TOA Module

AC 513 Architectural Correlation| First Semester 2019-2020
Bersabal, D. R.| Dela Cruz, M. L. N.| Garcia, P.V.G.| Godoy, M.G.B.

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THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1 and 2
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

A. Terminology
Architecture
ARCHI - “first or original”
TEKNOS - “the ability to put things together”
Practice of architecture:
a. involves a process of creation; and
b. requires analytical procedures
Architecture as a science:
Possible Purposes of Architecture
it goes beyond shelter function of modifying the microclimate
it can provide a sense of place and space
provide settings for certain activities;
remind people of such activities
express and support cosmological beliefs
communicate information
help establish individual or group identity; encode value systems
B. Essentials in Architecture
Vitruvius3 wrote encyclopedically about architecture, and the English poet Sir Henry Wotton
was quoting him in his charmingly phrased dictum: “Well building hath three conditions:
Commoditie, Firmenes, and Delight.”
Firmitas – strength – sound construction
Utilitas – commodity - utility
Venustas – beauty – aesthetics
QUALITIES OF ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE is represented by a building which meets in a satisfactory manner the
requirements of :
Logical function -
intended, its elements must be arranged so as to secure an efficient and workable

relationship between them. Related areas are adjacent to each other and there is ease of
circulation between different units.
Sound construction / strength -

for permanence and security.
Beautiful composition / aesthetic -
of design composition.
It is only when these qualities are present that good ARCHITECTURE can be said to exist
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INFLUENCES IN ARCHITECTURE
To understand the development of architecture, the factors that contributed to how it
evolved must first be taken into consideration. A nomad in his primitive days, man set out
on foot looking for food and anything which make him survive. Set out to gain protection
from the natural elements of his surroundings as well as from animal enemies. The following
takes into consideration the needs and activities of man as well as the conditions of nature
which had and continues to influence the development of architecture.
GENERAL INFLUENCES
A. Needs of Man
People are manipulated through their needs. Man is concerned in varying degrees with three
types of interests
1. Physical Needs
Continuance of life requires the provision of sustenance for every individual in order to exist
and reproduce.
a. Self-preservation
For man to survive and be able to do his activities, he must provide himself with the
following:
Basic Needs:
 Food
 Shelter
 Clothing
 Power
 Water
 Transportation
 Communication
b. Reproduction – procreation; for the population to increase and continue in

existence
2. Emotional Needs – stirred by the forces of art, religion and recreation

a. Aesthetics – to answer the desire to make something which is not strictly
utilitarian; decorating or ornamentation
b. Religion – architecture became a medium of expression of man’s spiritual
existence
c. Recreation – art of architecture became possible when man found the opportunity
for thought and relaxation
3. Intellectual Needs
a. Education
b. Science
c. Government
B. Activities of Man
There are several impulses or desires which must be satisfied if life is to exist and
civilization is to develop. These forces of stimuli to action and their corresponding
effect upon life and architecture are as follows:
1. Desire for Preservation

This is the most fundamental and causes man to provide shelter and comfort and to pass
hunger and thirst. It also encourages the acquisition of security which may be religious,
governmental or economic. In obtaining these physical needs and security, civilized man
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must have commerce, government, and religion, which activities call for their accompanying
structures or architecture
2. Desire for Recognition

This is the desire for prestige. Pride and ambition, personal or civic, result in the struggle for
position – for social status, physical supremacy, and intellectual attainment. For this reason,
individuals may build palaces, skyscrapers, or communities may erect cathedrals or public
buildings or monuments. This may also recognize man’s ingenuity or stupidity.
3. Desire for Response

This arises from gregarious nature of man, from his wish for love, friendship and sociability.
In seeking the companionship of his fellow creatures , man congregates. His social instincts
call for fraternal buildings and city clubs. His semi-public buildings must contain banqueting
halls and ball rooms, his home must have living room to make human association possible.
4. Desire for Self Expression

This is the urge of man to assert himself as an individual, to do things in his particular way.
In being individualistic, man has developed creative endeavor. This is responsible for the
aesthetic expression; for architecture in its highest form. The desire to play, to seek
recreation, has encouraged the building of theaters and stadia. It has promoted travel, with
its accompanying stimulating effect upon either the appreciation or production of arts in
general and architecture in particular.
INFLUENCES OF NATURE
1. Climate
It has been an important factor in determining not only the physiognomies but also the
habits and temperaments of the different races.
warm climate – colorful
cool – severe, subdued, dull
2. Topography
Site condition may lead to formal, usually in plain or flat area, or informal planning, in
terrain site. Topographical barriers retarded the intermingling of cultures in the past such
that the art and architecture of different countries assumed definite national patterns.
The development of navigation allowed people to travel and be exposed to other countries.
A level site encourages a formal and balanced scheme, while one with sudden changes in
grade encourages informal planning. Topography should influence architecture and
architecture should accent topography. In this modern age, technology now plays an
important role in building construction methods.
3. Construction Materials
Geology, accessibility and availability of materials
Materials and their availability in a certain place helped develop indigenous architecture
Modern advancement in construction technology provided new ways and innovations in

systems of construction transportation allowed distribution and use of building materials
(import and export; globalization)
C. Influences of Man
1. Social Conditions
Aspects of society which may be reflected through architecture.
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The work of architecture reflects the social structure of the period it was developed. The
interests of the people dictate the type and appearance of its buildings.
a. Social Structure – architecture can be a reflection of a period. The interest of the

people dictates the types and appearance of its buildings.
The Greeks honored their gods and goddesses, therefore, gave reverence by means of
building numerous temples.
Roman life in similar manner greatly involved law, politics and barbaric quests which was
manifested by their government and recreational buildings.
b. Public Opinion – a liberal minded people is open to new and progressive ideas.
They can appreciate good art and so, the architects may be brave enough to
experiment with different designs.
c. Exposure to other societies – at present, architecture has become standardized

due to the development of transportation and mass media. The advent of new ideas
produced an international style which sacrifices some local customs. At the same
time, exposure to conditions of different societies encourages an exchange of ideas
between architects/designers as well as intermingling of cultures, breaking barriers
of the recent past.
d. Social system – a complex social system would eventually call for related types
of buildings.
e. Modernization – modernization can sometimes produce problems which is the
reason allied fields such as city/town planning, urban planning, regional planning,
etc. have been added to architecture.
2. Economic Conditions
Economic conditions affect the standard of living which in turn influences the types of
buildings constructed and the materials used.
The nature of trade, commerce and industry, and agriculture determine to a large extent
the occupation and standards of living within a particular country. These factors influence
the type of buildings erected materials used. As nations modify their basic economic
institutions through changes in manufacture, transportation, and communication, new
modes of living come into existence, and new architecture must be developed to conform to
these customs.
A simple comparison of two countries, one prosperous and the other underprivileged, will
show the following possibilities:
Prosperous country – flourishing art and architecture with the opening of unlimited
possibilities for the artist and architect
Poor country – spare art and architecture without the non-essentials often with
interesting results
3. Technological Development
The course of modern architecture has been greatly influenced by the rapid development of
modern technology:
ART AND ARCHITECTURE WENT THROUGH THREE PHASES IN THE COURSE OF

THEIR DEVELOPMENT:
ARCHITECTURE reflects man's civilization and records man's progress

1. ARCHAIC - saw the groping of the untried hand in an attempt to master new problems
and new mediums, an effort to find an expression for a new material.
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2. MASTERY - the buildings or art produced during this period show that the designer or
artist has discovered how to control his medium and is sure of his technique and
performance. This is the height of development.
3. DECADENCE - is marked with the artist too sure of himself and begins to take liberties
with his materials. His designs were less structural and were too ornate. It heralds the
decline and is the beginning of the end.
THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
THE ESSENTIALS OF THE STRUCTURE

