A Seminar Report on

WASTEWATER TREATMENT MANAGEMENT IN CITY

Submitted by
Twinkle Dilip Nemade (27)

Under the Guidance of

Prof. P. R. Punase

Department of Civil Engineering

SSBT’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY BAMBHORI, JALGAON.

Affiliated to

KAVAYITRI BAHINABAI CHAUDHARI NORTH MAHARASHTRA UNIVERSITY,

JALGAON

2018-2019
 S.S.B. T’s College of Engineering and Technology, Bambhori North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon

Department of Civil Engineering

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Twinkle Dilip Nemade of TE CIVIL (A) ROLL No-27 has completed a seminar report
on Underwater Construction which is carried out under my guidance and supervision during the
academic year 2018-2029 as per the requirement of KAVIYATRI BAHINABAI CHAUDHARI NORTH
MAHARASHTRA UNIVERSITY JALGAON.

Prof. P.R. Punase Dr. M. Hussain

Guide Head of Department

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my deepest and special appreciation to my guide Prof. P.R. Punase
for advice, motivation, invaluable guidance, help and support in successful completion of seminar
report and also for his constant encouragement and advice.

I express my deep gratitude towards Head of Department Dr. M. Hussain and our respected Principal
Dr. K.S. Wani for this regular support and cooperation.

The time facilities provided by the department throughout by equally acknowledgeable.

Finally, yet more importantly I would like to express my deep appreciation towards my parents, sister
for their support and encouragement throughout the period.

Twinkle Dilip Nemade

TE CIVIL A (27)
 CONTENT

1. INTROUCTION
2.CAISSON CONSTRUCTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 TYPES OF CAISSONS
2.2.1 BOX CAISSONS
2.2.2 OPEN CAISSONS
2.2.3 PNEUMATIC CAISSONS
2.2.4 SUCTION CAISSONS
3.COFFERDAM CONSTRUCTION
4.UNDERWATER CONCRETING
4.1INTRODUCTION

4.2CONCRETE PLACEMENT

4.3UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT METHODS

4.3.1 TREMIE METHOD

4.3.2 PUMP METHOD

4.3.3 TOGGLE BAGS

5. CONSLUSION

6. REFERENCES
 1.INTRODUCTION

Underwater concrete construction is a critical component of the entire project. It is

technically demanding, usually on the critical path of the project. It is technically demanding,
usually on the critical path of the project schedule, and involves complex construction
logistics. Therefore, its significance in the project far beyond the concreting operations
themselves, in essence, underwater concrete can be constructed with the same degree of
reliability as above-water construction. But if it is not carried out properly, with the proper
concretemixtureand placement procedure, underwater concrete construction can result in a
major cost and scheduleoverrun. This is the area where sound design and
competent construction planning can achieve a meaningful reduction in risk and cost.
For those used to concreting on dry land, concreting under water presents various
challenges. Transporting, compacting, quality control, finishing and accuracy must all be
carried out successfully in this different, and often difficult, environment. There are, however,
many common aspects, chief of which is that air is not required for the setting and hardening
of concrete it sets and hardens just as well, and often even better, underwater but it must be
fluid enough to flow into position and be self-compacting as conventional vibration is
not practicable under water.

The caissons and cofferdams are the techniques used for the construction of
underwater structures. A caisson is a retaining, watertight structure used, for example, to
work on the foundations of a bridge pier, for the construction of a concrete dam, or for the
repair of ships.

Caissons are sunk through ground or water to exclude water and semi-fluid
materialduringthe process of excavation of foundations and which subsequently becomes
an integral part of the substructure. A cofferdam is an enclosure within a water environment
constructed to allow water to be displaced by air for the purpose of creating a dry
work environment. Commonly used for oil rig construction and repair, bridge and
dam work, the cofferdam is usually a welded steel structure that is temporary,
typically dismantled after work is completed. Its components consist of sheet piles, wales,
and cross braces.
 2.CAISSONS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The caisson method is one method of producing deep foundations, i.e. the load exerted
by the building structure is transferred to firm, deeper strata. Caisson foundation is most
commonly used underwater for a bridge, but sometimes used in building construction Caissons
are normally made of reinforced concrete. Various cross sections being possible, depending on
the requirements. These are constructed such that the water can be pumped out, keeping the
working environment dry. It is a large hollow structure that is sunk down through
the earth by workers excavating from inside it, ultimately it becomes a permanent part of
the pier. The outer walls of large caissons should be at least 1m thick, and the caissons
should have horizontal and vertical stiffening walls. A round hole is dug or bored to
a stable layer of earth and temporarily supported by a steel shell, then filled with concrete
poured around a cage of reinforcing bars.

