Heat Factor (GSHF)

GSHF is defined as the ratio of total sensible heat (TSH) to the grand total heat, where grand
total heat is the sum of total sensible heat and total latent heat.
TSH TSH
GSHF
GTH TSH TLH
7.5 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Air conditioning is that branch of engineering science which deals with the study of
conditioning of air for human comfort. It also deals with the conditioning of air for industrial
purposes, food processing, storage of food and other materials.
7.5.1 FACTORS AFFECTING COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING

The four important factors for comfort air conditioning are discussed as below:
Temperature of air
224
In air conditioning, the control of temperature means the maintenance of any
desiredtemperature with in an enclosed space even though the temperature of the outside air
is above or below the desired room temperature.
This is accomplished either by the addition or removal of heat from then closed space as and
when demanded. Human being feels comfortable when the air is at 21C with 56% relative
humidity.
Humidity of air
The control of humidity of air means the increasing or decreasing of moisture of air
during summer or winter respectively in order to produce comfortable and healthy
condition,for summer air conditioning, the relative humidity should not be less than 60%
whereas for winter air conditioning it should not be more than 40%.
Purity of air
It is an important factor for the comfort of a human body. It has been noticed that
people do not feel comfortable when breathing contaminated air, even if it within acceptable
temperature and humidity range. i.e., Properfiltration, cleaning and purification of air is
essential to keep it free from dust and other impurities.
Motion of Air
The motion or circulation of air is another important factor should be controlled, in
order to keep constant temperature throughout the space. It is therefore necessary that should
be equi- distribution of air throughout the space to be air conditioned.
7.5.2 EQUIPMENTS USED IN AN AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
The following are the main equipments or parts used in an air conditioning system:
(i) Circulation Fan

(ii) Air Conditioning Unit
(iii) Supply Duct
(iv) Supply outlets
(v) Return outlets
(vi) Filters
225
LASSIFICATION OF AIR
7.5.3 CL A CONDIITIONING
G SYSTEMS
S
The Air conditioning
c g system may
y be broadlyy classified as
a follows:
(ii) Accorrding to the Purpose
P
 Co
omfort air coonditioning ssystem
 In
ndustrial Air conditioningg system
(iii) Accorrding to Seasson of the yeear
 Winter
W air connditioning syystem
 Su
ummer air coonditioning ssystem
 Yeear round airr conditioninng system
(iiii) Accorrding to the arrangement
a t of equipmeent
 Unnitary air conditioning syystem
 Ceentral air con
nditioning syystem
7.5.3.1 WINTER
W AIIR CONDIT
TIONING SYSTEM
S
Inn winter airr conditioninng, the air is heated, which
w is geenerally acccompanied by
b
humidificcation. The schematic
s arrrangement oof the system
m is shown ffigure.
The outsiide air flowss through a damper
d and m
mixes up wiith the re-circculated air. The
T mixed air
a
passes thhrough a filteer to remove dirt, dust annd other imppurities. The air is now passes
p througgh
a preheatt coil in ordeer to preventt the freezingg of water annd to controll the evaporaation of wateer
in the hu
umidifier. Th
he Air is passes through a reheat coil to bring thhe air to the designed
d bullb
temperatuure. From thhe conditioneed space, a ppart of the ussed air is exhhausted to thhe atmospherre
by the exxhaust fan. The
T remaininng part of thee used air is again condittioned
226
T outside air
The a is suckedd and made to mix with the
t re-circullated air, in order
o to makke
up for thee loss of connditioned air through thee exhaust fan
ns from the cconditioned space.
s
7.5.3.2 SUMMER AIR

A CONDIITIONING SYSTEM
Itt is the mosst importantt type of aiir conditioniing, in whicch the air is
i cooled annd
generally
y dehumidifiied. The scheematic arranngement of th
he system is shown figurre.
mper and mixes up with the ree-

