IMPO CTICM P.

1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 1

Multi-Storey Buildings
in Steel

Thermal and Acoustic Insulation

ECCS
CECM
E K S N° 104
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 2

Multi-Storey Steel Buildings - Thermal Insulation - Sound Insulation

Impressum

Impressum

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ECCS assumes no liability with respect to the use for any application of the material and information contained in this publication.
ISBN 92-9147-000- 45

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Multi-Storey Steel Buildings - Thermal Insulation - Sound Insulation

Contents

Contents

Preface 5 Sound Insulation 26 Examples 41

Basic Terms and Austria

From Primitive Shelter Physical Principles 26 Senior Citizen’s Home
to Modern Building “Haus Prater” in Vienna 42
with Climate Control 6 I. Description of Sound
II. Sound Absorption Germany
III. Reverberation Time T60 Gartner Design Office
Thermal Insulation IV. Transmission of Sound in Gundelfingen 48
and Moisture Proofing 10
Sound Insulation 28 Switzerland
Basic Terms and Physical Principles 10 Administration Centre
I. Airborne Sound Insulation in Langenthal 54
I. Heat transmission through building II. Impact Sound Insulation
elements France
II. Thermal storage, heating and Sound and Noise in Buildings 29 Multi-Storey Dwellings
cooling “La Ferroniere” in Reims 60
III. Heat gain and loss, energy demand I. Sound Insulation in Solid and
IV. Moisture Lightweight Constructions Luxembourg
V. Vapour migration II. Acoustic Design ProfilArbed Headquarter
VI. Condensation III. Subjective Loudness in Esch-sur-Alzette 66
IV. Tolerable Noise Levels
Physical Conditions for Human Belgium
Comfort 15 Principles of Sound Insulation 31 Multi-Storey Dwellings
“Domus Flandria” in Mechelen 72
Thermal Insulation Strategies for Steel I. Mass in single leaf elements
Skeleton Buildings 10 II. Separation in double leaf elements Germany
III. Sound-absorbent Materials Commerzbank Headquarters
I. Functions of the Building Envelope in Frankfurt am Main 78
II. The Need for Thermal Insulation Sound Insulation Techniques 34
III. Heat Loss in Buildings Sweden
IV. Insulation of Closed Facades I. Structure-borne Sound Insulation Housing Complex in a Residential
V. Insulation of Glazed Facades II. Methods of Impact Sound Insulation Neighbourhood in Ängelholm 84
III. Acoustic Performance of Steel
The Integration of Structure and Constructions Great Britain
Envelope in Steel Buildings 20 Office Building in St. John’s
Innovation Park in Cambridge 90
I. Geometrical Order
II. Steel Structures and Thermal Netherlands
Bridges Centre for Human Drug
Research in Leiden 96
Sophisticated Building 22

I. The Effects of Solar Radiation Appendix:

II. Gaining Energy by Means of Glazed
Building Envelopes
III. Thermal Interaction with the Physical Symbols and Units 102
Environment in Atrium Buildings
IV. The Effects of Thermal Mass in Technical Standards and Building
Steel Buildings Codes, Literature, Figures 103

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Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing

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Multi-Storey Steel Buildings - Thermal Insulation - Sound Insulation
Preface
The aim of this brochure is to promote
the use of steel as a building material.
Although its superior structural perfor-
mance is well accepted in the industry
there is still a need to emphasise its
overall qualities as a sophisticated
building material, not only for load-
bearing structures but for enclosure
systems as well.
The use of steel is not only limited to
industrial or large scale structural appli-
cations. It can easily be used for resi-
dential construction as well.
This brochure is aimed at practising
architects, clients, developers and inter-
ested members of the building industry.
It is not to be mistaken for a scientific
research paper but rather gives guidance
to the general practitioner by briefly
explaining basic principles of physics
relating to construction. The “Basic
Terms” chapters are meant to give quick
and accurate reference summarizing
technical terminology and physical
basics.
The “Case Studies” in this booklet are
prime examples showing the versatility
of modern steel construction. They are
meant to inspire the creative spirit of
architects and engineers alike by offering
a wide range of solutions for design
challenges encountered in a variety of
today’s building projects.
Preface
This booklet also seeks to dispel some
commonly held misconceptions about
the “inferior” thermal and acoustic qua-
lities of steel as a building material.
Frequently asked questions by profes-
sionals include concerns about the
thermal performance of lightweight steel
structures in comparison with rather
heavyweight concrete structures. Issues
of acoustic performance of a building
element in relation to its physical mass
are also frequently brought up. These
questions will be discussed in their rele-
vant context. The chapters on “Steel
Structures and Thermal Bridges”,
“The Effects of Thermal Mass in Steel
Buildings” and “Principles of Sound
Insulation”’ should be of particular
interest.
Steel is a versatile building material. Its
performance with regard to thermal and
acoustic insulation is superior when
used correctly.
Precision, prefabrication, recycling,
strength! These are the strong points
that together with its cost-effectiveness
easily make steel the most competitive
building material of today and of the
future.
Friedrich Grimm
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 6
From Primitive Shelter to Modern Building with Climate Control
Climate Control as an Integral Solution
From Primitive Shelter
to Modern Building
with Climate Control
Fig. 1 Painting by Christoffer Vihelm
Eckersberg
The main purpose of early buildings
was to provide shelter against rain,
snow and wind. Such early structures
were primitive: they did not have win-
dows to brighten up the gloomy interior.
Compared with today’s standards there
was no comfort at all. For a long period
of time from the beginning of building
until the present issues of thermal and
sound insulation were of minor impor-
tance. Load-bearing structure and
enclosure were a functional unit
combined in one massive single layer.
This was the case in buildings with
masonry load-bearing walls as well as
in timber framed buildings with infills in
the framework.
Windows with rigid glazing and ope-
nable windows were built into this layer
and allowed daylight to the inside.
Ventilation was provided by numerous
gaps and cracks in the walls and of
Fig. 2 Bourgeois-Residence Rue Réaumur,
Paris course also by the windows. The size of
openings in masonry and timber struc-
tures increased over time as far as the
refinement of structure allowed. Thus
new problems were created regarding
the structure of the exterior walls. A
need to control daylight and to cut down
thermal loss during the heating period
arose because of the larger area of
openings in the exterior wall.
6
Achievements of the 19th Century
During the 19th century the typical
bourgeois residence incorporated seve-
ral features which in combination were
sufficient to provide a comfortable
interior climate all year-round. Part of
this system was a well proportioned
outer wall with the right amount of win-
dow openings double-glazed, and
equipped with window shutters and
Venetian blinds. Awnings on the outside
were combined with two different kinds
of curtains on the inside, one light and
translucent and the other tight and
dense.
Traditional craftsmanship and experience
resulted in a perforated exterior wall
construction which, on the one hand,
was structurally very efficient, and on
the other provided good thermal and
sound insulation . Masonry pillars bet-
ween window openings were used to
support the floors. Beside their struc-
tural function they provided thermal
mass that led to a very comfortable
interior climate in combination with tem-
porary measures to control penetration
of light and energy. Besides their effi-
ciency in structure and climate control
these buildings also had an architectu-
ral expression that adequately reflected
the lifestyle of the inhabitants.
Inspired by the progress of the indus-
trial revolution iron and steel were used
as building materials from the middle of
the 19th century. New building projects
with large spans like railway stations
and industrial plants required new
structural solutions exceeding any
previous construction. The possibility of
prefabricating structural elements from
cast iron led to its use as a structural
material in multi-storey buildings.
Between 1850 and 1880 numerous
buildings were erected in the United
States with a skeleton of cast iron, for
example Harper publishers in New York
(1854) designed by the architect
J. Bogardus and the Riverfront in Saint
Louis erected between 1870 and 1871
where a row of buildings was built with
a cast iron front.
The great Chicago fire of 1871 can be
considered the initial spark for innovative
solutions in multi-storey building. Brick
was used instead of wood and for the
first time steel was extensively used in
skeleton structures for multi-storey
buildings. A type of construction emerged
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 7