Uses of caissons:

1)To reach the hard bearing stratum for transferring the load coming on
supports for bridge piers and building columns.
2)To serve as an imperious core wall of earth dams, when placed adjacent to each
other.
3) To provide an access to a deep shaft or a tunnel.
4)To provide an enclosure below water level for installing machinery, pump, etc.

Materials used for the construction of caissons:

The common materials which are usually employed for the construction of a
caisson are as follows,
1) Cast-Iron
2) Reinforced cement concrete
3) Steel
4) Timber
The cast-iron is suitable for caissons of open-well type. New segments of
cast-iron are bolted as the caisson sinks. This material is unsuitable for pneumatic caissons
as there is risk of failure due to tension developed by the compressed air. The cost
also works out to be more in relation to the steel or R.C.C.

The reinforced cement concrete is suitable for caisson shoes. This material has more
weight and therefore it creates difficulties in handling and floating the caisson in
the early stage of construction. It therefore becomes economical to construct a steel
caisson with concrete filling.
The steel is found to be the most suitable material for the construction of a
caisson. It is usually in the form of a double skin of steel plating and the hollow
space is then filled with cement concrete.
The timber was used as a material for the construction of a caisson in the
early stages of development of a caisson. But this material is now practically not adopted
mainly because of its bulk and risk on fire.
2.2 TYPES OF CAISSONS
All caissons feature the shape of a tube, often with a cylindrical contour
but it may also be rectangular, elliptical, or some other form. Some caissons are
open at both ends, some are open only at the top, and some are open only at the
bottom. It depends on the way each type of caisson is to be used. The four main
types of caisson are,
1. Box caisson
2. Open caisson
3. Pneumatic caisson
4. Suction caisson:

2.2.1 BOX CAISSON

This method is applied mainly in underwater tunnelling, harbour,
foundation for bridge pier constructions. Box caissons are prefabricated concrete
boxes of various shape and comprise hollow bodies with water -tight floors and
walls. After manufacture, they are launched, towed to the place where they are to
be built in, sunk to the sea bed or river bed, which has been prepared accordingly,
and finally ballasted. In this process, individual construction elements usually
have to be connected and sealed off from each other. One problem with box
caissons is that hollow concrete structures float and so they must be ballasted or
anchored to prevent this until they can be filled with co ncrete. Adjustable
anchoring systems combined with a GPS survey allow engineers to position a box
caisson with pinpoint accuracy. Elaborate anchoring systems may be required in
tidal zone. Fig 2.1 Schematic Diagram of Box Caisson

2.2.2 OPEN CAISSON

The structure is open at the top and is manufactured wholly or partially
at ground level. In that phase it rests on the shoe, the making of which requires
special care and experience. The sinking process begins with the step -by-step
removal of material inside structure under atmospheric pressure. First, above
groundwater level, the material is excavated then, belowground water level, it is
dredged. Interior and exterior groundwater levels must always be the same to
prevent piping and to prevent material being sucked in from the outside as a result.
Friction between the structure and the surrounding soil is minimized by a gap
around the structure filled with bentonite. As a rule, it is 5 to 10cm wide and is
produced automatically as the shoe projects be yond the outer wall of the caisson.
Since the friction forces increase with increasing depth, the weight must be raised
by additional loads. When the final depth is reached, an underwater concrete floor
is built in to facilitate subsequent pumping of the i nterior, attention always being
paid to safety against uplift. Open caissons used in soft grounds or high -water
tables, where open trench excavations are impractical, can also be used to install
deep manholes, pump stations and reception/launch pits for micro tunnelling.