The outside airr flows through a dam
circulateddair. The miixed air passses through a filter to reemove dirt, ddust and othher impuritiees.
The air is
i now passes through a cooling cooil. The coill has a tempperature muuch below thhe
required dry bulb teemperature of
o the air inn the condittioned spacee. The coolled air passees
through perforated membrane and losses its moisture in the coondensed frrom which is
collectedd in a sump. This is donne to bring tthe air to thee designed dry
d bulb tem
mperature annd
relative humidity.
h
Now the conditiooned air is suupplied to thhe conditionned space by
y a fan. From
m
the condiitioned spacee a part of th
he used air iss exhausted to the atmossphere by thee exhaust fann.
The remaaining part of
o the used air is again coonditioned. The
T outside air is suckedd and made to
t
mix withh the re-circuulated air, inn order to maake up for thhe loss of coonditioned aiir through thhe
exhaust fans
f from thee conditioneed space.
D PROBLE
SOLVED EMS
1. An aiir-vapour mixture
m at 0.1
1 MPa, 30 , 80% RH has me of 50 m3. Calculate thhe
h a volum
specific humidity
y, dew point temperaturee, wet bulb temperature,
t mass of dryy air and masss
of waater vapour.
227
Given
Volume 50 m
Barometric pressure p 0.1 MPa 1 bar
Dry bulb temperature t 30
Relative humidity φ 80% 0.8
Solution
m p p
i specific humidity ω 0.622 0.622
m p p p
m p
Relative humidity φ
m p
From steam table, for 30 DBT, corresponding pressure is 0.04242 barp 0.04242 bar
p
0.8
0.04242
p 0.0339 bar
0.0339
ω 0.622
1 0.0339
kg
ω 0.0218
kg of dry air
ii Dew point temperature
From steam table, at p 0.0339 bar, corresponding temperature 26
iii Wet bulb temperature
From psychrometric chart, for DBT 30 , 80% RH, WBT 27
iv Mass of vapour
From gas law,
p V m R T
p V
m
R T
p p p
p p p 1 0.0339 0.966 bar
p V 96.6 50
m 55.4 kg
R T 0.287 303
m
specific humidity ω
m
m
0.0218
55.4
m 1.21 kg
228
2. An office is to be air conditioned for 50 persons when the outdoor conditions are 30
DBT and 75% RH. If the quantity of are supplied is 0.4 m3/min/person. Find the
following: i) capacity of the cooling coil in tones of refrigeration, ii) Capacity of the
heating coil, iii) amount of water removed (assume that the required air inlet conditions
are 20 DBT and 60% RH. Air is conditioned first by cooling and dehumidification then
by heating, iv) if the heating coil surface temperature is 25 , find the by-pass factor of
the heating coil.
Given
Capacity of an office = 50 staffs
DBT = 30 , RH = 75%
Volume = 0.4 m3/min/person = 20 m3/min
Solution
From psychrometric chart
v 0.88 m /kgof dry air
kJ
Enthalpy of air at point 1 h 82
kg
kJ
Enthalpy of air at point 2 h 34.5
kg
kJ
kg
V 20
Mass of air supplied per min m 22.72 kg/min
v 0.88
kJ
i capacity of cooling coil m h h 22.72 82 34.5 1079.2
min
1079.2
5.13 TR
210
kJ
ii capacity of heating coil in kW m h h 22.72 43 34.5 193.12
min
193.12
3.21 kW
60
iii amount of heat removed per hour
kg
specific humidity of air at point 1 ω 0.0202
kg of dry air
kg
kg of dry air
229
amount of heat removed per hour m ω ω 22.72 0.0202 0.0088
kg
15.54
min
t t
iv if the heating coil temperature is 25 then by pass factor BPF
t t
25 15.5
BPF 0.73
25 12
3. For a hall to be air-conditioned, the following are given. Outdoor conditions: 40 DBT,
20 WBT.Required comfort conditions: 20 DBT, 60% RH. Seating capacity of the
hall:1500. Amount of outdoor air supplied - 0.3 m3/min/person. The required is achieved
by first by adiabatic humidification then by cooling. Calculate, i) capacity of the cooling
coil in tones, ii) capacity of the humidifier in kg/hr.
Given
Seating capacity of the hall = 1500
DBT = 40 , WBT = 20
Solution
v 0.896m /kgof dry air
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kg
kg of dry air
kg
specific humidity of air at point 2 ω ω 0.009
kg of dry air
V 450
Mass of air supplied per min m 502.23 kg/min
v 0.896
230
kJ
i capacity of cooling coil m h h 502.23 57.5 43 7282.37
min
7282.37
34.67 TR
210
ii capacity of humidifier kW m ω ω 7282.37 0.009 0.0067
kg
1.155
min
1.155 60 69.3 kg/hr
4. Air at the rate of 300kg/min is supplied to an auditorium to be maintained at 20 DBT
and 39% RH. The outside air at 4 DBT and 59% RH is first passed over heating coils
and is heated until its WBT is equal to the room WBT. It is then passed through an
adiabatic saturator and is finally heated to 44 before being supplied to the room. Find
the capacity of both heating coils and the mass of water added in the air washer.
Given
DBT =20 , RH=39%
300
Mass flow rate of airm 5 kg/sec
60
Solution
From psychrometric chart,
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kg
kg of dry air
kg
kg of dry air
i capacity of first heating coil m h h 5 38 14 120 kW