From Primitive Shelter to Modern Building with Climate Control

Integrated Facade Solutions
Future Developments

The Development of Modern Steel-

Skeleton Building Techniques

that became known world wide as the
“Chicago frame”. Of course these steel
buildings incorporated very reliable fire
protection. All structural parts were clad
with hollow clay tiles or brick. Steel ske-
leton construction can be regarded as a
great leap forward in the evolution of
buildings.
Further development eventually led to a
complete separation of load bearing
structure and skin. As early as 1919
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe developed
the principle of the curtain wall as a
building system of its own in his extra-
ordinary sketches for an office building
in the Friedrichstraße in Berlin.

Fig. 3 Mies van der Rohe, Lakeshore Drive
Appartments 860/880
Its advantages became immediately
obvious. First there is the open plan that
allows the introduction of non-load-
bearing partitions in the floor area which
for the first time led to a separation of
loadbearing structure and skin within
the facade. From now on it was possible
not only to reach building heights incon-
ceivable before but also to increase the
proportion of window openings in the
facade providing a maximum exploi-
tation of natural light.
The distinct vocabulary for steel skele-
ton construction was developed over a
relatively short period of time by the
architects of the First Chicago School
(1871-1910). The “Reliance Building” on
Chicago’s State Street designed by
Burnham & Root in 1894 is commonly
considered a landmark building of this
period. Its base is completely glazed for
shop-windows. The facade of the upper
parts consists of slender steel sections
clad with terracotta panels. Another
typical feature is the “Chicago window”,
a bay window with large rigid glazing in
the middle and small openable windows
to both sides.
Between 1948 and 1951 when designing
the 860/880 Lakeshore Drive apartment
towers in Chicago Mies took the oppor-
tunity to realise a steel frame building
with a facade made entirely of steel and
glass.
From a contemporary point of view
these 26-storey twin towers seem to be
technologically outdated with their
single layer glazing and the total lack of
thermal insulation. Nevertheless they
have historical significance as prede-
cessors of innumerable building
facades all over the world.
The Lever Building in New York by
Skidmore, Owings and Merill completed
in 1952 is the first building with a true
curtain wall. Its facade also has single
glazing in stainless steel frames. The
structure of the facade is completely
separate from the support structure and
connected to it only at distinct points to
transfer wind loads.
Regarding aspects of manufacturing
and assembly, building concepts of
early curtain walls were very advanced.
However they could not match today’s
standards of comfort and convenience
in respect of insulation qualities. A limited
degree of comfort throughout the year
could only be achieved by extensive
use of air conditioning systems. To
avoid condensation on the interior sur-
faces the relative humidity of the supply
air had to be reduced to about 10%.
During the heating period large quanti-
ties of conditioned air had to be intro-
duced to offset the continuous loss of
energy through the facade. Both mea-
sures were counterproductive to a com-
fortable room climate. Ideally relative
humidity should range from 40 - 70% at
a room temperature of 20 - 24°C. Air
movement should not exceed 0,3-
0,6m/s in an office environment.