Man began to create shelter by surrounding space with the materials provided by nature
and made usable by the ingenuity of man. Space, in itself, is indefinite and intangible and
has no limits. But when it is enclosed by walls and a roof, a useful volume is created. A
structure, therefore, may be said to be composed of two essentials: the apparent volume
which is more readily seen and understood by the observer and hence called the VISIBLE
STRUCTURE, and the plan or horizontal disposition of the units which is called the
INVISIBLE STRUCTURE.
A. THE INVISIBLE STRUCTURE
The plan is the beginning of the building. It is the foundation upon which the scheme of the
structure rests. It relates the various units to each other. It is most important element of
volume and should receive the earliest consideration in the solution of the problem . The
design process should be from within to without, that is, from a satisfactory arrangement of
the plan units to the enclosing of these units by the exterior elements.
A plan must, first of all, function in logical manner. If the rooms are poorly related to one
another from the standpoint of use, beautiful composition will not correct the fault. If the
plan meets the requirements of a museum when the client wants a railroad station, the
building is a failure.
The abstract design in plan adjustment involves an understanding of the principles of
composition and the methods of securing contrast, balance, and unity. The abstract quality
in a plan has to do with the pattern created by the combination of geometrical areas
enclosed by the walls, and the proper combination of these shapes gives an interesting and
pleasing design.
B. THE VISIBLE STRUCTURE
By enclosing space, volume or mass is created. If this space has no relation to the
activities of man, there exists only a simple geometrical form as a cube, sphere, etc. But if
the surfaces of these volumes and the enclosed interiors are so treated that the forms are
related to human needs, then they may be regarded as architecture. The visible structure,
therefore, is composed of form and surface.
a. FORM-It is determined by the mass or volume created by the enclosing of space

and is therefore three-dimensional. It has two qualities:
a. direction – the vertical or horizontal axis of the mass

b. shape – or geometric qualities.
b. SURFACE – Surface of area is composed of two-dimensions, as in façade of the

building. Its qualities are:
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a. Texture – surface treatment identified with materials whether rough or

smooth
b. Tone- light nd shade cused by openings, projections
c. Color- inherent or applied color caused by spectrum hues
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN:
A. LINES
B. SHAPES
C. FORMS
D. COLOR
E. TEXTURE
A. LINES
LINES according to geometry are sets of points

LINES are representation or abstraction of the boundaries or edges found in nature.
Actually, there is no such thing as line but artists. Four architects said so to represent a
certain creation. The major dimension of line is length and the probable dimension is width
which is only possible on how thick the line is.
CATEGORIES OF LINE
1. straight – has strength in character
2. curved – gives an idea of grace
3. combination
DIRECTION OF LINE
1. horizontal – the tendency is to make wider or stouter, shows peace
2. vertical – the tendency is to make slimmer and shows dignity
3. diagonal
4. combination
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LINES

1. THICK OR THIN, LONG OR SHORT, SMOOTH OR FUSSY, LONG LINES ARE
MONOTONOUS
2. DEPENDS ON MATERIALS, TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS.
CLASSIFICATION OF LINES ACCORDING TO USES:
1. Structural
a. to define a shape – enclose, the lines have to meet.
b. to indicate background, what is in front should be given prominence.
2. Decorative
a. to form an overall pattern/model
b. to express the pure beauty of lines
c. to express an emotional or physical quality
d. to create optical illusion
GENDER OF LINES
A. MASCULINE – STRAIGHT LINE
B. FEMININE LINE – CURV E LINE
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B. SHAPE
SHAPE is the plane’s primary identifying characteristics. It refers to the edge

contour of a plane or the silhouette of a volume. It is the primary means by which we
recognize and identify the form of an object. Since it is seen as the line that separates a
form from its background, our perception of a form’s shape will depend on the degree of
contrast between the form and its background.
PRIMARY SHAPE
1. CIRCLE – a centralized, introverted figure that is normally stable and self-centering in its
environment. Placing a circle in the center of a field will reinforce its natural centrality.
Placing an element along its circumference, can induce in it an apparent rotary motion.
2. TRIANGLE – signifies stability when resting on one of its sides. The triangle is an
extremely stable figure. When tipped to stand on one of its vertices, however, it can either
be balanced in a precarious state of equilibrium or be unstable and tend to fall over onto
one of its sides.
3. SQUARE – represents the pure and the rational. It is static and neutral figure having no
preferred direction. All other rectangles can be considered variations of the square,
deviation from the norms by the addition of height or width. It is stable when resting on one
of its sides, and dynamic when standing on one of its corners.
C. FORM
In architectural discussion, the accepted definition of form deals with shape. It is two-
dimension, the figure is called an area or surface. But, if it is three-dimensional, it becomes
mass. In architecture, mass are usually volume and the surfaces which enclose space have
areas. In architectural composition, mass is more important than surface. In the design of
building, we should proceed from general to particular, from mass to detail. The approach to
design should not be through the details of a style but through a consideration of the mass
of the building which grows out of the function for which the building is
planned. The proper sequence, therefore, in design should be a study of the mass first
before the details of the building.
A PLANE extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a volume, having
three dimensions: length, width and depth.
VISUAL PROPERTIES OF FORM

1. SHAPE – results from the specific configuration of form’s surface and edges.
2. SIZE – the real dimension of form, its length, width, and depth; while these dimensions
determine the proportions of a form. Its scale is determined by its size relative to other
form in its context.
3. COLOR – the hue, the intensity, and the total value of a form’s surface; color is the
attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. It also affects the
visual weight of a form.
4. TEXTURE – the surface characteristic of a form; texture affects both tactile and light
reflective qualities of a form’s surfaces.
5. POSITION – a form’s location relative to its environment or visual field - front, right,
left, back
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left side of the heart center right side of the heart
6. ORIENTATION – a form’s position relative to the ground plane, the compass points or to
the person viewing the form.
NORTH
SOUTH
7. VISUAL INERTIA – the degree of concentration and stability of a form, the visual inertia
of a form depends on its geometry as well as its orientation relative to the ground plane and
our line of sight.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR FORMS
REGULAR FORMS are those whose parts are related to one another in a consistent and
orderly manner. They are generally stable in nature and symmetrical about one or more
axes. The platonic solids are prime examples of regular forms. Forms can retain their
regularity even transformed dimensionally, or by addition or subtraction of elements.
IRREGULAR FORMS – are those whose parts are dissimilar in nature and related to one
another in an inconsistent manner. They are generally asymmetrical and more dynamic
than regular forms. They can be regular forms from which irregular elements have been
subtracted or an irregular composition of regular forms. Since we deal with both solids and
voids in architecture, regular forms can be contained within irregular forms. Similarly,
irregular forms can be enclosed by regular forms
TRANSFORMATION OF FORMS:
All other forms can be understood to be transformations of the platonic solids, variations
that are generated by the manipulation of their dimensions, or by subtraction or addition of
elements.
DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS;
A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its dimensions and still retain its
family identity. A cube, for example, can be transformed into other prismatic forms by
altering its height, width or length. It can be compressed into a planar form, or stretched
into a linear one.
SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATION:
A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of its volume. Depending on the extent
of the subtractive process, the form can retain its identity, or be transformed into a form of
another family. For example, a cube can retain its identity as a cube even though a portion
of it is removed, or be transformed slowly into a polyhedron approximately a sphere.
ADDITIVE TRANSFORMATION:
A form can be transformed by addition of elements to its volume. The nature of the
addition process will determine whether the identity of the initial form is retained or altered.
ORGANIZATION OF FORM
1. CENTRALIZED FORM. A number of secondary forms clustered about a dominant central
parent form
2. LINEAR FORM. Series of forms arranged sequentially in a row
3. RADIAL FORM. Composition of linear forms extending outwards from a central form in a
radial manner
4. CLUSTERED FORM. Collection of forms grouped together by proximity or the sharing of
a common visual trait
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5.GRID FORM. Set of modular forms related and regulated by three dimensional grid
D. COLOR
 of all the design elements, color is perhaps the most appealing

 called the music of the visual arts
 when used, it elicits an emotional response
 although not necessary for the creation of a great work of art, it suggests mood and
depth of experience beyond those possible with the other design elements
 combinations can manipulate emotions
 most powerful tool of a designer
 sensation when our optic nerves react to the given ray of light.
E. TEXTURE
Refers to the surface treatment.
Texture is usually associated with materials.
All materials have a texture. Surface characteristics can be felt or that affect the way
a thing looks when light hits it. Things have a unique texture that contributes something to
their identity.
Manufacturers have created a host of new materials in synthetic field. The first reaction to
many of them by the average consumer was a negative one unless the material or the
article made from it reminded the consumer of that which he was already familiar. But
individuals with a sense of integrity
PATTERN AND TEXTURE