Fig 2. 2 Schematic Diagram of Open Caisson

2.2.3 PNEUMATIC CAISSON

A caisson closed at the top and open at the bottom is a pneumatic caisson.
This type of caisson generally is used in underwater construction projects. It can
be used only if air is pumped in to produce a pressure greater than pressure outside.
Workers entering a pneumatic caisson must first pass through an intermediate
chamber that allows their bodies to adjust from normal atmospheric pressure to
the higher pressure within the caisson or vice versa. Pneumatic caissons cannot be
used at a depth of more than 120 ft (36.6 m). Beyond that point the air pressure
needed inside the caisson to keep out water is too great for the human body
withstands with the open caisson, the structure is manufactured wholly or partially
(at least the working chamber and part of th e vertical walls) at ground level.
Material is excavated in the working chamber; the groundwater being kept out
with compressed air. Due to the constant shear failure below the shoe- as a
consequence of the gradual material removal - the structure sinks into the ground
slowly under its own weight. As with the open caisson, this process may be
accelerated by friction minimizing measures and additional loads. The vertical
walls are concreted up to the desired height during the sinking process. As soon
as the final depth is reached, the working chamber is filled with concrete.

Advantages of pneumatic caisson:

1.The soil condition in the working chamber may be checked constantly.
2.The construction work is not hampered by groundwater rushing in.
3.The floor of the structure may be built in the dry.
Disadvantages of pneumatic caisson:
1.working in compressed air may leads to caisson disease.
2.locking in and out of material and equipment is a tedious process.
2.2.4 SUCTION CAISSON
As offshore exploration and development of oil fields reach water depths
of 1,000 to3,000 m, novel methods of anchoring production platforms become
attractive due to cost savings associated with installation. Surface production
systems that are viable in these water depths include Tension Leg Platforms (TLP),
spar platforms, and laterally moored ship -shaped and semi-submersible vessels.
Possible anchor systems for TLP and spar platforms include th e traditional driven
piles, drag anchors and suction caissons.

Suction caissons become better alternatives to driven piles in Deepwater

because of technical challenges and costs associated with the installation
equipment. In addition, suction caissons also provide a greater resistance to lateral
loads than driven piles because of the larger diameters typically used.

Initial penetration of the suction caisson into the seabed occurs due to
the self-weight. Field observations have sh own that the initial penetration of the
pile in to ocean sediments under self-weight is substantial enough to develop an
adequate seal to facilitate suction installation. subsequent penetration is by the
suction created by pumping water out from the inside of the caisson (fig 2.5). A
submersible pump attached to the top of the sealed caisson applies
suction pressure. By evacuating water from the inside, a pressure differential is
created. The limiting value of this pressure differential, such that cavitatio n does
not occur, is the sum of the atmospheric pressure and hydrostatic pressure
outside the caisson. In very deep waters, large penetration or suction pressures
can be created, which is only limited by the capacity of the pump. Once the
required depth is reached, the pumps can be disconnected and retrieved.
Fig 2.5 Installation Sequence of Suction Caissons (a) Touchdown Phase (b)
Penetration Due to Self-Weight/Ballast (c) Water Pumped Out to Create Suction
Penetration

Advantages of caisson foundation:

1.Economic.

2.Minimizes pile cap needs.

3.Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations.

4.Easily adaptable to varying site conditions.

5.High axial and lateral loading capacity.

6.Minimal handling equipment is required for placement of reinforcing cage.

7.Placement is sometimes possible in types of soil that a driven pile could not
penetrate.
 3.COFFERDAMS
3.1 INTRODUCTION.
“A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of the
excavation in which a bridge pier or other structure is built”. The cofferdam may or may not
be pumped out completely dry. Cofferdams may be installed by driving sheet piles around a
designated area or by submerging a pre-fabricated structure made of concrete, steel,
or combination of concrete and steel. Cofferdams may even be formed by using inflatable
rubber bags to surround a site, fabricated boxes to attach to existing structures, or, in the case
of large dewatered areas, perimeter rock dikes or sand-filled structures. Now a day’s cofferdam
will be fabricated steel structure hoisted in to place by a derrick barge powered by electricity,
or a precast concrete structure floated in to place and set on bottom.