Fig. 4 Lever-Building, New York

7
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 8
From Primitive Shelter to Modern Building Climate Control
Climate Control as an Integral Solution
In Europe Jean Prouvé (1901-1981) had
a great influence on the development of
facade technologies. He is one of the
pioneers of shop-manufactured building
systems. He was the first to introduce
complete thermal insulation for metal
facades. His building envelope designs
also had effective shading devices on
the inside and outside. His solutions for
lightweight metal skin structures were
able to achieve a comfortable indoor
climate without air-conditioning.
8
Climate Control as an Integral
Solution
The main function of common facade
technology was to provide a wind- and
waterproof skin and to reduce loss of
energy - energy for heating in winter,
energy for cooling in summer - by
means of effective insulation. The desi-
gn of contemporary building facades
however aims for an environmental
interaction in order to minimise energy
consumption. A volume of air enclosed,
for example, between two surfaces can
be heated by solar radiation and circu-
lated. The warm air can be directed from
the south side of a building to the cooler
north side. Air enclosed between two
glass surfaces can be used as a buffer
between inside and outside and thus
effectively reduce energy consumption.
Devices like insulated louvres and
screens, venetian blinds and awnings
are effective for controlling heat gain
and loss. Proper use of these elements
in accordance with climatic conditions
can compensate for the relatively poor
insulation qualities of a glazed facade.
This type of building envelope can lead
to a positive energy balance compensa-
ting energy gains and losses throughout Fig. 5 Detail of the fassade, Lever-Building
the year. It has to be thoroughly deve-
loped on the basis of careful studies of
physical and thermodynamic effects.
The main advantage of lightweight
building techniques is that each func-
tion of the building envelope can be met
by one specially designed structural
element. This is also an interesting stra-
tegy from an architectural point of view
because these layers become part of a
visually distinct design that is a true
architectural expression based on
science and not on arbitrary design
ideas.
Fig. 6 Lever-Building
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 9
Water as Medium for Energy
Exchange or Energy Transport
As a medium for energy transport and
exchange water is an alternative to air,
which needs large ducts . Water needs
comparatively small ducts. Warm water
for example flowing through the mul-
lions of a facade made of hollow sec-
tions can balance transmission losses
through the facade. This is achieved
through increased temperatures on the
inside surface of the facade which
cause a reduction of air movement.
Thereby convective heat loss is reduced.
The large surface area of the facade
allows low water temperatures in this
low-temperature-radiator.
This results in comfortable conditions
even immediately next to the glazed
facade. The integration of a pipe-system
into the mullions of a facade was origi-
nally developed by the renowned firm
Josef Gartner in Gundelfingen. The idea
to use the metal surface of facade ele-
ments not only for structural purposes
but also for energy transfer in order to
influence the room climate can be
adapted to other surface elements of
the building.
Cool water, which is capable of storing
and transporting energy, can be pumped
to parts of the facade heated by solar
radiation, reducing the surface tempe-
rature. The principle of using water for
energy storage, transport and exchange
is very simple.
Investment in such piping systems with
the required electronic equipment will
pay off in a reduced heating bill.
From Primitive Shelter to Modern Building with Climate Control
Integrated Facade Solutions
Future Developments
Future Developments
Energy-conscious design based on
active use of solar energy profits from
continuous atmospheric changes.
Day and night, cold and heat, sun expo-
sure and shadow, calm and wind are
natural resources waiting to be exploi-
ted in sophisticated building concepts.
In this aspect a modern building with a
refined envelope capable of gaining
energy has more in common with a
soaring glider than with an aircraft. It
can react to climatic change immediately.
Just as the glider uses local thermal
upcurrents to gain altitude the building
uses the effects of solar radiation to
gain energy.
Steel, with its extraordinary strength,
meets all requirements expected of a
building material used in this context. It
fulfils load-bearing functions seemingly
without effort making slender structural
elements possible. In connection with
a well insulated envelope and well-
designed interior details, a steel building
provides a high level of thermal and
acoustic comfort. Besides this, building
components made of steel can be
manufactured with high precision and
therefore represent a building techno-
logy that is in line with industrial manu-
facturing in other fields. These are the
prerequisites to create a contemporary
architecture that evolved from primitive
shelter to a statement of our civilisation
and boldly expresses the achievements
of our time. Fig. 7 University of Magdeburg,
Otto von Guericke Institute
Fig. 8 Buffer facade at the Institute of
discrete mathematics,
University of Bonn
9
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Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing
Basic Terms and Physical Principles
Thermal Insulation
and Moisture Proofing
Basic Terms
and Physical Principles
I. Heat transmission through building
elements
III. Thermal storage, heating and
cooling
IV. Heat gain and loss, energy demand
V. Moisture
VI. Vapour migration
VII. Condensation
I. Heat transmission through
building elements
Thermal energy [Ws; J]
The general unit of energy is Watt
seconds [Ws]. Thermal energy is usually
measured in Joules [J].
(1 Ws = 1 J)
Thermal conduction
Transmission of thermal energy in a
solid or liquid medium.
Thermal radiation
Transmission of energy through air or
empty space by electro-magnetic
waves. No medium is required.
Convection
Transport of thermal energy by air
movement.
10
Thermal conduction
Since virtually all building elements
(walls, floors, roof, ...) can be regarded
as either boards or slabs the basic
equation of thermal conduction through
thermal conductivity λ
a uniform slab is sufficient for basic cal-
culations of stationary heat flow over a
period of time:
Q = λ x A x (θ - θ ) x t
d 1 2
λ thermal conductivity of building
material [W/mK] (see Fig. 9)
d thickness of building element [m]
Fig. 9
A surface area of building element
[m2]
θ1, θ2 temperatures to both sides of
building element [K]
Density of heat flow q [W/m2]
The density of heat flow describes the
thermal resistance R
flow of energy per surface area through
a building element under constant
conditions and can be calculated as
follows:
Q
q=
(A x t)
Q amount of thermal energy [Ws]
A surface area of element [m2] Fig. 10
t time [s]
Heat transmission
Heat transmission from the interior to
the exterior of a building involves the
following physical effects: The heat
energy of the room air is transferred to
the inside surface of a building element
(e.g. exterior wall, window) by convec-
tion and additionally by radiation from
heaters and other heat emitting objects.
Within the section of the element ther-
mal energy is transmitted by convec-
tion provided that there are no cavities
enclosed. In case of cavities heat ener-
gy is transferred by convection and
radiation between the two surfaces
which enclose the air layer. The heat
energy of the building element is relea-
sed into the outside air again by
convection and radiation from the ele-
ment’s outside surface.
Fig. 11 heat through a building element
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 11

Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing

Basic Terms and Physical Principles

Thermal transmittance U
(“U-value”) [W/m2K] heat transfer heat transfer
coefficient h resistance 1/h
The U-value is a property of a building
[W/m2K] [m2K/W]
element (e.g. exterior wall) that takes
into consideration the effects of thermal On the interior surface of enclosed spaces with
transfer at the elements surfaces and natural air movement
internal effects of conduction, radiation
and convection. It is used for the prac- – walls, interior windows, windows to the exterior 8 0,13
tical calculation of heat flow through a – floors and ceiling with
building element (see also Fig. 11): – upward heatflow 8 0,13
– downward heatflow 6 0,17
q = U x (θi - θe) – in corners 5-6 0,20 - 0,17

θi inside air temperature [K] On the exterior of the building with an average wind-
23 0,04
speed of 2m/sec.
θe outside air temperature [K]

This equation determines the transmis- Fig. 12 heat transfer coefficients h and heattransfer resistance 1/h of building elements
(according to Gösele u. Schüle)
sion loss of energy of a building per
surface area for a certain temperature
difference.

The U-value of a single layer element is

determined as follows:

1
U= Position of air-layer and Radiance C Thickness of Thermal
1/hi + R + 1/he
direction of heat-flow of adjacent surfaces air-layer resistance R
[W/m2K4] [cm] [m2K/W]
hi heat transfer coefficient of building
1 0.14
element’s inside surface [W/m2K] 2 0.16
(see Fig. 12) vertical air-layer 5 0.18
10 0.17
he heat transfer coefficient of building 15 0.16
element’s outside surface [W/m2K]
1 0.14
(see Fig. 12) 5.5 2 0.15
horizontal air-layer, (non-metal materials 5 0.16
R thermal resistance [m2K/W] R = d/λ heatflow upwards of all kind) 10 0.16
15 0.16
The U-value of a multi-layer element is 1 0.15
determined as follows: 2 0.18
horizontal air-layer, 5 0.21
heatflow downwards 10 0.21
1
U= 15 0.21
1/hi + d1/λ1 + d2/λ2 + ... + 1/he
1 0.28
d thickness of layer of building 0.23 - 0.35 2 0.43
vertical air-layer (polished metal surfaces) 5 0,62
element [m] 10 0.58
15 0.43
λ thermal conductivity of layer of
building element [W/m2K] Fig. 13 thermal resistance R of air-layers (according to Gösele u. Schüle)

d1/λ1 + d2/λ2 + ... ...+ dn/λn = R

If a layer of air is enclosed in the building

element see Fig. 10 and 13 for thermal
resistance values R of air-layers in
building elements.