The effects of colors are radically changed by difference in texture and pattern, so
that a nearly or totally monochromatic room can be as lively and memorable through its
subtleties of texture as a room with vividly contrasting colors. The thicker or stronger the
texture, the softer and more diminished the color seems. Flat, smooth, glossy surfaces
project a much brighter image the soft ones. A painted surface in a particular color will be
very much sharper than the same color in carpet or felt or velvet.
EFFECTS OF SOFT AND HARD SURFACES

Gaining the knowledge of what contrasting textures go best together is really a
matter of experience. It helps to make lists of all kinds of different surfaces and materials
and to conjure them up in your mind’s eye, appropriately distributing them around walls,
floors, ceilings, windows, and furniture.
ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE
A. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS:
1. Walls – are the simplest of the structural elements. They suggest architecture of
masonry where the walls actually carried the loads of the floors and roofs, but in modern
architecture they have become less and less structural and more and more protective, e.g.,
curtain wall
2. Columns– vertical structural element that carries the load of horizontal structures and
transmit it to the foundation system.
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B. PROTECTIVE ELEMENTS
1. Roofs – These may be of several types:
a. flat
b. pitched or lean-to
c. gable
d. hip
e. gambrel
f. mansard
g. truncated
h. conical
2. Domes– Domes are usually reserved for buildings which tend to be monumental or
decoratively ornate in character. It grows most logically from a circular plan but is often
used over square plans by means of pendentives( see Byzantine Architecture). Domes may
be :
a. hemispherical
b. segmental
c. saucer
d. pointed
3. Vaults – These may be classified according to their construction as :

a. Vaults without ribs, in which the weight and thrusts are uniform, e.g., Roman and
Renaissance Vaulting:
1. barrel or wagon vaults
2. cross vaults
b. Vaults with ribs, in which the thrusts are concentrated at isolated piers at the
corners of the vaulting compartment, e.g., Romanesque and Gothic Vaulting:
1. quadripartite
2. sexpartite
3.stellar
4.fan
5.pendant
4. Ceilings
a. plain
b. beamed
c. coffered
C. CIRCULATORY ELEMENTS:
1. Openings- (doors and windows) to permit passage from the exterior to the interior or
from one room to another, as well as to allow the movement of light and air throughout the
building.
2. Corridors – to allow travel from one part of the building to another
3. Stairways, ramps, elevators– to allow communication between floors.
Stairways should display those proportions which time has shown to be the most
satisfactory in their relations to each other. The height of the riser should be such that the
pitch is not too steep, making the stairway difficult to ascend, nor too low, resulting in
wasted effort. It is recommended that the angle of stairs be about 30 – 35 degrees with the
horizontal. Treads may vary from 10 to 13 inches, and the riser from 6 to 7-3/4 inches. A
common rule is that the sum of the riser plus the run should not exceed 17-1/2 inches.
Stairways may be of four types (with several variations of each):
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a._.straight flight or direct

b. two-way
c. three-way
d. curved
D. DECORATIVE ELEMENTS:
1. Mouldings – are architectural elements which are composed of narrow, curved and flat
projecting or receding members arranged in such a manner as to give a play of light and
shade and to furnish emphasis to certain parts of the building.
The different types of classical mouldings may be classified according to their purpose:
a. Terminating
Cyma recta
Cavetto
Corona
b. Supporting
Ovolo
Cyma Reversa
c. Separating
Torus
Astragal
Scotia
Fillet
d. Translating
Cyma recta or reversa
Corona
Ovolo
2. Ornament– may be classified according to their character as:
a. Abstract – Abstract Ornament is that which has no reference to any particular

subject, or at least to any familiar, easily recognized object. It usually consists of a
pleasing arrangement of geometrical forms to produce a pattern or composition.
b. Pictorial – Pictorial Ornament has less connection with architecture than with
some other form of expression. It may either be naturalistic or conventional.
Naturalistic, pictorial decoration is not in sympathy with the architectural planes of a
building. The results are usually more satisfactory if the ornament is
conventionalized. This consists of the simplification of the design and its reduction to
a basic structural pattern which will express the character of the material to be used.
c. Non-pictorial – Non-pictorial Ornament does not tell a story that is; there should
be no pictorial meaning to the design. Much of the carvings of the various historical
periods belong to this non-pictorial type, e.g., the egg and dart, anthemion, and
acanthus motifs of Classical Architecture, the crockets, cresting, and capitals of the
Gothic, and the garlands and ribbons of the Renaissance. Non- pictorial ornament
may also be either naturalistic or conventional.
Ornament may also be classified according to the form which it assumes as:
1. Two-dimensional.
Pointing
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Painted decorations
Murals
Frescoes
Mosaic, tiles, marbles
Inlays of metals, woods, etc.
2. Three-dimensional
Ornament, carved, cast or hammered

Low relief
High relief
Sculpture
High relief
In the round
Free-standing
MATERIALS AND DESIGN
Materials have always dictated the type of construction, and out of the limitations and
possibilities of wood, stone, bricks, steel and concrete have grown the post and lintel, and
the rounded, pointed and parabolic arch, vault and dome. These forms have influenced the
appearance of buildings of all the ages of the past and present. Design has thus developed
from materials.
MATERIALS OF ARCHITECTURE – building materials may be divided into two groups:
Materials of Nature
Stone – limestone, marbles granite, etc.
Wood
Materials of Man – These materials require manipulation by the hands of man before they
acquire their finished form.
Ceramics – brick, terracotta, tile, glass
Concrete
Metal – steel, iron, aluminum, alloys
Plastics
THE CREATIVE PRINCIPLES

The principles by which modern architecture should be developed are as follows:
1. FUNCTION of the structure

a. Relationship of units - Correct placing for proper circulation
b. Physical qualities of units - Correct size and shape for equipment, furniture and
circulation
The design must satisfy the purpose of requirements of the building. It must first of all,
satisfy the needs of the client.
The relationship of units should be studied properly to satisfy the following:

1. Relationship of the function or use
2. Proper circulation between rooms. This refers to the traffic of the building. There
should be economy and directness of circulation.
3. Privacy of units
4. Location (orientation) of units considered with respect to:
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a. position of the sun

b. prevailing winds
c. external vistas or view
5. Physical qualities of units should be adjusted to the activities which are to be
housed. Size and shape of various units should be related to the function,
equipment, and furniture which they are to contain.
2. STRENGTH of the Structure

a. Correct use of materials and construction
b. Relation to function
c. Economy of materials
d. Adequacy of structure
e. Honesty of expression
There should be a simple structural scheme, one which is suited to the purpose of the
building and to the desired character and appearance. New techniques in building
construction should be considered.
There should be a logical and economical use of materials. Honesty of expression must be
observed in the use of materials, that is materials should be used in a truthful manner and
not to hide or imitate.
Dishonesty of structure should be avoided. False fronts, useless columns, unnecessary
parapets, too spectacular roofs detract from the functional and aesthetic qualities of the
structure.
COMPOSITION
It is necessary that a building, aside from its functional development, should be
organized for appearance in accordance with the rules of composition.
3. APPEARANCE of the Structure

a. Composition of mass, volume, areas, details organized according to contrast,
proportion, scale, balance, rhythm, unity and character.
PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION IN VOLUME

