Mathematical Physics: IIT-B, 2013

Two Branch Points

Consider the function
f (z) = z α (z − a)1−α , a > 0, α real. (1)
This has branch points at z = 0 and z = a. Consider a point P in the
z-plane representing the complex number z and let (see fig.1)
z = r1 exp(iθ1 ), r1 = |z|, 0 ≤ θ1 < 2π,
z − a = r2 exp(iθ2 ), r2 = |z − a|, 0 ≤ θ2 < 2π, (2)
so that
z α (z − a)1−α = r1α r21−α exp(i(αθ1 + (1 − α)θ2 )). (3)
The choice of the range [0, 2π) for θ1 and θ2 means that, starting from its
location at z = 0, the branch point at z = 0 introduces a cut along the
x-axis for 0 ≤ x < ∞. Similarly, starting from its location at z = a, the
branch point at z = a introduces a cut along the x-axis for a ≤ x < ∞. It
is of interest to find the value of f (z) below and above different segments of
x-axis. For the following discussion, refer to Fig.2.

1. Consider a point P just above the x-axis in the segment OA joining the
two branch points so that the point P represents the complex number
z = x + i, 0 < x < a and  → 0. For this point, θ1 = 0 and θ2 = π,
r1 = x, r2 = a − x. Hence, recalling (3)
z α (z − a)1−α = xα (a − x)1−α exp(i(1 − α)π)
= −xα (a − x)1−α exp(−iαπ), (4)
for z = x + i0, 0 < x < a.
2. Consider a point Q just below the x-axis in the segment OA so that its
location is z = x − i, (0 < x < a) and  → 0. Now, the cut associated
with z = 0 extends from z = 0 to ∞. Hence θ1 = 2π. However, the cut
associated with z = a extends, starting from z = a, to ∞. There is no
cut for this point for x < a. Hence the value of θ2 remains π, its value
at P. Recalling (3), and noting that for such a point r1 = x, r2 = a − x,
z α (z − a)1−α = xα (a − x)1−α exp(i(1 + α)π)
= −xα (a − x)1−α exp(iαπ), (5)
for z = x − i0, 0 < x < a.

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 3. Consider the point R just above the x-axis having x-coordinate x > a
in the segment AB+ . For this point, θ1 = θ2 = 0. Hence, with
z = x + i0 (x > a), r1 = x, r2 = x − a and recalling (3),

z α (z − a)1−α = xα (x − a)1−α
= xα (x − a)1−α , z = x + i0, x > a. (6)

4. Consider the point S just below the x-axis having x-coordinate x > a
in the segment AB+ . For this point, z = x − i0, θ1 = θ2 = 2π, r1 = x,
r2 = x − a and recalling (3),

z α (z − a)1−α = xα (x − a)1−α , z = x − i0, x > a. (7)

5. Consider the point T just above the x-axis given by z = −x+i0 (x > 0)
in the segment AB− . For this point, θ1 = θ2 = π. Hence, with r1 = x,
r2 = | − x − a| = x + a (since x, a > 0) and recalling (3),

z α (z − a)1−α = −xα (x + a)1−α , z = −x + i0, x > 0. (8)

6. Consider the point U just below the x-axis given by z = −x − i0

(x > 0) in the segment AB− . Since the segment OB− is not a branch
cut for any of the two branch points, the angles θ1 and θ2 have the
same value at U as at T which is π for both the angles. Hence, for this
point, θ1 = θ2 = π, and, with r1 = |x|, r2 = x + a, and reclling (3),

z α (z − a)1−α = −xα (x + a)1−α , z = −x − i0, x > 0. (9)

There is thus a jump in the value of f (z) as one crosses the part of
the real axis OA joining the two branch points. There is no jump in
the value of f (z) if any other part of the real axis is crossed.
We therefore say that OA is the branch cut for the function given in
(1).

We generalize the discussion above by evaluating z α (z − a)1−α at z0 and

z0∗shown respectively by the points P and Q in Fig.3. It is clear from the
figure that, at the point P ,

z0α (z0 − a)1−α = |z0 |α |z0 − a|1−α exp(i(αφ1 + (1 − α)φ2 )), (10)

where the angles φ1 and φ2 are as shown in the Fig.3. At the point Q which
corresponds to z0∗ , as is evident from the figure, the angles that OQ and AQ

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make with the positive x-axis are 2π − φ1 and 2π − φ2 so that

z0∗α (z0∗ − a)1−α = |z0 |α |z0∗ − a|1−α exp{i(α(2π − φ1 ) + (1 − α)(2π − φ2 ))}

= |z0 |α |z0 − a|1−α exp(−i(αφ1 + (1 − α)φ2 ))
 ∗
= z0α (z0 − a)1−α , (11)

where in writing the last line we have recalled (10).

Further generalization is achieved by considering

f (z) = (z − b)α (z − a)β , a,b real and b < a. (12)

With reference to Fig.4, the value of f (z) given by (12) at the points P
which corresponds to z0 is

(z0 − b)α (z0 − a)β = |z0 − b|α |z0 − a|β exp(i(αφ1 + βφ2 )). (13)

At Q, which corresponds to z0∗ ,

(z0∗ − b)α (z0∗ − a)β = |z0 − b|α |z0 − a|β exp(i(α(2π − φ1 ) + β(2π − φ2 ))
= |z0 − b|α |z0 − a|β exp(−2πi(α + β))
× exp(−i(αφ1 + βφ2 )). (14)

This shows that, if α + β = m (m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .) then

(z0∗ − b)α (z0∗ − a)β = |z0 − b|α |z0 − a|β exp(−i(αφ1 + βφ2 ))
= {(z0 − b)α (z0 − a)β }∗ , m = 0, ±1, . . . , (15)

where in writing the last line we have recalled (13).