11
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Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing
Basic Terms and Physical Principles
II. Thermal storage, heating and
cooling
In order to classify the performance of
building materials under dynamic thermal
conditions (e.g. heating up of a building)
the following physical effects need to
be explained.
Specific thermal capacity c [J/kgK]
Amount of thermal energy needed to
change the temperature of 1 kg of a
certain material by 1 K.
Heat storage capacity Qs [J/m2]
Amount of thermal energy stored in a
slab of 1 m2 of a certain material if the
slab is 1 K warmer than its surroundings.
Qs = c x ρ x d
ρ 3
apparent density of material [kg/m ]
d thickness of slab [m]
Thermal diffusivity a [m2/s]
Defines how fast a temperature field is
transmitted in a certain material.
λ • minimum heat exchanging surface
a=
ρxc
Thermal intrusion b [J/√ s m2K]
Defines the behaviour of materials
under instant temperature changes like
heating up or cooling down. It also des-
cribes how “warm” or “cold” a material
feels when touched with bare hands or
feet. The more heat a material conducts
from, say, the hand, the greater its value
of thermal intrusion. Therefore this
material will feel “cold”.
b = √ ρxcxλ
Thermal inertia
Defines the behaviour of exterior walls
towards temperature changes at the
outside and how they are transmitted to
the inside.
Thermal amplitude damping
Describes by how much extremes of
outside temperature change are
delayed and reduced in being trans-
mitted to the inside.
12
III. Heat gain and loss, energy
demand
Solar heat gain
Refers to usable heat gains through
solar radiation. There are numerous
possibilities for using solar energy for
heating purposes. Passive solar energy
systems make use of standard building
elements to gain energy. Windows, for
example, are capable of collecting
energy and the interior mass of a building
can be used for thermal storage.
Heating demand
The annual heating demand is the total
amount of energy per year that is used
for heating and cooling of a building.
The heating demand depends on the
building geometry, described as the
total heat exchanging surface area A
relative to the heated building volume V.
Transmission heating demand
That portion of the annual heating
demand caused by transmission losses
through the exterior wall. The following
factors have a positive effect:
area
• low U-value
• low temperature difference between
inside and outside
• short annual heating period.
Ventilation heating demand
That portion of the annual heating
demand caused by ventilation losses.
Some factors that have a major influence
on ventilation can hardly be controlled
like air tightness of the building envelope,
wind speeds at the building site and
ventilation preferences of the occu-
pants.
IV. Moisture
Absolute humidity v [g/m3]
Gives the actual amount of vapour
contained in the air independent of its
temperature (see Fig. 15).
Partial vapour pressure p [Pa]
Saturated vapour pressure ps [Pa]
Air can only contain a certain amount of
vapour at a certain temperature. The
amount of vapour (in g/m3) necessary to
reach the point of saturation increases
with temperature. A saturated vapour
pressure which also increases with tem-
perature is associated with the amount
necessary to reach saturation.
Dewpoint temperature θs [°C]
At a certain temperature the amount of
vapour that can be contained in air is
exceeded with the effect that condensed
moisture appears in the air and on sur-
faces. The relative humidity at the dew-
point temperature is 1 or respectively
100% (see Fig. 14 and 17).
Relative humidity ϕ [unit 1 or %]
The relative humidity is the ratio of
absolute humidity to the amount of
vapour necessary to reach saturation or
the ratio of partial vapour pressure to
saturated vapour pressure. When air is
cooled down the absolute humidity
[g/m3] stays the same whereas relative
humidity increases since the amount of
vapour necessary to reach saturation
decreases with temperature.
v p
ϕ = =
vs ps
v absolute humidity [g/m3]
vs amount of vapour necessary to
reach saturation [g/m3]
p partial vapour pressure [Pa]
ps saturated vapour pressure [Pa]
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:29 Page 13

Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing

Basic Terms and Physical Principles

V. Vapour migration

When a building element separates two For most practical calculations of

adjacent areas of different temperature
and humidity there is usually a different
water vapour pressure on each side.
This pressure difference causes vapour
migration through the separating ele-
vapour migration through a building ele-
ment the effects of vapour transfer at the
element’s surface can be neglected so
that the vapour diffusion coefficient kD is
substituted by the vapour transmittance

dewpoint temperature
ment. Within the temperature range 1/Z [kg/m2hPa].
relevant to buildings this effect can be
determined in a simplified manner similar A x (p1 - p2) x t
to the calculation of heat transmission: G=
Z
G = kD x A x (p1 - p2) x t
respectively
respectively
G A x (p1 - p2) Fig. 14
I= =
G t Z
I= = kD x A x (p1 - p2)
t

G amount of water migrated by Diffusion equivalent air-layer s [m]

diffusion [kg] This value describes the diffusion qua-
lities of a material layer. It is the thick-

maximum moisture content of air

A surface area of element [m2]
t time [h]
p1; p2: partial vapour pressure to both
sides of the element [Pa]
kD specific vapour diffusion coeffi-
cient of element [kg/m2hPa]
ness of an air-layer with the same diffu-
sion resistance as a layer of material of
thickness d and diffusion resistance
factor µ.
s=µxd

I amount of water migrated by

diffusion per hour

Diffusion resistance factor µ Fig. 15

µ describes how many times larger the
diffusion resistance of a layer of mate-
rial is compared with the diffusion resis-
tance of an air layer of the same thick-
ness. The diffusion resistance factor of
dry, coarse-pored materials is a sole
property of the material and is not
influenced by temperature or pressure.
For practical calculations in a tempera-
ture range from - 20 to + 20°C the
influence of pressure can be neglected.