Architecture is one of the creative arts and the same fundamental principles underlying the
other forms of artistic expression are also to be found therein. A synthesis of all the
principles is necessary to insure a unified and satisfactory composition. But for the sake of
the study, it will be necessary to analyze separately these qualities and their applications to
architectural problems. These principles are :
1. Contrast – association of unlike qualities

Transition is one important rule in using principle of contrast
CONTRAST is one of the most important qualities or conditions of nature and man-made
things with which we have our physical perception of things. We can hear because of the
contrast between silence and sound. We can feel because of the contrast between qualities
of the objects. We can identify anything because of its difference or contrast in the shapes,
textures, colours of its surfaces. It is only through contrast that we know what is good and
bad, what is beautiful and ugly.. For if everything were equal, then there would be no
contrast at all, and life would be monotonous and uninteresting.
There are several types of contrast:

a. Contrast of FORM
a. with respect to shape
b. with respect to mass
b. Contrast of LINE
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a. with respect to direction

b. with respect to type
c. Contrast of SIZE
If the change in size is gradual and uniform, it is called gradation
d. Contrast of TONE
This maybe obtained by contrast of textures, openings, or planes, e.g.,

contrast between dark roofs and light walls, between the darks of openings
and the light of walls.
e. Contrast of TREATMENT
This is based upon handling of the various surfaces, or by the character of the
treatment of the different areas of the façade of a building, rustication of the
lower part of a wall in contrast to a more refined treatment of the upper
areas.
f. Contrast of TEXTURE
-whether rough or smooth
g. Contrast of CHARACTER, as involved in the design of a church and parish house.

Although the two parts must be similar in general feeling, the various architectural
details must express the different functions of each structure.
A combination of some of the various types of contrast makes an architectural composition

interesting, but excess of contrast will also create confusion.
2. Proportion – harmonious relation of one part to another with respect to magnitude and
quantity, refers to size of human beings.
PROPORTION is largely a matter of relationships. It refers to the pleasing

relationships between parts of the design in relation to each other and the whole. It is
evident by a comparison which the eye makes between the size and shape of the various
parts. Proportions may be defined as the harmonious relation of one part to another with
respect to magnitude and quantity.
Certain basic geometrical forms which have very definite proportions are circle,
triangle, and square. The eye identifies them quickly and for this reason they are dominant
shapes in any composition. They are usually used for accents or emphasis.
PROPORTIONS MAY BE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:

A. MATERIAL PROPORTIONS- All materials have rational proportions that at
dictated by their inherent strengths and weaknesses. Example:
1. MASONRY UNITS – like bricks are strong in compression and depend on

their mass for strength and are therefore volumetric in form
2. STEEL – are strong both in compression and tension, and can therefore be
formed into linear columns and beams and planar sheet material
3. WOODS – are flexible and fairly elastic, can be used as linear posts and
beams, planar boards, and as volumetric element in log cabin construction.
B. STRUCTURAL PROPORTIONS – Beams and columns form s skeletal structural

framework that defines modules of spaces. By their size and proportion, columns and
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beams articulate space, and give it scale and a hierarchial structure. This can be
seen in the way joists are supported by beams, and the beams by girders. Each
element increases in depths as load increases in size.
C. MANUFACTURED PROPORTIONS – many architectural elements are sized and

proportioned not only according to their structural properties and function, but also
by the process through which they are manufactured. Because these elements are
mass-produced in factories, they have standard sizes and proportions imposed on
them by the individual manufacturers. Hollow blocks are standard in sizes of 4” x 8”
x 16” or 6” x 8” x 16 and plywood is common in 4’ x 8’ so that the spacing of wood
nailers are fitted into this size. Doors and windows are sized and proportioned to fit
into modular masonry openings.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE PROPORTION:
1. RELATIVE PROPORTION – deals with the relationship between the parts of the object
and the whole. For example, the ratio between the diameter of a classical column and its
height or the relation of the panels of the door and the whole door.
2. ABSOLUTE – deals with the relationship between the different parts of an object or the
whole to the various parts.
3. Scale – deals with the relation of architectural motifs such as windows, doors,
mouldings, to each other and to the human figure.
SCALE has reference to proportions which are based on the human figure and deals
with the relation of elements to each other and the human figure. Architecture must
be adapted to human needs. Thus, doors should be large enough to walk through in
comfort but not so gigantic they become difficult to handle or close; steps should be
of such size as to permit easy ascent or descent. The give a sense of scale, the size
of the human figure is ordinarily included in presentation of structures.
4. Balance – means equality, satisfying to the eye with reference to the relative importance
of the various parts of the design.
BALANCE is equality. Proper balance in composition satisfied the eye with reference
to the relative importance of the various parts of the design. The types of balance
are:
a. SYMMETRICAL BALANCE
1. Pure or Absolute Symmetry. This is the simplest and easiest kind of balance, in
which the elements are so arranged in precisely the same manner on either side of s
central axis or line. Not only is the arrangement similar but each object is exactly the
one occupying the corresponding position on the opposite side. In this kind of
balance, the eye catches at a glance the quality of attraction on each side of the
center of the composition. All elements are duplicated – shape for shape, size for
size, tone for tone. This type of balance is straightforward and direct and gives a
feeling of order and repose.
2. Formal Balance. This is a type of symmetrical balance, but one which lacks some
of the essentials of this kind of composition. The general mass and grouping of parts
may be similar but there are dissimilarities in plan, elevation and details.
b. UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE
This is occult balance, obtained by the grouping, in an informal manner, of elements

of varying sizes and shapes. In this type, one senses, rather than sees, a state of
equilibrium. It is more subtle and elusive and is more difficult to attain than formal
balance.
In an informal arrangement, the larger and heavier masses should be nearer the
center of the grouping, while the lighter and lower and more horizontal elements
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may constitute the long arm as in a steelyard. Vertical units may be introduced near
the center interest, or what may be considered as the fulcrum of the composition, in
order to create the desired accents. Unsymmetrical balance is desirable in a building
where a feeling of informality assists in expressing the proper character.
Symmetrical balance on the other hand, is used when it is desired to give a feeling of
formality or monumentality.
5. Rhythm – organized movement of line which carries the eye from one element to
another
Rhythm, which is the foundation of music, is based on movement which must be

organized in some kind of tempo or spacing. This tempo may be fast or slow, or it
may be regular or irregular. There is the same kind of movement in architecture.
There is the movement of the theme which the eye perceives as it travels across the
façade of the building, pausing here to look at this detail and then going on to the
next. An unbroken have no rhythm. However, if equally spaced windows are
introduced, then regular repetition is present and we have unaccented regular
rhythm. If the openings or details are arranged in such a manner that some
elements are more important than others, then the eye grasps the significance of
this relationship and pauses longer in contemplating the larger elements. This brings
about an accented movement, a skipping along quickly over the minor divisions and
a rest on the major motifs, so that the movement is spaced.
Rhythm must be directed and controlled for without organization there is not rhythm.
If unrelated sounds occur, there is no organization, hence there is no rhythm, and
the result would be mere noise. Similarly, if windows and doors area thrown into the
façade of a building in a haphazard manner, there would be no scheme or sense to
the arrangement and there would be no rhythm.
6. Unity – relating to all unrelated parts of an architectural arrangement in order to obtain