ii capacity of second heating coil m h h 5 63 38 125 kW
iii mass of added water m ω ω 5 0.006 0.003 0.015 kg/sec
231
5. An air-conditioned plant is to be designed for the following conditions.
Outdoor conditions: 9 DBT, 8 WBT. Required comfort conditions: 21 DBT, 59%
RH. Amount of free air circulation - 0.5 m3/min/person. Seating capacity of the office:
100. The required is achieved by first by heating and then by adiabatic humidifying. Find
the heating capacity of the coil and the surface temperature required if the by-pass factor
of the coil is 0.32 and also the capacity of the humidifier.
Given
Seating Capactiy = 100
DBT =9 , WBT =8
Solution
From psychrometric chart,
t 27
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kg
specific humidity of air at point 1&2 ω ω 0.0058
kg of dry air
kg
kg of dry air
v 0.80m /kgof dry air
V 50
Mass of air supplied per sec m 1.04 kg/sec
v 60 0.80
i capacity of first heating coil m h h 1.04 42 25 17.7 kW

t t
ii By pass factor of the heating coil BPF
t t
t t
0.32
t t
t 27
0.32
t 9
0.32 t 9 t 27
coil Surface temperature t 35.5
232
iii capacity of humidifier m ω ω 1.04 0.0085 0.0058
2.8 10 kg/sec
6. An office is to be air-conditioned for staff of 25 when the outdoor conditions are 29
DBT and 73% RH. If the quantity of outdoor air supplied is 0.5 m3/min/person, find the
capacity of the cooling coil and capacity of the heating coil. Also find the amount of
water removed if the required comfort conditions are 21 DBT and 59% RH. Air is
conditioned first by cooling and dehumidifying and then heating.
Given
Capacity of an office = 25 staffs
DBT = 29 , RH = 73%
Volume = 0.5 m3/min/person = 12.5 m3/min
Solution
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kg
kg of dry air
kg
kg of dry air
V 12.5
Mass of air supplied per min m 0.234 kg/sec
v 60 0.89
i capacity of cooling coil m h h 0.234 82 34 11.23 kW 3.2 TR
ii capacity of heating coil in kW m h h 0.234 43 34 2.1 kW
iii amount of water vapour removed per hour
amount of water vapour removed per hour m ω ω
kg
0.234 0.002 0.0085 2.7 10 9.72 kg/hr
sec
233
7. An air-conditioning system is designed for industrial purpose for hot and wet summer
conditions.
Outdoor conditions: 29 DBT, 79% RH. Required comfort conditions: 23 DBT, 68%
RH. Amount of free air circulation - 190 m3/min. Coil dew point temperature: 13 . The
required condition is achieved first by cooling and dehumidifying and then by heating.
Find the capacity of the cooling coil and its by-pass factor. Also find the capacity of the
heating coil in kW and surface temperature of the heating coil if the by-pass factor is 0.2.
Given
Coil DPT = 13
DBT = 29 , RH = 79%
Amount of air circulation =190 m3/min
BPF of heating coil = 0.2
Solution
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kg
kg of dry air
kg
kg of dry air
V 190
Mass of air supplied per min m 3.6 kg/sec
v 60 0.88
i capacity of cooling coil m h h 3.6 82 45 133.2 kW 38 TR
h h 45 40
ii By pass factor of the cooling coil is BPF 0.12
h h 45 40
ii capacity of heating coil in kW m h h 3.6 50 45 18 kW
234
T T
iv By pass factor of the heatingcoil is BPF
T T
T 23
0.2
T 16
0.2 T 16 T 23
surface temperature of the heataing coil T 25
APTITUDE QUESTIONS
1. In summer air conditioning, the air is
(a) cooled and humidified (b) cooled and dehumidified
(c) heated and humidified (d) heated and dehumidified
2. In winter air conditioning, the air is
(a) cooled and humidified (b) cooled and dehumidified
(c) heated and humidified (d) heated and dehumidified
3. The conditioned air supplied to the room must have the capacity to take up
(a) room sensible heat only (b) room latent heat only
(c) both room sensible heat and room latent heat
4. For summer air conditioning, the relative humidity should not be less than
(a) 40% (b) 60% (c) 75% (d) 90%
5. For winter air conditioning, the relative humidity should not be more than
(a) 40% (b) 60% (c) 75% (d) 90%
6. A mixture of dry air and water vapour, when the air has diffused the maximum amount of
water vapour into it, is called
(a) dry air (b) moist air (c) saturated air (d) specific humidity
7. The temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when it is not affected by the moisture
present in it, is called
(a) wet bulb temperature (b) dry bulb temperature
(c) dew point temperature (d) none of these
8. For unsaturated air, the dew point temperature is ___________ the wet bulb temperature.
(a) equal to (b) less than (c) more than
9. The difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature is called
(a) dry bulb depression (b) wet bulb depression
(c) dew point depression (d) degree of saturation
10. The wet bulb depression is zero, when relative humidity is equal to
235
(a) zero (b) 0.5 (c) 0.75 (d) 1.0
11. The vertical and uniformly spaced lines on a psychrometric chart indicates
(a) dry bulb temperature (b) wet bulb temperature
(c) dew point temperature (d) specific humidity
12. The curved lines on a psychrometric chart indicates
(a) dry bulb temperature (b) wet bulb temperature
(c) specific humidity (d) relative humidity
13. During sensible cooling of air, the specific humidity