Vapour diffusion resistance Z

[m2hPa/kg]
Considering the above simplification the
vapour diffusion resistance Z can be
derived from the diffusion resistance
factor µ as follows :

Z = 1,5 x 106 x µ x d

µ diffusion resistance factor

d thickness of material layer [m] Fig. 16 vapour migration

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Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing

Basic Terms and Physical Principles

VI. Condensation

Condensation on building elements
under constant thermal conditions
If the inside surface temperature of a
building element is below the dewpoint
temperature of the room air condensa-
tion will occur on the element. To avoid
this effect in case of extreme temperature
differences between inside and outside
a minimum thermal insulation of the ele-
ment is required. The maximum thermal
transmittance Umax and the minimum
thermal resistance Rmin can be determi-
ned as follows :
θi - θs
Umax = hi x
θi - θe
θi - θe
Rmin = 1/hi x - (1/hi x 1/he)
θi - θs
hi thermal transfer coefficient inside
[W/m2K]
he thermal transfer coefficient outside
[W/m2K]
θi room air temperature [K;°C]
θe outside air temperature [K;°C]
θs dewpoint temperature of room air
[K;°C]
Condensation on building elements
under extremely humid conditions
Depending on the occupancy conden-
sation can occur due to high humidity
of the room air (e.g. in kitchens and
bathrooms). In this case the excess
humidity has to be reduced by ventila-
tion.
Condensation in building elements
Condensation in building elements
occurs if the actual partial vapour pres-
sure p exceeds the saturated vapour
pressure ps that depends on the tempe-
rature of the element. If this is a lasting
effect it will drastically reduce the
insulation qualities of the element and
finally lead to damage due to humidity
and an unhealthy building climate.
Condensation in building elements can
be considered harmless provided that
the building elements can dry-out again
during a warmer season and that the
thermal and structural performance of
the elements is not impaired by other
possible damage like corrosion or fun-
gus attack.
The change of saturated vapour pressure
in a building element can easily be
determined when calculating the change
of temperature in the element.
For every temperature value there is an
assorted value of saturated vapour
pressure. The change of partial vapour
pressure in a building element can be
determined by calculating the decrease
of vapour pressure ∆pn at the single
layers of the element. ∆ps results from
the relation of vapour diffusion resistance
Zn of the respective single layer to the
total vapour diffusion resistance Z of the
element.
Zn
∆pn = (pi - pe)
Z
Zn vapour diffusion resistance of single
layer of element [kg/m2hPa]
Z total vapour diffusion resistance of
building element [kg/m2hPa]
pi inside partial vapour pressure [Pa]
pe outside partial vapour pressure [Pa]

Condensation on building elements

during heat-up
When heating up a previously cold room
the room air usually heats up faster than
air dewpoint temperature θs at a relative humidity of
the surfaces of the walls. In this process temperature θ
it is possible that, for a short period of [°C] 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
time, the surface temperature of the
walls is below the dewpoint temperature -10 - 17,45 - 15,68 - 13,95 - 12,50 - 11,10
of the room air so that vapour -5 - 12,95 - 10,93 - 8,93 - 7,60 - 6,18
0 - 8,21 - 6,10 - 4,26 - 2,59 - 1,42
condenses on the walls. Condensation
will stop as soon as the surfaces gain 2 - 6,58 - 4,40 - 2,48 - 0,98 + 0,47
4 - 4,88 - 2,61 - 0,88 + 0,78 + 2,44
enough heat. This condensate is harm- 6 - 3,07 - 1,05 + 0,85 + 2,72 + 4,48
less provided that the surface material is 8 - 1,61 + 0,67 + 2,83 + 4,77 + 6,48
capable of absorbing and storing 10 + 0,02 + 2,53 + 4,79 + 6,79 + 8,45
condensed moisture for some time. 12 + 1,84 + 4,46 + 6,74 + 8,69 10,48
When heated up sufficiently the stored 14 + 3,76 + 6,40 + 8,67 10,71 2,55
moisture will evaporate into the room air 16 + 5,59 + 8,29 10,61 12,66 14,58
again or migrate through the wall to the 18 + 7,43 10,12 12,44 14,88 16,31
20 + 9,30 12,00 14,40 16,46 18,36
outside. Thus no damage due to humi-
dity is to be expected. 22 11,16 13,89 16,27 18,47 20,28
24 12,93 15,73 18,21 20,33 22,32
26 14,84 17,67 20,09 22,32 24,31
28 16,61 19,38 22,07 24,26 26,20
30 18,44 21,44 23,94 26,10 28,19
34 22,19 25,19 27,85 30,09 32,13
40 27,66 30,81 33,46 35,66 38,05
50 36,63 40,09 42,99 45,55 47,90

Fig. 17 Dewpoint temperature θs of air in °C with a specific temperature θ and a relative

humidity ϕ in % (according to Gösele u. Schüle)
14
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Thermal insulation and Moisture Proofing

Physical Conditions for Human Comfort

Physical Conditions for Human

Comfort

Human beings spend more than two

thirds of their life in buildings. Health,
well-being and productivity depend on
the climatic quality of the interior space.
This is valid for housing as well as for
factories or offices. Health is commonly
considered to be a state of well-being,
where physical, psychological and
social conditions are well balanced.

The design of the building itself and the

construction-related physical qualities
Fig. 18 Human comfort dependent on
of the building envelope therefore are
essential to the physical well-being of
the occupants.
Human thermal comfort
Human thermal comfort depends on a
multitude of conditions and influences.
Fig. 22 shows the factors which directly
or indirectly influence human thermal
comfort divided into physiological, phy-
sical and intermediary aspects.
Fig. 19 Human comfort dependent on
average surface temperature of relative humidity and room air
enclosing elements and room air temperature. Valid for an average
temperature. Valid for a relative surface temperature of enclosing
humidity of 30-70%, air movement of elements of 19,5-23°C and air
20cm/s or less and assuming movement of 20cm/s or less
almost identical temperature of (quoted after F.P. Leusen and
enclosing elements (quoted after H. Freymark).
H. Reiher and W. Frank)

The human body’s transmission of ther-

mal energy to the environment is deter-
mined by physical factors. Fig. 18 to 21
give the range of human comfort in
enclosed spaces dependent on the
interaction of various physical factors.
They are directly related to the room air
temperature. In this context the type of
clothing and the kind of activity are also
relevant.