a satisfactory composition.
UNITY is the culmination of all the elements of design. It suggests harmony. It

seems that all the unrelated parts of an architectural arrangement are brought into
proper relation to each other so that a satisfactory composition is obtained. All the
minor parts must be made to assist the major elements in the roles which they are
to play in the development of a structure.
Unity may be easily seen in the simple geometric forms, such as the circle, square
and triangle. They are elementary in their shapes and no portion of the whole tends
to detach itself and to create new form. Elementary geometric forms are compact
and direct; they tell a single story in the briefest possible manner and which can be
grasped readily by the viewer.
7. Character – expressiveness
CHARACTER is the external manifestation or expression of internal qualities. It

grows out of the function of the building and the consideration of all the creative
principles of composition. Like persons, buildings have points of similarity (walls,
doors, roofs, etc.) but again, they are alike in the purpose they serve and the
appearance which are influenced by their individual characteristics. This quality may
be called personality. In architecture, the character of the building is the external
expression of its internal function.
There are three types of character in architecture which arises from:
A.Function or use of the building. This type of character is the most important
and results from the purpose of the building or the reason for which it is erected. The
use of a structure naturally calls for a particular disposition of parts, and this
arrangement affects the appearance of the exterior by which we largely judge its
character. Thus, a museum must have galleries with ample wall spaces for the
hanging of pictures on top lighting. This eliminates windows and necessitates the use
of skylights. On the other hand, a school building would require many windows to
admit necessary side light. A factory expresses the efficient operation of the
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manufacturing process within, while a house reflects the informal intimacy of home
life.
The external expression of these various internal functions gives a building its
character. The appearance of a structure is, therefore, an outgrowth of the plan
which, in turn, is determined by the use of the building.
B. Association, or the influence of traditional types. Associated character comes

from the influence of ideas and impressions related to or growing out of past
experiences. We know by association and experience the characteristics of our
friends; similarly, we have come to recognize certain buildings by features which
have long been associated with that type of structure. Thus a spire atop a building
with stained glass windows tells us that the edifice is a church. Certain traditional
forms have long been associated with specific types of buildings. The use of Classical
Orders have often indicated the presence of a bank, while Gothic, at least in the U.S.
has always been associated with educational institutions.
The contemporary movement of architecture has however, caused many revisions in
our association of ideas. It has been necessary to adjust our point of view to the
many influences which are now changing the character of the modern buildings. New
methods of construction have grown out of new materials, ways which were not
practicable to the former conceptions as the limitations of brick and stone.
C. Personality, or emotional appeal. Personal character in architecture bears a

certain relation to the same attribute in an individual. Buildings have qualities which
are directly related to their functions, but in addition, they may posses
characteristics which have to do rather with emotional reaction set up in the mind of
the observer. Like individuals, buildings may be stem and forbidding, light or playful,
sedate and dignified, etc.
EMPHASIS
Center of interest, dominant area that catches the eye or arrest attention which leads the
eye from the most important part of design to other subordinating areas in the order of
their importance. How to emphasize? By contrast of color, value, intensity and axis of the
plan, by lines, by unusual detail and by grouping or placing of objects.
THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE 2
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN Basic Principles of Design

DESIGN
 Design is simply the activity of generating proposals that change something that
already exists into something that is better; it includes the most purposeful changes
to the physical environment;
 All environments are designed: in a sense that they embody human decisions and
choices and specific ways of doing things
 Design happens whenever activities change the face of the earth and create built
environments.
 Two types of environment: natural environment and built environment
GENERAL CATEGORIES BY WHICH CONCERNS AND ISSUES MAY BE

ADDRESSED IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN:
1. FUNCTIONAL ZONING
the need for adjacency
2. ARCHITECTURAL SPACE
a concretization of man’s existential space
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 Space is the most influential aspect of design problem solving.

 The designer must know what activities, conditions and people he is
planning for.
3. CIRCULATION AND BUILDING FORM

Circulation may be conceived as the perceptual thread that links the spaces of a
building or any series of interior or exterior spaces together. Building forms are conceived
as structures.
4. RESPONSE TO CONTEXT
Depending on the environment and the meaning of the structure in that
environment.
5. BUILDING ENVELOPE
The imaginary shape of a building indicating its maximum volume.
Used to check the plan and setback with respect to zoning regulations.
CREATIVITY
 The process of generating new ideas
 An essential tool in design
THREE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN DEVELOPING CREATIVITY
1. IDEATION
The mental process which gives the ability to think or ideate
2. IDEA QUANTITY
The capacity to produce the largest number of ideas per unit of time
3. IMAGINEERING
The process of letting imagination soar and then engineering it back to reality
STAGES IN DESIGNING
1. DESIGN ANALYSIS
 The stage in which we identify the PROBLEM in order to come up with ideas to solve
it.
 Creativity needs a positive attitude. Ideas should not be dismissed too quickly.
 They should first be articulated, added on or discussed with another person or group
so that they can be further developed.
2. TENTATIVE SOLUTIONS
Creative Problem‐Solving Techniques:

1. ALPHABETICAL LISTING‐ begins with listing all the letters of the alphabet. Then
for each letter, list a word or phrase that begins with that letter and pertains to the
problem you are attempting to solve or a potential solution to it.
2. FUNCTIONAL VISUALIZATION‐ thinking about what function the object will

perform instead of thinking how it will look like.
3. MORPHOLOGICAL SYNTHESIS‐ making a list in a more direct manner to seek

alternatives.
4. INVERSION‐ instead of thinking of how to improve the situation, think of how to

make it worse so that you are given a new set of perspective or concepts
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5. BIONICS‐ “back‐to‐nature” solutions
6. DESCRIPTION BY ASSOCIATION‐ offering a description of the object by

associating it with something else.
7. BRAINSTORMING – a group process in which several people, for a given amount of

time, gathers together and discusses a particular problem, and everyone contributes
positive thoughts to the discussion.
3. CRITICISM
 Design may be criticized by others who want to apply further objectives or prioritize
other aspects of the problem. During this stage, the problem may change and the
information and objectives may increase.
4. OPERATIONAL PROCESS
 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN – sketches which make up a statement to intent for the
guidance of structural and service engineering consultants and for information of
suppliers and manufacturers who will be involved in the work.
 OPERATIONAL DESIGN – detailed working drawings and specifications which may
be constantly modified during the process but always within the framework of the
basic concept.
FIVE‐STEP DESIGN PROCESS

1. INITIATION
Involves the recognition and definition of the problem to be solved
2. PREPARATION
The systematic collection and analysis of information about the problem to be solved
the activity is called “programming” and the product is a building program.
Generally, includes a written report summarizing the needs of a project and can
include extensive analysis that identifies the important issues to be solved. It also
include activities like gathering of based maps, site data – surrounding environment,
traffic, utilities, legal constraints, economic and financial data
3. PROPOSAL MAKING OR SYNTHESIS

Physical demonstrations of the integration of very large number of issues. Drawings
and notes form a tool for successive explorations and iterations that converge on a
solution
Translation – refers to the preparation of sketches, drawings and models
4. EVALUATION
Evaluation of alternative proposals by the designer
Comparing proposed design solutions with the goals and criteria evolved in the
programming stage
5. ACTION
 Stage in the design process that include activities associated with preparations and
implementation of a project
 Preparation of construction documents (working drawings and written specifications
for the building)
PLANNING BASICS
PLAN COMPOSITION SCHEME
Logical planning should not be done in an aimless way. There must be a reason or a
scheme behind it.
Exterior with symmetry or monumentality = plan balanced about a central axis.
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Informal massing = more free flowing