Consider now the points close to the two sides of the x-axis (see Fig.4).
For the point P+ representing x + i0 (b < x < a), φ1 = 0, φ2 = π and
hence (13) gives

(z − b)α (z − a)β = (x − b)α (a − x)β exp(πiβ). (16)

For the point P− representing x − i0 (b < x < a), φ1 = 2π, φ2 = π and

hence (13) gives

(z − b)α (z − a)β = (x − b)α (a − x)β exp(πi(2α + β)). (17)

For the point Q+ representing x + i0 with x > a, φ1 = φ2 = 0, and hence

(13) gives

(z − b)α (z − a)β = (x − b)α (x − a)β . (18)

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 For the point Q− representing x − i0 (x > a), φ1 = φ2 = 2π, and hence
(13) gives

(z − b)α (z − a)β = (x − b)α (x − a)β exp(2πi(α + β)). (19)

On comparing (18) and (19) it is seen that, if α + β = m, (m = 0, ±1, . . .),

then the value of (z − b)α (z − a)β at Q+ and Q− is same.
For the point R+ representing x + i0 (x < b), φ1 = φ2 = π, and hence
(13) gives

(z − b)α (z − a)β = (b − x)α (a − x)β exp(πi(α + β)). (20)

For the point R− representing x − i0 (x < b), φ1 = φ2 = π, and hence

(13) gives

(z − b)α (z − a)β = (b − x)α (a − x)β exp(πi(α + β)). (21)

The expressions (20) and (21) show that the value of (z − b)α (z − a)β is same
at R+ and at R− for all α and β.
We thus find that the value of (z − b)α (z − a)β at the points x + i0 and
x − i0 for x lying between the branch points b and a, given by (16) and (17),
is different. Also, the value of (z − b)α (z − a)β at the points x + i0 and x − i0
for x > a, given by (18) and (19), is different if α + β 6= m (m = 0, ±1, . . .).
However, the value of (z − b)α (z − a)β at the points x + i0 and x − i0 for
x < b is same for all α and β. Hence, for α + β 6= m (m = 0, ±1, . . .), the
branch cut of (z − b)α (z − a)β extends from z = b to ∞.
On the other hand, for α + β = m (m = 0, ±1, . . .), the value of (z −
b)α (z − a)β is different only for the points x + i0 and x − i0 for x lying
between the branch points b and a. Hence, for α + β = m (m = 0, ±1, . . .),
the branch cuts of (z − b)α (z − a)β is for b < x < a i.e. it is in the portion
of the x-axis between the two branch points. By writing β = m − α and
2α + β = (α + β) + α = m + α, in (17) the value of (z − b)α (z − a)β at x + i0
and at x − i0 (b < x < a) in this case can evidently be rewritten as

(z − b)α (z − a)m−α = (−)m (x − b)α (a − x)m−α exp(−πiα), z = x + i0,

= (−)m (x − b)α (a − x)m−α exp(πiα), z = x − i0,(22)

where b < x < a and m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..

Let us use the expressions above to find the value of
p
f (z) = z 2 − 1, (23)

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at z = ±i. Rewrite (23) as

f (z) = (z − 1)1/2 (z + 1)1/2 . (24)

We see that f (z) is of form (12) with b = −1, a = 1 and α = β = 1/2 so

that α + β = 1. We use (13) with z0 = i. In this case

z0 − b → i + 1, z − a → i − 1. (25)

Hence the value of f (z) is given by (13) which in the present case reads

(z0 − 1)1/2 (z0 + 1)1/2 = |i − 1|1/2 |i + 1|1/2 exp(i(φ1 + φ2 )/2), (26)

where φ1 and φ2 are determined as follows:

√ √
i + 1 = |i + 1| exp(iφ1 ) = 2 exp(iφ1 ) = 2(cos(φ1 ) + i sin(φ1 )),
√ √
i − 1 = |i − 1| exp(iφ2 ) = 2 exp(iφ2 ) = 2(cos(φ2 ) + i sin(φ2 )). (27)
√
The first expression in the equation above reads i + 1 = 2(cos(φ1 ) +
i sin(φ1 )). On comparing real and imaginary parts
√ on the two sides of this
equation it follows that cos(φ1 ) = sin(φ1 ) = 1/ 2 so that φ1 =
√ π/4. Simi-
larly, the second expression in the equation above yields i−1 = 2(cos(φ2 )+
i sin(φ2 )). On comparing real and imaginary parts
√ on the two sides of this
equation it follows cos(φ2 ) = − sin(φ2 ) = −1/ 2 so that φ2 = 3π/4. On
substituting these values in (26) we get

(i − 1)1/2 (i + 1)1/2 = 2 exp(iπ/2) = 2i. (28)

Since, in this case α + β = 1, we can use (15) to find the value of (z0 −
1)1/2 (z0 + 1)1/2 at z0 = −i as the complex conjugate of its value at z0 = i
so that

(−i − 1)1/2 (−i + 1)1/2 = −2i. (29)