Fig. 20 Human comfort dependent on Fig. 21 Human comfort dependent on air

floor temperature and room air
temperature (quoted after W. Frank)
movement around occupants and
room air temperature. Valid for an
average surface temperature of
enclosing elements of 19,5-23°C
and air relative humidity of 30-70%.
(quoted after Rietschel-Raiß).

human thermal comfort

physiological conditions physical conditions intermediate conditions

state of health air temperature clothing

constitution surface temperature
sex of enclosing elements
age relative humidity
air-movement
ethnic influences
air-pressure
ingestion of food
air-compounds
acoustical influences
optical influences
type of activity
acclimatization
diurnal and seasonal cycle
occupancy
psychological
and social influences

Fig. 22 physical, physiological and intermediate conditions for human comfort

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Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing

Thermal Insulation Strategies for Steel Skeleton Buildings

Thermal Insulation Strategies for

Steel Skeleton Buildings

I. Functions of the Building Envelope

III. The Necessity of Thermal Insulation
IV. Heat Loss in Buildings
V. Insulation of Closed Facades
VI. Insulation of Glazed Facades

Fig. 23 University of Lünburg, Mensa

I. Functions of the Building II. The Necessity of Thermal

Envelope Insulation

With its foundations firmly anchored to
the soil, a building rises up above the
face of the earth, projecting into the
atmosphere. Cutting out a certain volume
of the atmosphere it defines a protected
interior space. The movement of the
sun, the diurnal cycle and the weather
conditions depending on the season put
stress on the structure of the building
envelope in many ways. Its function is
similar to a membrane, being waterproof
and tight against wind and rain it still
allows infiltration of daylight and the
exchange of air. Out of the multitude of
functions of the building envelope the
focus of this brochure is thermal and
sound insulation in steel construction.
The related subjects of moisture proofing
and solar protection are also discussed.
The underlying physical principles are
independent of the material used. Our
aim, however, is to emphasise the
potential of steel as a building material.
About twenty-five years ago the Club of
Rome published a study on the limits of
growth that drew world wide attention.
Since then it has become very clear that
natural resources and availability of
energy are limited. There is no doubt
about the need to save energy. In
Germany for example about forty per-
cent of the total energy consumed (this
figure includes industrial demand, pri-
vate and public traffic and private
consumption) is used for the thermal
conditioning of buildings. Efforts to save
energy in this field are very promising.
Substantial savings of energy in buildings
are possible by reducing the need for
heating and cooling through intelligent
design concepts.

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Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing

Thermal Insulation Strategies for Steel Skeleton Buildings

III. Heat Loss in Buildings

Heating is necessary to compensate for Efforts to save energy therefore have to

heat loss through the building envelope
and window ventilation. Energy trans-
mission is a function of exterior surface
area in relation to enclosed volume, and
is dependent on the overall building
shape. This leads to different energy
transmission signatures of residential
buildings and multi-storey residential or
office buildings.
The diagrams (Fig. 25 and 26) show the
different patterns of heat loss of a one
storey single-family house and a multi-
storey apartment building. In compari-
son the influence of the building’s surface
geometry becomes apparent.
focus on daylighting, which means
sophisticated design of the building
envelope in terms of orientation, insula-
tion qualities and operable sunshades,
as well as on design strategies to
decrease the need for cooling.
The following conclusions can be
drawn: The energy consumption of a
building, caused either by heating or by
cooling demands, depends critically on
the design quality of the building, its
function and its interaction with the
environment.

The energy balance of an office building,

however, is significantly different from
the energy balance of a multi-
storey residential building:

• Temporary occupancy results in a

different energy demand, often
eliminating the need for heating or
cooling at night.
Fig. 24 exterior walls: influences and functions
• Artificial lighting and widespread use
of computers lead to massive internal
heat gains that are often sufficient to
maintain a comfortable room tempe-
rature in winter provided that the
building is properly insulated.
Additional heating is necessary only
to heat up the building to a comfor-
table temperature at the beginning of
the workday or maintain temperature
at off-peak times. However, internal
heat gains through office equipment
vastly increase the need for artificial
cooling in summer.

Fig. 25 heat loss of a single-family house

Fig. 26 heat loss of a multi-storey building

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Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing

Thermal Insulation Strategies for Steel Skeleton Buildings

IV. Insulation of Closed Facades Multi-layered metal cladding system

All efforts to save energy in buildings
are dependent on the following five
parameters:
• the thermal resistance of the enclosing
building elements like walls, floors,
windows and doors and their portion
of surface area of the building enve-
lope.
• the order of the different layers and
their heat storage capacity.
• thermal transmittance of windows,
their size and their orientation in com-
bination with shading devices.
• air-tightness of the building elements
and their joints.
• ventilation.
The building’s geometry and the distri-
bution of its mass are additional factors
relevant to heat flow. Both closed
facades and glazed facades perform
differently in summer and winter.
Increasing the building’s surface in rela-
tion to the heated volume results in a
higher demand for heating energy. The
heating demand of a multi-storey steel
building is highly dependent on the
thermal insulation of the building enve-
lope and its air-tightness. In principle
there are two types of structural sys-
tems:
While the first type of structural system
for the building envelope consists of
several clearly distinguished elements
which are assembled on site using
shop-manufactured hardware for joinery
the second type of structural system
can be adapted to various materials
which are commonly assembled on site.
Masonry or concrete, for example, can
form the inner leaf of the building enve-
lope. The insulation then is attached to
this layer. The outer leaf may consist of
corrugated steel sheets, providing solar
and moisture protection for the insula- Fig. 27 single-layered metal panel system
tion. An added advantage of this system
is that radiant solar energy heating up
the outer leaf can be ventilated by a
cavity between insulation and cladding.
The ventilated outer shell has proved to
be an effective protection against mois-
ture and solar radiation. Often it is used
as an additional protection in building
envelopes of the first type in order to
distribute thermal stress in the insulating
layer.
Fig. 28 single-layered metal panel system

– single-layered structures and

– multi-layered structures.

Single-layered metal panel system

A facade panel is made from two sheets
of metal encasing an insulated core.
Mineral wool and foam are used as
insulation materials. In more sophisti-
Fig. 29 multi-layered metal cladding system
cated designs the two leaves are bonded
together by a foam-core to form a sand-
wich-element with some loadbearing
capabilities. These panels are set into a
thermally broken post-and-rail-system.

Adjacent to the panel’s inner leaf a heat-

storage panel can be installed on the
inside. Enhancing the panels overall
thermal mass this heat storage panel
can keep inner surface temperatures
low even within a light-weight building
context.