 Regardless of the complexity of plans, they may be reduced to simple
geometrical shapes (circles, squares, etc.)
AXIAL ARRANGEMENTS
Axis is determined by the relative importance of the sides which bound the plan
 MAJOR AXIS – carried through the mass as one enters the building;
perpendicular to the main elevation and to the directional quality of the area
– location of entrance is more important than shape
o Transverse major axis – cuts through the shorter direction
o Longitudinal major axis – cuts through the longer direction
 PRINCIPAL MINOR AXIS – extends at right angle from the major axis; parallel
to the main elevation
In complex plans, the parts may group around several minor axes which show the
direction of the units.
PRINCIPLES
 ORGANIC PLANS – all parts must fit together in such a way that the composition
will be disturbed if one element is moved.
 EMPHASIS – created by contrast in size, shape, character, etc.
o Emphasized activity = emphasized area in the plan
(ex. Elements imparting rhythm and point to a monument in the center)
SECONDARY PRINCIPLES
1. REPETITION
When a number of room, window, arches, etc. of equal size and shape occur side by
side to create unaccented rhythm
.
2. ALTERNATION
Alternating varying sizes or contrasting shapes
3. TRANSITION
A satisfactory progression from one unit to another such as vestibules, lobbies; gives
preparatory indication of the character and use of the interior
4. TRANSFORMATION
A prototypical architectural model whose formal structure and ordering are
appropriate is
Transformed through a series of discreet manipulations to respond to specific conditions and
context.
 Requires that the principle of the prototypical model is understood so that the design
Concept is maintained even after permutation
ARCHITECTURAL THEORIES AND THEORISTS
ESSENTIAL BASES FOR THE STUDY AND PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE

1. Theory in architecture deals with what architecture is, what architecture should
accomplish, and how best to design it.
2. History deals with theories, events, design methods, and buildings.
3. Criticism is the process and record of response to the built environment; it
relates to both theory and history; history can be considered as a form of criticism.
THEORIES ABOUT WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS

Some of the recurrent analogies employed by theorists to explain architecture:
1. MATHEMATICAL ANALOGY
- Geometry and numbers as a basis for Architecture, in tune with a Universal order
- Golden Section
proportion: 1:1.6128 /2:3 / 3:5 / 5:8
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16th Century: Filius Bobacci – developed
Filius Bobacci
Fibonacci Series : 1+2 = 3, 2+3=5, 3+5 = 8 and so on
Create a continuing scale : 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144....
Modular System
- Le Corbusier (Modular System)
- Number theories of renaissance
- Greek orders: Doric, Ionic or Corinthian
2. BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY
a. Organic – Focuses on the relationships between parts of the building or between
the building and its site.
b. Biomorphic – Focuses on growth processes and movement capabilities
associated with organisms
11
3. ROMANTIC ANALOGY
a. Evocative – uses associations or exaggeration to elicit an emotional response.
b. Associations can refer to nature, the past, exotic places, primitive things, the
future, childhood, etc.
c. Exaggeration or excess can intimidate, frighten, or awe through the use of
contrast, excessive stimulation, unfamiliar scale or forms.
4. LINGUISTIC ANALOGY
a. Grammatical model – Architecture is composed of elements (words) that are
ordered by rules (grammar and syntax) that allow people to understand what a
building is trying to communicate. ex. Geek orders
b. Expressionist model – Building as a vehicle for expression of the Architects
attitude towards the building. ex. Saarinen’s Dules Airport (conveying flight in its
form)
5. MECHANICAL ANALOGY
 Building are like machines. They should express only what they are and what they
do.
Ex. “A house is a machine for living” –Le Corbusier
6. PROBLEM‐SOLVING ANALOGY
 Assumes that environmental needs can be solved through careful analysis and
deliberate procedures
It includes 3 Stages:
a. Analysis
b. Synthesis
c. Evaluation
7. ADHOCIST ANALOGY
 Building should respond to the immediate need, using materials readily available
without making reference to an ideal.
Ex. Eames House, Charles and Ray Eames
- “Ugly and Ordinary”, Robert Venturi
8. PATTERN LANGUAGE ANALOGY

 Human activities are often characterized as theatre characterized as theatre and so
the built environment may be seen as a stage in which people play roles and
buildings become settings and props.
Ex. Plaza D’ Italia, Charles Moore
9. DRAMATURGICAL ANALOGY THEORIES ABOUT WHAT ARCHITECTURE SHOULD

DO
Theories about what architecture should accomplish are concerned with identifying
the goals that the designer and buildings should satisfy.
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THEORIES ABOUT HOW TO DESIGN

These design theories are concerned with identifying appropriate methods of
operation.
1. CLASSICAL THEORIES13
MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLIO
 Author of the oldest research on architecture
 Wrote an extensive summary of all the theories on construction
2. MEDIEVAL THEORIES
- most documents dealt with monastery institutions
3. RENAISSANCE THEORIES
- brought a new interest in the feats of antiquity (especially in Italy)
4. CONSTRUCTION THEORIES
 Before Written Construction Theory
‐ Architecture created without the help of architects or theory
‐ Semi‐Circular Vault: Theory by Virtue
 During Middle Ages
‐ No written documents survived about theories or models to describe the
magnificent vaults of medieval cathedrals
 During Renaissance
‐ From Alberti onwards, architects began specializing
‐ first engineering school
5. PERSONAL STYLE
Copying from Antiquity
 ART NOUVEAU
‐ The first architectural style independent of the tradition of antiquity after the Gothic
style
‐ The example set by Art Nouveau encourage some of the most skillful architects of
the 20th century to create their private form language
6. THEORETICAL TREATISES
 Five points ofArchitecture (1926, Le Corbusier)
a. pilotis
b. free plan
c. free façade
d. the long horizontal sliding window e. the roof garden
 Architecture as Space (Bruno Zevi)
 The “personal style” of architects are not necessarily based on laws of nature or on
logical reasoning.
 MODERN ARCHITECTURE
 Industrial Revolution (1768)
‐ Arts and Crafts Movement
‐ Eclecticism
a. architecture of borrowing
 Fruits of Industrial Revolution
 Joseph Paxton – Crystal Palace, 1851
 Elisha Graves Otis – Elevator, 1857
 Manufacturing of “Rolled Steel”
1870’s
 The Great Fire of Chicago, 1871
‐ downtown in Chicago was burned and was in need of construction of new buildings
‐ place where first tallest building was constructed
 William Le Baron Jenney
‐ made the first skyscraper
 Daniel Burnham
‐ “make no little plans, they have no magic to stir man’sblood”
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 Louis Sullivan
‐ “form follows function”
1880’s
 Chicago School became the concentration of architectural development
 introduce Chicago Window
1890’s
 The World Columbian Exposition
‐ built in 1863
‐ chief architect: Daniel Burnham and Frederick LawOlmsted
1900’s
 European architecture was notified
 Person to notify:
a. Otto Wagner
b. Adolf Loops “ornament is a crime”
c. H.P. Berlage
d. Frank Lloyd Wright
1910’s
 Office of Peter Behrens
 Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe
a. Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe “less in more”
b. Walter Gropius
 Le Corbusier
c. Le Corbusier
TWO (2) ART MOVEMENTS THAT INFLUENCED

1. Futurism – simultaneity of movement
2. Cubism – interpretation of space
1920’s
 The Bauhaus
‐ “Art and Technology, the new unity”
 Established architects
a. Frank Lloyd Wright “organic architecture”
b. Le Corbusier
c. Mies Van Der Rohe / Gropius
1930’s
 International Style
1950’s
 The period of Reassessment
‐ Universalism
‐ Personalism
o POSTMODERNISM
 The center of Postmodernism:
Robert Venturi “less is bore”
 Philip Johnson
‐ say that a portion of Chippendale building in New York has no
function
 Introduced the element of “Discovery”
Mies van der Rohe: Less is more.