(a) increases (b) decreases (c) remains constant
14. The process generally used in winter air conditioning to warm and humidify the air, is
called
(a) humidification (b) dehumidification
(c) heating and humidification (d) cooling and dehumidification
SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Define specific humidity.
2. Define relative humidity.
3. What is by-pass factor of a cooling coil?
4. Define (i) Dry Bulb Temperature (ii) Dew Point Temperature.
5. Define (i) Wet Bulb Temperature (ii) Wet Bulb Depression
6. Give the uses of psychrometric chart.
7. Name the psychrometric process, in which, the specific humidity remains constant.
8. What are the various methods for the production of low temperature?
9. Define Ton of refrigeration.
10. What is meant by ‘Green house effect’?
11. What are the causes for ‘Global warming’?
12. Why ‘CFC’ refrigerants have to be phased out?
13. List out alternative refrigerants to CFC.
14. What is the function of an expansion valve in a refrigerator?
15. Mention the type of condenser and evaporator employed in a window air conditioner.
16. Define degree of saturation.
17. Define Effective Sensible Heat Factor (ESHF).
18. What is ventilation air heat load?
236
19. What do you meant by ADP of a cooling coil?
20. Write the equation for finding enthalpy of moist air.
1. What is a sling psychrometer? Make a neat sketch and explain its use.
2. What are the factors affecting comfort air conditioning?
3. How is air conditioning systems classified?
4. Draw a line diagram of a winter air conditioning system and explain the working of
different components in the circuit.
5. How does industrial air conditioning differ from comfort air conditioning?
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. A sling psychrometer in a laboratory test recorded the following readings. DBT =