Fig. 30 multi-layered metal cladding system

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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 19
V. Insulation of Glazed Facades
Recent developments have enormously
improved the insulation qualities of
double-layer glass. While normal insu-
lated glass has a U-value of 2.6 W/m2K
improved thermopane glazing can
achieve U-values of 1.3 W/m2K. These
glazing systems have a heat reflective
layer on the inside surface of the outer
pane that is almost clear. The enclosed
volume between the two glass panes is
often filled with inert gas, which is a
poor thermal conductor. Triple-glazing
systems with a U-value of 0.7 W/m2K
are also now available. Thus building
envelopes completely made of glass are
feasible even if severe restrictions on
insulation are applied. (like for example
the German Second Heat Protection Bill,
effective since 1994).
To keep the interior climate within an
acceptable range buffer-energy is
needed. The performance of the building
envelope is of utmost importance to this
and has to be discussed separately for
winter and summer conditions.
Winter
The improved insulation qualities of
glass result in a completely new thermo-
dynamic performance of buildings.
An example: Given a fictitious office
building with single room offices and a
glazed facade with a U-value of 3
W/m2K a certain thermal load can be
assumed. Thermal emissions of artificial
lighting, computers, machines and the
human body add up to about 380 W per
room. Assuming that the outside tempe-
rature is -10°C there will be a heat loss
of about 500-700 W/m2 per office
depending on the area of glazing. It is
obvious that for an outside temperature
below 0°C additional energy is needed
to maintain a comfortable room tempe-
rature. The same office room would
have a completely different energy-
balance if it had an improved insulated
glazing and an assumed U-value of 1.5
W/m2K. The heat-loss in this case would
be down to 9-11 W/m2. Only if the out-
side temperature was below -10°C
would the heat-loss of the room exceed
the internal heat-gains. This means that,
in a moderate European climate, heating
would not be required in a well insulated
office building with temporary occu-
pancy.
Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing
Thermal Insulation Strategies for Steel Skeleton Buildings
Summer with additional elements that provide
Problems are likely to occur in summer glare protection.
when the insulation of the facade pre-
vents heat-flow from the inside to the
outside. Office buildings that are highly
insulated have to be ventilated at night
to get rid of internally stored thermal
energy. Extreme room temperatures
during the day can only be prevented by
mechanical air conditioning or by intro-
ducing natural ventilation strategies and
effective sun shading. The first method
results in additional energy consump-
tion of the building whereas the second
method leads to more complex struc-
tures for the building envelope.
Sun Shading
The purpose of shading devices is to
keep out unwanted solar radiation.
Shading devices can be installed in front
of, in between or behind the glazing.
Shading devices outside the insulated
envelope are most effective: solar radia-
tion is kept out and does not reach the
interior. Since they are exposed to the
elements, external shading devices
have to be very durable and still require
frequent maintenance. In the event of
extreme wind speeds a wind detector
causes lightweight movable elements to
retract.
The main advantage of shading devices
installed between two panes of insulated
glass is that they are protected by the
glass and therefore can be very thin and
are not affected by dust, dirt and mois-
ture. A disadvantage is that they heat up
when exposed to solar radiation and
transmit the heat energy to the inner
pane which results in a high surface
temperature.
Fig. 31 glazing: influences and behaviour
Interior sun shades are the most simple
but also the least effective.
Solar radiation reaches the interior and
leads to an increase in room temperature.
However they are much better than no
sun protection at all.
Every orientation of a building requires
sun protection. On the south side of a
building rigid horizontal fins may be
sufficient because of a steep solar
angle. However, on the east and on the
west side adjustable sun fins are required
due to a low solar angle and high
radiation energy. The minimum sun
protection on the north side is a curtain.
Optimum sun protection is achieved Fig. 32
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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 20

Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing

The Integration of Structure and Envelope in Steel Buildings

The Integration of Structure and

Envelope in Steel Buildings

I. Geometrical Order
III. Steel Structures and Thermal
Bridges

I. Geometrical Order

The best solution for a building envelope

is an insulating skin structure that wraps
around all parts of the building just like
a pullover. However there are many
reasons to neglect this curtain wall
principle: the spatial organisation of a
building might require that parts of the
structure penetrate the skin. There might
be architectural and aestheticreasons to
expose the structure that lends order and
proportion to the building. The schematic
sections on the right show three different
positions for structure and skin:
Fig. 33 geometrical order: position of structure and facade

• skin in front of the structure

• skin in an intermediate position II. Steel Structures and Thermal
• skin behind the structure.
Bridges

Position one is the best solution from a
technical point of view to create an
uninterrupted skin of uniform insulation.
Position two also allows an uninterrupted
insulating envelope. In this case the
structural order is still recognisable in
the facade. The structural order can be
emphasised even more as shown in
position three where the insulating
envelope is behind the outer columns of
the building. In this case a complete
insulation of the structure requires care-
ful detailing.
There are a lot of commonly held mis-
conceptions about the nature and the
effects of thermal bridges, especially
among practising architects. The almost
classical image that comes to mind is a
structural steel beam penetrating the
building envelope and thus allegedly
causing “enormous” losses of heating
energy. That this is not necessarily so is
well documented in the case study of
the Administration Centre in Langenthal/
Switzerland where careful studies of this
particular problem were conducted
prior to construction. The findings of
these studies are included in this book-
let and should help to foster a better
understanding of the nature of thermal
bridges in steel structures.
Technically thermal bridges are areas of
locally increased heat flow. Basically
there are two types of thermal bridge:
• Thermal bridges caused by adjacent
materials of different thermal conduc-
tivity. (e.g. a well insulated metal panel
attached to an uninsulated concrete
column or a steel beam penetrating
the insulated enclosure as mentioned
above).
• Thermal bridges caused by geometry
(e.g. in corners where the exterior wall
meets the floor slab. Here heat flow is
increased because the inside surface
area of the corner is smaller than the
outside heat-emitting surface of the
wall. Thus more energy is drawn from
the inside corner)
It is important to understand that the
thermal bridge effect is not limited only
to the element of increased thermal
conductivity. It also draws thermal energy
from adjacent well insulated elements
thus decreasing their surface tempera-
ture and locally their insulation value.