Following are some of the points which should be remembered in connection with the
construction of cofferdams.
• Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering
and construction of the permanent facility (structure) in the dry.
• A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure, soil, and water. The loads imposed
include the hydrostatic forces of the water, as well as the dynamic forces due to currents and
waves.
• In construction of cofferdams maintaining close tolerances is difficult since cofferdams are
usually constructed offshore and sometimes under severe weather conditions. Under these
circumstances, significant deformations of cofferdam elements may happen during the course
of construction, and therefore it may be necessary to deviate from the design dimensions in
order to complete the project according to plan.
• The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by construction equipment and operations
must be considered, both during installation of the cofferdam and during construction of the
structure itself.
• Removal of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same degree of care as its
installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The effect of the removal on the permanent structure
must also be considered. For this reason, sheet piles extending below the permanent structure
are often cut off and left in place, since their removal may damage the foundation soils adjacent
to the structure.
• In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since workers will be exposed to
the hazard of flooding and collapse.
• Safety requires that every cofferdam and every part thereof shall be of suitable design and
construction, of suitable and sound material and of sufficient strength and capacity for
the purpose for which it is used, proper construction, verification that the structure is being
constructed as planned, monitoring the behaviour of the cofferdam and surrounding
area, provision of adequate access, light and ventilation, and attention to safe practices on the
part of all workers and supervisors, and shall be properly maintained.

Advantages of Cofferdam:
Performing work over water has always been more difficult and costly than
performing the same work on land. And when the work is performed below water,
the difficulties and cost difference can increase geometrically with the depth at
which the work is performed. The key to performing marine construction work
efficiently is to minimize work over water, and perform as much of the work as
possible on land. Below some of the advantages of cofferdams are listed.
1.Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment.
2.Provides safe environment to work.
3.Contractors typically have design responsibility.
4.Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed.
5.Materials can typically be reused on other projects.

Comparison between Cofferdam and caisson :

 The main difference between a cofferdam and a caisson is that the former
is a temporary structure while the latter forms the part of the permanent
work. Following factors are to be considered while making a choice between
cofferdam and caisson for a particular foundation work.

 A cofferdam becomes uneconomical in cases where the plan area of the

foundation work is small as compared to the depth of water. Under such
circumstances, a caisson would prove to be the most suitable.

 At places where the cofferdams cannot be dewatered successfully, the

caissons are used. This may be due to the following reasons:
a) Depth of water
b) Nature of soil to be penetrated and
c)Permeability of soil below foundation level

 The process of constructing a cofferdam is greatly simplified in cases of

soils which allow easily the driving of sheet piles. The caissons, on the
other hand, are useful where obstructions or boulders would prevent the
successful driving of the sheet piles
 For heavy foundation works which are to be provided at a depth of about 12
meters to 15meters below the level of standing water surface, the caissons
would prove to be more economical than the cofferdams.
 4.UNDERWATER CONCRETING

4.1 INTRODUCTION
For in-the-wet construction of the navigation structure, underwater
concrete construction is a critical component of the entire project. It is technically
demanding, usually on the critical path of the project. It is technically demanding,
usually on the critical path of the project schedule, and involves complex
construction logistics. Therefore, its significance in the project far beyond the
concreting operations themselves, in essence, underwater concrete can be
constructed with the same degree of reliability as above-water construction. But
if it is not carried out properly, with the proper concrete mixture and placement
procedure, underwater concrete construction can result in a major cost and
schedule overrun. This is the area where sound d esign and competent construction
planning can achieve a meaningful reduction in risk and cost.

4.2 UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT

The technical requirements for underwater concreting cover the areas of
placement method and technique, placement sequence, placement equipment
layout, finishing, and protection of concrete. Concrete placement planning should
include the relevant subjects of detail as well as the construction logistics( the
relationship among various concreting operations and their relationship with other
construction operations)The choice of a proper placement plan for a specific
project has to be ultimately d etermined by the site condition and engineering
requirements, including the required in -place concrete properties, volume and
thickness of the concrete placement, water velocity during concrete placement,
presence of reinforcement or obstacles, availabilit y of equipment, technical
feasibility, and cost.