Louis Sullivan: Form follows function
Eero Saarinen: The purpose of architecture is to shelter and enhance man’s life on earth
and to fulfil his belief in nobility of his existence.
Le Corbusier: A house is a machine for living in.
Philip Johnson: Architecture is the art of how to waste space.
Frank Lloyd Wright: All fine architectural values are human values, else not valuable.
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Le Corbusier: Architecture is a learned game, correct, magnificent, of forms assembled in

the light.
Mies van der Rohe: Architecture is the will of the epoch translated into space.
Frank Lloyd Wright: An idea is salvation by imagination.
Alvar Aalto: Nothing is dangerous in architecture dealing with separated problems. If we
split life into separated problems, we split the possibilities to make good art.
Tadao Ando: I would like my architecture to inspire people to use their own resources, to
move into the future.
Tadao Ando: I believe that the way people live can be directed a little by architecture.
Philip Johnson: All architects want to live beyond their death.
Michael Graves: I don’t believe in morality in architecture.
FAMOUS ARCHITECTURAL THEORIES AND THEORISTS

ARCHITECTURAL ARCHITECTURAL THEORY SAMPLE BUILDING
THEORIST
Le Corbusier Five Points of Architecture Villa Savoy

1. Pilotis
2. Free Plan
3. Free Façade
4. Horizontal Sliding Window
5. Roof Garden
Robert Venturi Complexity and Contradiction in Ronchamp

Architecture
Christian Norberg The Phenomenon of Place Tadao Ando

Schulz
Peter Eisenman Post Functionalism Fish Dance Restaurant
Louis Sullivan Form Follows Function Guaranty Building
Mies Van Der Rohe Universal Space Theory Crown Hall
Kenneth Frampton Critical Regionalism Theory Bilbao Museum
Geoffrey Broadbent Theory of Signs Swiss Re Building
ARCHITECTURAL CONCERNS
CATEGORIES OF ARCHITECTURAL CONCERNS
A. Function- activity, grouping, and zoning
B. Space- volume required by activities
C. Geometry- circulation form and image
D. Context- site and climate
E. Enclosure- structure enclosing planes and openings

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F. Systems- mechanical, electrical, etc.
G. Economic- initial cost, maintenance cost, etc.
H. Human factors- perception of human behavior
A. FUNCTIONAL GROUPING AND ZONING
HORIZONTAL DISPOSITION – arrangement of the various units of the plan in a horizontal

manner in order to secure a workable relationship between the different areas
THE PRINCIPLES RELATED TO FUNCTION
1. Adjacency
2. Relatedness of departments, goals and systems
3. Sequence in time
4. Required environments
5. Effect produce
6. Relative proximity to buildings
7. Relatedness to core activities
8. Characteristics of people involved
9. Volume of people involved
10. Extent of involvement of man and machine
B. SPACE
- Is one of the most influential aspects of the analysis stage in solving a design problem
THE SYSTEM OF SPACES
- Most of man’s actions comprise of a spatial aspect.
EXPRESSIVE OR ARTISTIC SPACE- created by man to express the structure of his world.
AESTHETIC SPACE- concept which systematized the space’s possible properties.
THE CONCEPT OF SPACE IN ARCHITECTURAL THEORY
2 divisions of architectural space
1. Based on Euclidean space- stimulated by the importance of Euclidean geometry.
2. Based on perception psychology- buffer zones, space bubbles
PHYSICAL SPACE -at the most basic level, answers the user’s physical needs. It easy to
design because every component is measurable based on certain standards and does not
consider the social and psychological at needs of the users.
Space may also be shaped by the user’s sensory perception:
1. Olfactory
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2. Hearing
3. Sight
The principles of space organization are concerned with;
1. The use of space
2. The collaboration of materials
3. The contributions of aesthetics
SPACE TO SPACE RELATIONSHIPS
1. Space within a space- consists of larger space enveloping a smaller space within its
volume.
2. Interlocking spaces- consist of two spaces whose fields overlap to form a zone of shared
space.
3. Adjacent spaces- consist of two spaces that are clearly defined and responsive to
functional or symbolic requirements in their own way
4. Spaces linked by common space- consist of two spaces that are separated by distance
and a third intermediate space that interlocks them and defines their relationship.
FIVE WAYS TO ARRANGE AND ORGANIZE SPACE
1. Centralized- consist of a central dominant space around which a number of secondary

spaces are grouped.
2. Linear- consist of a linear sequence of repetitive spaces that are generally alike in size,
form and function.
3. Radial- consists of a central space from which linear organizations extend in a radial
manner.
4. Clustered- consists of repetitive cellular spaces grouped by proximity or by the sharing of

a common trait or relationship.
5. Grid- consists of spaces whose positions in space and relationships with one another are
regulated by a three-dimensional grid pattern or field.
SPACE ARTICULATION – is often used in architecture to define a zone of space within a

larger spatial context.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
CIRCULATION ELEMENT
1. Building approach- building entrances are usually approached along a path, making it
the first phase of the circulation system.
a. Frontal
b. Oblique
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c. Spiral
2. The building entrance- the building entrance distinguishes the passage from one space
to another (outside to inside)
3. Configuration of the path
a. Pedestrian path- can accommodate sharper turns but require a greater volume of
space than the bodily dimensions of the users.
b. Vehicular paths- can be tailored tightly to the width of the vehicles but requires
less abrupt changes in pace and direction.
4. Path space relationships
a. Pass by space- maintains the integrity of earth space; flexible configuration; may
be connected to mediating paths.
b. Pass through spaces- axially, obliquely or along its edge; creates patterns of
movement or rest within the space.
c. Terminate in a space- used to approach and enter functionally and symbolically

important spaces.
5. Form of circulation space- corridors, balconies, galleries, stairs and rooms are circulation
space that form an integral part of the building organization and occupy a significant amount
of space within the building’s volume.
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
1. Solar shading in summer
Shading by structural elements (overhangs, walls, baffles, etc.) is designed to intercept the
sun’s rays at the building exterior; affects the façade of the building.
Powered louvers to diminish heat gain – exterior, power-operated sun louvers that
automatically turn to exclude the sun’s rays as it relative position changes throughout the
day.
2. Evaporative cooling- as water evaporates heat is drawn from the air, reducing the water’s
temperature.
3. Building configuration- buildings should be constructed with minimum exposed surface

area except when the skin facilitates heat dissipation.
BUILDING ENCLOSURE AND BUILDING ENVELOPE

Properties of enclosure
1. Dimension (properties, scale)
2. Shape (definition)
3. Configuration(form)
4. Surface (color, texture, pattern)
5. Edges
6. Openings (enclosure, light, view)
OPENINGS IN SPACE
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1. Degree of enclosure- determined by the configuration and the pattern of the openings,
has a significant impact on our perception of the orientation and overall form of the space.
2. Light- natural light coming from windows illuminates the space’s surfaces and forms
enlivens its colors and influences its mood.
3. View- windows and skylights provide view and establish a visual relationship between the
room and its surroundings
4. Openings within planes
THE BUILDING ENVELOPE - The building envelope may be regarded as more than a two-
dimensional space. It is a transition space where people inside can have a preview of what is
outside or vice versa.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVELOPE

1. Filter- a means to make the connection indirect (screens, walls); selects outside condition
that will be allowed into the building (40); sometimes may be in the position of a switch.
2. Connector- a means to make a connection (doorways, openings); characteristics of

architecture in mild climates
3. Switch- regulating connector (operable doors and windows)
4. Barrier- separating element (roof, wall); completely severs the relationship between the
indoor and the outdoor; characteristic of architecture in harsh climates
TWO DIFFERENT CONCEPTS OF ENVELOPE DESIGN