35 , WBT = 25 . Calculate the following (i) specific humidity (ii) relative
humidity (iii) vapour density in air (iv) dew point temperature and (v) enthalpy of
mixture per kg of dry air. Take atmospheric pressure = 1.0132 bar
2. A sling psychrometer reads 44˚C DBT and 30˚C WBT. Calculate (i) Vapourpressure
(ii) Specific Humidity (iii) Relative Humidity (iv) Dew point temperature and (v)
enthalpy of the mixture per kg of air.
3. The humidity ratio of atmosphere air at 28˚C DBT and 760 mm of Hg is 0.016Kg/Kg
of dry air. Determine the partial pressure of water vapour, relative humidity, dew
point temperature and specific enthalpy.
4. A quantity of air having a volume of 300m3 at 30˚C DBT and 25˚C WBT is heated to
40˚C DBT. Estimate the amount of heat added, final relative humidity and WBT. The
air pressure is 1.01325 bar.
5. 2kg of air at 40˚C DBT and 50% RH is mixed with 3kg of air at 20˚C DBT and 12˚C
DPT. Calculate specific humidity and DBT of the mixture.
6. 800 m3/min of re circulated air at 22C DBT and 10C dew point temperature is to be
mixed with 300 m3/min of fresh air at 300C DBT and 50% RH. Determine the
enthalpy, specific volume, humidity ratio, and DPT of the mixture.
237
7. Atmospheric air at 17C DBT and 15C WBT passes through a furnace and through a
humidifier in such a way that the final conditions are 30C DBT and 45% RH.
Determine the heat and moisture added to the air. Also determine SHF.
8. The atmospheric air at 1 bar pressure, 15C DBT and 11C WBT enters a heating coil
of temperature 41C. The bypass factor of the coil is 0.5.Calculate the DBT, WBT
and RH of the air leaving the coil. Also calculate the sensible heat added / kg of dry
air.
9. From a psychrometer the Wet-bulb and Dry bulb temperatures were found to be
20and 40C respectively. Find (a) Dew point (b) Relative humidity (c) Degree of
saturation (d) Specific humidity (e) Specific volume. The atmospheric pressure is 1
bar.
10. 300 m3 /min of air at Tdb = 40C and Twb = 25C is mixed with another stream of 700
m3 /min having Tdb = 25C and  = 50%. The mixture air is cooled by a coil until the
temperature is reduced to 15C having SHF = 0.55. Find the final condition, heat
removed by the cooling coil, tonnage of the cooling coil and moisture removal by the
cooling coil.
11. For an air conditioned room the sensible and latent heat loads are 105 kJ/hr and 40,000
kJ/hr, respectively. The make-up air is 40% of the total air supplied to the room.
Ambient condition is Tdb=40C and Twb=30C and inside room condition Tdb=27C
and  = 60%. The conditioned air leaves the cooling coil at 18C. The return air is
mixed after the cooling coil.
i. Determine: (a) RSHF line, (b) state of air entering the room, (c)
amount of air and make up air, and (d) ADP and by-pass factor.
12. A hall is to be maintained at 20C DBT and 60% RH, when outdoor conditions are
40C DBT and 26C WBT.
Sensible heat load in room ..…. 69300 kJ/hr.
Latent Heat load in room …… 21000 kJ/hr.
Infiltrated air …… 30 m3/min.
ADP of the coil …… 5C.
If 60% of the total air is recirculated from the hall and is mixed with the conditioned
air after the conditions, find the following (i) Weight of fresh air added to the hall. (ii)
By- pass factor of the coil, (iii) Refrigeration load in TR.
238

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CHAPTER – I

GAS POWER CYCLES

1.1 AIR STANDARD CYCLES

(i) Air is the working fluid, assumed to be a perfect gas.

1.1.2 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES USED IN AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Figure 1.1 P-v and T-s diagram of Carnot Cycle

Expression for efficeincy

1.3 OTTO CYCLE / CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE

Figure 1.2 P-v and T-s diagram of Otto Cycle

1-2 Adiabatic / Isentropic compression

Expression for air standard efficiency

Substitute (4) & (6) in (3) we get,

Swept volume = V V V from P-V diagram.

1.4 DIESEL CYCLE / CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE

Isentropic Compression Process 1-2

work done heat supplied heat rejected

Heat supplied Q mC T – T (2)

For isentropic process 1-2,

For process 3-4,

Substitute (5) in (6) we get,

Expression for Mean Effective Pressure

work done heat supplied heat rejected

Substituting (5) & (7) in above equation we get,

1.5 DUAL CYCLE / LIMITED PRESSURE CYCLE

Figure 1.4 P-v and T-s diagram of Dual Cycle

1-2 Isentropic Compression

Expression for air standard efficiency

work done heat supplied heat rejected

work done heat supplied heat rejected

1.6 BRAYTON CYCLE

Figure 1.5 Cloosed Braytonn Cycle

Figure 1.6 P-v

The cyclee consists off the followin

Expression for air standard efficiency

Heat supplied Q mC T – T (2)

Substitute (4) & (6) in (3) we get,

Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection

Case 3: Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection:

Case 4: Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input:

Case 5: Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output

The efficiency, η can be written as

1.8 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL CYCLES FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE

1.9 THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL CYCLES FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Turbine work = C T – T 1.005 923 674.35 249.89 kJ/kg

Compressor work = C T – T 1.005 407.88 298 110.43 kJ/kg

Heat rejected Q C T –T 0.718 615.60 323 210.09 kJ/kg

Heat supplied Q 1900kJ/kg C T –T

Heat supplied Q 1900kJ/kg C T –T

Compressor work W mC T – T 1.005 543.42 300 244.63 kJ/kg

1) Otto cycle consists of processes

TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. Derive an expression for the air standard efficiency of Otto cycle.

6. Derive the expression for the thermal efficiency of Brayton Cycle.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2.1.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2.1.2 EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2.2.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON IGNITION

(i) Spark Ignition Engines (S.I engines)

(ii) Combustion Ignition Engines (C.I Engines)

(iii) Precombustion chamber Engines

2.2.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NUMBER OF STROKES:

(i) Four stroke Engine

2.2.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CYCLE OF OPERATION