4.3 UNDERWATER CONCRETE PLACEMENT METHODS

Following are the methods used for underwater concrete placement,
1.Tremie method
2.Pump method
3.Toggle bags
4.Bagwork

For the underwater construction of na vigation structures, the tremie method

is the only sound method for placing high -quality underwater concrete. However,
some contractors will request to use the pump method because it slightly reduces
the labour cost. The following sections provide acritica l examination of these two
methods. The other placement methods are not appropriate for high-quality
underwater concrete for major structures, although they may find application in
special cases. For placement of underwater concrete, the tremie method and pump
method function in fundamentally different ways. Tremie placement deposits
concrete solely by its own gravity in a open system where as the pump method
employs surges of pump pressure to deliver concrete in a closed system. The
technical difficulties and the inherent risk of failure with these two methods are
substantially different.

4.3.1 TREMIE METHOD

The principle of this method is that concrete is poured down a pipe or tube
from above the surface and is forced into the mass of concrete already in place by
the weight of concrete in the tube. The tube is surmounted by a hopper (‘tremie’
in French) and the whole is suspended from a staging or frame, mounted so that it
can be moved vertically when held by a crane. As the pour rises, sections of the
tube can be removed to facilitate working. A convenient diameter for the tube is
8 to 16 times the maximum aggregate size and 250 mm is a common diameter.
Figure shows a diagrammatical representation of a tremie.

Fig 4.1: Schematic of A Tremie

Before starting the pour, a plug is inserted into the tube to stop the concrete
and water intermixing. This plug can be purpose-made (similar to a bath plug), a
sponge rubber ball or exfoliated vermiculite, which is the most common method
in the UK.

At start-up the bottom of the tube should be on or very close to the sea or
river bed, sufficient to allow the water in the tube to escape and to force the first
load of concrete to spread-out horizontally into a mound shape. The concrete
pouring should be continuous with the bottom of the tube always inside previously
placed concrete. If this immersion depth, normally at least0.5 m, is not sufficient,
a breakthrough will occur and the pour will have to be abandoned for the day. Any
air that is in the concrete being placed will pass through the previously placed
concrete and bubble to the surface, disrupting the settled concrete as it goes.

The flow of concrete in the tube is governed by gravity and friction with
the tube wall, so the tremie has to be moved up and own to regulate the flow. A
crane driver with a good ‘feel ‘for this is useful. The tube should be restrained
from lateral movement whilst placing concrete.

The placed concrete spreads out horizontally on the bed i n a circle, with
the top of the pour domed upwards.

Tremies are best used for thick pours of any area. For large area pours,
multiple tremies are used, spaced at about 4 –6 m apart, depending on the flatness
required for the top level. The slope of the concrete surface from a tremie is likely
to be in the range 1 in 9 for tremies close together to 1 in 6 for those spaced far
apart as the slope increases with distance from the pipe.
The concrete flow pattern is dependent upon the consis tency of the
concrete mixture and the placement rate. In addition, the flow pattern is also
affected by the thickness of the concrete placement and the tremie embedment
depth in concrete.

4.3.2 PUMP METHOD

Pump method is defined as pumping concrete directly into its final
position, involving both horizontal and vertical delivery of concrete in a closed
system of discharge pipes. Pumping concrete has the advantage of operational
efficiency with potential savings of time and labour. Indecent years pump method
has become increasingly popular for above -water structures due to the
advancement of pumping equipment and techniques. Pumping concrete directly
under Deepwater (>9m or 30ft in water depth) is a technically flawed procedure.
Although pumping concrete in shadow water is feasible, it still involves significant
risks and potentially poor concrete quality. For massive underwater concrete
construction of navigation structures, the pump method should be prohibited.
However, the pump method is an excellent way to deliver concrete horizontally to
a tremie hopper. It is also an excellent way of placing grout or flowable sand
underwater.
 Fig. Typical Configuration of Underwater Concreting Pump Line