1. The closed shell- establishes limited contacts with the outdoors; usually found in harsh
climates.
2. The open frame- begins as a structural frame with the building skin selectively added to
modify only a few outside forces; usually found in hot, humid climate.
SYSTEMS
 PLUMBING AND SANITARY

 MECHANICAL
 ELECTRICAL
 LIGHTING
 ACOUSTICS
ECONOMICS
THE COST OF THE BUILDING STRUCTURE
Structural cost – cost related to structural strength and physical integrity (25%)
Architectural cost – (45- 60%)
Essential services – provisions for mechanical and electrical equipment and other service
systems (15-20% depending on type of building.
BSAR 5A
HUMAN FACTORS/ USER REQUIREMENTS/ HUMAN NEEDS

SOCIO-CULTURAL VARIABLES
Attitudes toward privacy – complete privacy/subtle cues and signals
Family structure – single/extended families; shared/individual spaces within the dwelling
Role of women– isolation/segregation/ integration of women in activities and facilities
Recreational patterns – formal and sedentary recreational pursuits/ physically oriented

outdoor activities
Shopping habits – day to day / long term
Job patterns – separate/ single working and living environments
Technological experience – acceptance/ resistance to technological advances
PERSONAL SPACE
TERRITORIAL CATEGORIES
Public – areas where individuals have freedom of access but not of action
Home – areas where individuals have regular freedom of behavior and sense of control over
the area
Interactional – areas where social gatherings occur; boundaries and territorial claims are
implicit and unofficial
Body – area immediately surrounding the individual’s body; most private and inviolate to the
individual
USER POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

CULTURAL FACTORS – social rules and attitudes, religious attitudes, intellectual/skill
development, where and how people live (spatial features), technological amenities, language
BODY SIZE – its impact on architectural space, including clearances and reach distances
MOBILITY – agility as dictated by age, size, garments
STRENGTH – tailor fitting architectural features that need to be lifted, pushed, pulled or
twisted to the weakest member of the population
SENSORY FACTORS – factors related to vision, hearing and touch which have to be

considered according to the limited capacities of elderly and handicapped individuals
MOTOR SKILLS – skills as dictated by training or innate capacity to perform certain tasks
COGNITIVE SKILLS – understanding of the operational aspects according to age

difference, educational/technological capacity
HUMAN NEEDS
The most important human needs that affect interior design and housing are:
Belonging – knowing that you can call a place yours and no one else’s; also, how a person
is influenced by the place in which he lives
BSAR 5A
Personalization – demonstrating one’s creativity to make a certain place his own; it also
means imprinting personal values upon something, thus making it a part of one’s self. The
portrayal and presentation of self are important aspects of personal impression
Privacy – having a place or a method by which one can obtain time for one’s self – to find
out about himself, to develop and become individual
Control – mastery over one’s life and environment; having a place that one can influence a
part of developing self-image
VALUE ASPIRATION AND CULTURE
Values are lifelong guiding forces that govern our actions. They provide a basis for judgment,
discrimination and analysis, and grow out of human desires and interests. They are the
product of interaction between the individual and some object or situation in his environment.
HOW VALUES INFLUENCE THE ENVIRONMENT
The designer’s values of creating an environment according to the situation at hand can help
him create environments that enhance people’s lives and make them happier and healthier.
The living environment is deeply affected by human values of the occupants.
HOW THE ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCES VALUES
In design, it is accepted that people will generally take better care of a space and its contents
if it contains some comforting additions (e.g., carpets instead of bare floors). This relationship
is a very important aspect in planning especially for facilities for the elderly, university housing
and schools.
FOLK ARCHITECTURE – the natural domestic architecture of a people including simple

communal buildings such as churches, warehouse and barns. Originality in the design is
minimal and differentiation is mainly a matter of building type, detail and craftsmanship in
decoration
VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE – designs that are the built equivalent of the common way
of speech. It is a generalized way of design derived from Folk Architecture. It can be used for
spiritual, monumental and utility buildings but are limited by propriety and scale. It is
congenial to people and sympathetic to nature.
SPIRITUAL ARCHITECTURE – mainly concerned with the aspirations of individuals and

groups. It is accomplished with greater economic provision for higher motivation and
significance.
MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE – honorific in its significance and is extended from person

to institution. The distinction between spiritual and monumental architecture is often blurred
though the latter is more concerned with the remembrance of people and the physical realm
rather than non-corporeal things.
UTILITARIAN ARCHITECTURE – dedicated to utility, and the expression of function

disregards any spiritual objective

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AC 513 Architectural Correlation| First Semester 2019-2020

Bersabal, D. R.| Dela Cruz, M. L. N.| Garcia, P.V.G.| Godoy, M.G.B.

INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

intended, its elements must be arranged so as to secure an efficient and workable

Sound construction / strength -

Beautiful composition / aesthetic -

b. Reproduction – procreation; for the population to increase and continue in

2. Emotional Needs – stirred by the forces of art, religion and recreation

1. Desire for Preservation

2. Desire for Recognition

3. Desire for Response

4. Desire for Self Expression

Modern advancement in construction technology provided new ways and innovations in

a. Social Structure – architecture can be a reflection of a period. The interest of the

c. Exposure to other societies – at present, architecture has become standardized

ART AND ARCHITECTURE WENT THROUGH THREE PHASES IN THE COURSE OF

ARCHITECTURE reflects man's civilization and records man's progress

THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

THE ESSENTIALS OF THE STRUCTURE

A. THE INVISIBLE STRUCTURE

B. THE VISIBLE STRUCTURE

a. FORM-It is determined by the mass or volume created by the enclosing of space

a. direction – the vertical or horizontal axis of the mass

b. SURFACE – Surface of area is composed of two-dimensions, as in façade of the

a. Texture – surface treatment identified with materials whether rough or

LINES according to geometry are sets of points

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LINES

2. DEPENDS ON MATERIALS, TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS.

CLASSIFICATION OF LINES ACCORDING TO USES:

SHAPE is the plane’s primary identifying characteristics. It refers to the edge

VISUAL PROPERTIES OF FORM

left side of the heart center right side of the heart

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR FORMS

 of all the design elements, color is perhaps the most appealing

PATTERN AND TEXTURE

EFFECTS OF SOFT AND HARD SURFACES

3. Vaults – These may be classified according to their construction as :

a._.straight flight or direct

2. Ornament– may be classified according to their character as:

a. Abstract – Abstract Ornament is that which has no reference to any particular

Mosaic, tiles, marbles

Inlays of metals, woods, etc.

Ornament, carved, cast or hammered

MATERIALS AND DESIGN

MATERIALS OF ARCHITECTURE – building materials may be divided into two groups:

THE CREATIVE PRINCIPLES

1. FUNCTION of the structure

The relationship of units should be studied properly to satisfy the following:

a. position of the sun

2. STRENGTH of the Structure

3. APPEARANCE of the Structure

PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION IN VOLUME

1. Contrast – association of unlike qualities

There are several types of contrast:

a. with respect to direction

This maybe obtained by contrast of textures, openings, or planes, e.g.,

g. Contrast of CHARACTER, as involved in the design of a church and parish house.

A combination of some of the various types of contrast makes an architectural composition

PROPORTION is largely a matter of relationships. It refers to the pleasing

PROPORTIONS MAY BE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:

1. MASONRY UNITS – like bricks are strong in compression and depend on

B. STRUCTURAL PROPORTIONS – Beams and columns form s skeletal structural

C. MANUFACTURED PROPORTIONS – many architectural elements are sized and