Pumping the mass concrete directly down to the structures on the

riverbed or seafloor has several technical problems that will increase the risk of
construction failure or poor concrete,

a) In tremie placement by gravity feed, the concrete flow rate can be controlled
by the rate at which concrete is fed in to the tremie. On the other hand, the
pump system fully fills the pump line with concrete. For placement in deep
water, the weight of concrete in the pump line is much greater than the
hydrostatic head from the water and concrete outside the pipe. Thus, the
concrete exists the pipe at an uncontrollably high speed, causing significant
disturbance of already placed concrete and segregation of the concrete
being poured.

b) A pump system is closed to the atmosphere. When concrete is pumped down

to Deepwater, concrete may fall through and exit a pump line at a rate faster
than the pump output. Thus, a vacuum will be created in the line. The
vacuum pressure so created will suck away the cement paste from
aggregates, causing segregation and plugging of the line.

c) Pressure surges from the pump can cause disruption of the concrete flow
and plugging of the line.

d) A concrete mixture optimized for pumping may not be the optimum concrete
mixture for underwater applications.
e) Pumping in to confined space can potentially result in excessive pressures.

f) If the end of the pump line is not adequately buried, excessive pump
pressure surge can kick the pump line out of the in-place concrete, causing
mixing of the concrete with water.
4.3.3 TOGGLE BAGS
Where small amounts of concrete are required, such as in repair work, the
toggle bag is ideal. The waterproof bag is filled in the dry with wet concrete and
the mouth is closed with a tie rope and toggle. At the placing location the concrete
is squeezed out by a diver and rammed into place. The use of a diver adds to the
cost of the operation.

In the method of toggle bags, wet concrete is placed inside the bags and
are squeezed out by a diver at the site (underwater) .

For this method, the reusable canvas bag is used which is filled with
concrete and is lowered to the site which is underwater and then the concrete is
discharged.

And in the method of bag works the holes and ballast etc., are sealed
temporarily with concrete. And the bags are made up of strong fabric which is
having a capacity of 10-20 lit and it is also carried out to the desired site
underwater by divers.

It is one of the oldest and simplest techniques of placing concre te

underwater. The bags are malleable in nature so that they can be interlocks each
other easily. Once the bags are placed.
they are spiked together with reinforcement bars of small size.
These are some of the most used techniques for underwater concreting.

And these are some of the techniques and aspects behind the works of
underwater constructions.

4.3.4 BAGWORK
The type of bags used here are normally made from an open -weave
material such as hessian. They should be half-filled with plastic concrete, sealed
and then taken under water and placed by a diver. Partial filling allows them to be
moulded into shape and gives them good contact areas with adjacent bags. Grout
from the mix seeps through the open textured material allowing bond to be
established with adjacent bags. For additional stability the bags can be spiked
together with small-diameter reinforcing bars.
 Divers prefer to handle bags of dry-mixed concrete and to grout up
between bags. However, this system places too great a responsibility on the diver.
The dry mix concrete is never fully wetted -out by water seeping in, the concrete
cannot be fully compacted and contact surfaces are minimal.

Diver-handled bags are usually of 10 to 20 litres capacity but 1 m3 bags

can be placed using a crane.
 6.CONCLUSION

 Cofferdams are temporary structures and used in cases where the plan area
of foundation is very large, depth of water is less and for the soft soils,
where soils allow easy driving of sheet piles.

 Caissons are permanent structures and becomes economical in cases where

the plan area of foundation is small, large depth of water and for loose soils.

 Suction caisson anchors are gaining considerable acceptance in the offshore

industry. The suction caisson is a highly versatile and efficient anchor
concept that can be installed easily as compared to driven piles, especially
in deep waters. The installation procedures simple and requires no heavy
lift vessel. The geometry to be used is dependent on the soil type.

 At present, the tremie placement method is the stand ard way of placing
high-quality concrete underwater. The other placement method are not able
to reliably place high-quality underwater concrete for major structures,
although they may find application in special cases

 For massive underwater concrete construction of navigation structures, the

pump method should be prohibited.
 REFERENCES

1. “Assessment of underwater concrete Technologies for in -the-wet

construction of navigation structures” -by Sam X. Yao, Dale E. Berner, Ben
C. Gerwick
2. “Underwater concrete”-by Dr Jagadish R
3. “Foundation engineering”-by R. B. Peck, W. E Hanson, T.H. Thorburn
4. “Concrete technology”– by M S Shetty`