20
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 21
Fig. 34 surface temperatures of floorslab
without perimeter insulation
1 4 mm FZ-panel
2 70 mm glass wool
3 4 mm FZ-panel
4 timber frame
5 50 mm bond screed
6 170 mm concrete ceiling
7 20 mm PS-foam
The negative effect of all thermal
bridges is, of course, loss of energy.
However, in the case of the penetrating
steel beam the loss is negligible com-
pared to the standard overall energy
emission of a building. The typically
small section area of the steel beam
does not conduct as much energy as
generally assumed by uninformed prac-
titioners. A more serious case of energy
loss is caused by linear thermal bridges
which can be found in construction
typical of the 1960s and 70s. Here a
concrete floor slab without perimeter
insulation is often in contact with the
outside air, acting almost like a cooling
fin and drawing large amounts of energy.
There are two ways to alleviate this pro-
blem in a renovation project. The
“quick-fix” is to introduce a linear strip
of insulation about 1m wide underneath
the floor slab. This is relatively cheap
and can provide an adequate solution
(see Fig. 35). The proper way, however,
would be to improve the insulation qua-
lities of the overall building enclosure.
Local condensation on building ele-
ments caused by thermal bridges is
often a more serious problem than the
actual loss of energy. Condensation can
cause mould on interior surfaces or
even structural
Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing
The Integration of Structure and Envelope in Steel Buildings
Fig. 35 surface temperatures of floorslab
with additional interior insulation
damage through corrosion. Conden-
sation will not occur if the interior surface
temperature is kept above the dewpoint
temperature of the room air (see Fig. 35
and 17). This is the safe and proper way
to deal with condensation. However,
there are feasible means of dealing with
condensation if its occurrence cannot
be ruled out with certainty.
Condensation can be collected in a
groove where it can evaporate over
time. This is a typical detail of older post
and rail facade systems with single
glazing. It is also possible to heat the
affected element artificially by installing
a local fan which, of course, consumes
additional energy. Upon closer exami-
nation this solution can often be found
in earlier “High-Tech” architecture.
Thermal bridges caused by bolts and
fasteners penetrating the insulated
building enclosure can be alleviated by
increasing the interior surface of the
heat conductive material with for
example an additional steel plate.
Another typical detail which makes use
of this effect is a point-suspended glass
pane. The joint penetrating the glass
transfers thermal energy to the steel
structure inside where it is evenly distri-
buted without causing extreme surface
temperatures.
Conclusion
The appearance of a steel building is
influenced not only by the design of an
efficient loadbearing structure, but it is
also the result of careful study of the
relationship between structure and
building envelope. The integration of
structure and envelope does not only
determine the insulation qualities of the
building and its performance under
changing environmental conditions, it
also determines the architectural quality
of the building as a whole. Disregard of
physical laws can lead to uneconomical
solutions. Furthermore condensation
can also cause major damage to the
building envelope and to the load bearing
structure (corrosion). Not every thermal
bridge is harmful to the building.
Thermal bridges are harmless if there is
a great volume of air inside and if internal
humidity is low. This may apply to many
kinds of steel buildings, as for example
industrial shed structures, train sheds
and covered market places as well as
for airport terminals and industrial exhi-
bition buildings. In multi-storey steel
buildings however, be it office buildings
or apartment houses, the demand for
human thermal comfort, which requires
relatively high inner surface tempera-
tures, does not permit any kind of lea-
kage in the insulating envelope. The
inner surface temperature has to be
maintained by means of insulation and
not by means of intensified air move-
ment which would cause uncomfortable
climatic conditions.
21
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 22
Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing
Sophisticated Building
Sophisticated Building
I. The Effects of Solar Radiation
III. Gaining Energy by Means of Glazed
Building Envelopes
IV. Thermal Interaction with the
Environment in Atrium Buildings
V. Thermal Interaction with the
Environment in Atrium Buildings
I. The Effects of Solar Radiation
The sun provides an endless supply of
free, renewable energy. The amount of
solar energy which reaches the surface
of the earth every day is enormous. A
comparison with other sources of energy
gives an idea of solar power. Within 26
days the sun emits a quantity of energy
equal to the total energy stored in all
known fossil fuel resources (coal, gas
and oil).
In buildings, solar energy can be used
in many ways:
• Daylighting in every room is an impor-
tant quality of an efficient building.
• Energy gains from solar radiation
help to reduce heating costs in winter
and during transition periods.
• Solar energy can be used to heat
water for hot-water supply.
• Solar radiation can be transformed in
electrical energy by solar panels.
22
II. Gaining Energy by Means of
Glazed Building Envelopes
Glass as a material for the building
envelope combines a lot of energetic
advantages but it is not free of disad-
vantages. Light and heat are different
effects caused by the same source: the
radiation of the sun. The physical effects
of the sun can be measured and quan-
tified. On the other hand, the sensuous
quality of natural light and the visual
connection to the outside have a psy-
chological benefit which cannot be
expressed in physical terms.
In winter there is no better way to make
use of solar energy than a completely
glazed building envelope. However, in
summer high solar radiation leads to
excessive heat gains, causing uncom-
fortable room temperatures. A thin
membrane of glass is sufficient to make
use of solar radiation. Since it also has
to protect against wind and moisture, be
it rain or snow, it has to be of a certain
thickness. Similar to a greenhouse this
membrane collects energy from the sun
during daytime whereas at night the
very same membrane transmits energy
from the building to the environment.
Both effects - heat gain during daytime
and heat loss at night - seen in combi-
nation suggest an uneven energy
balance. Improvement of the insulation
qualities can be achieved through
double-glazing or even triple-glazing.
Solar gains through radiation will only
be slightly reduced whereas thermal
losses will be cut down substantially.
Therefore the sum of solar gains and
heat losses will result in a remarkable
energy balance when double-or triple-
glazing is applied. Studies have shown
that south oriented double-glazed
facades are areas of usable heat gain
for more than half of the heating period.
In traditional buildings, shutters, Venetian
blinds and curtains were closed at night
to reduce heat loss. By combining these
methods of temporary insulation the U-
value of a double glazed window, for
example, could be improved from 2.8 to
1.4 . These popular methods of tempo-
rary thermal insulation can reverse the
energy balance of windows to the east
and west and even to the north side and
thereby lead to a reduction of heating
costs. These traditional methods can be
translated into modern means for tempo-
rarily influencing the U-value of windows
and glazed facades with operable ele-
ments.
An effective shading device is a neces-
sity during periods of transition and in
summer. In summer a glazed facade
without shading causes intolerable
conditions of human comfort. It is
obvious that the different orientations of
a building require different methods of
shading.
On the south elevation rigid horizontal
fins suffice to screen out steep sunrays
in summer whereas they still allow in
low angle sunlight in winter. On the east
and west side, however, shading
devices have to be operable to keep out
low angle solar radiation. In most cases
an adjustable solar protection is neces-
sary in order to provide effective shading.
Traditional buildings have used many
means of operable outside sun screening
devices. These include fabric shades as
well as movable Venetian blinds or win-
dow shutters. Additionally curtains were
used for glare protection. For large
scale glazing in modern buildings these
traditional shading devices are no longer
suitable.
In multi-storey buildings adjustable
exterior shading devices tend to mal-
function even if sturdily detailed. In
many multi-storey buildings the opti-
mum exterior sun protection can hardly
be achieved. Recent developments in
glass technology have tried to incorpo-
rate sun protection qualities in the glass
itself. Heat absorbing and highly reflecting
glasses were introduced. This seemingly
convincing method has serious
disadvantages from an energy point of
view. Tinted glass can absorb 50-60% of
solar energy. Mirrored glass reflects 30-
70% of the radiated energy back to the
environment. However, both technolo-
gies reduce solar gains by about the
same degree.
Therefore, if solar gains are desired, sun
protection methods have to be applied
that are capable of selective transmis-
sion. In many multi-storey buildings
mirrored glass has led to a uniform
building envelope that does not react to
the different qualities of orientation. This
kind of glazing concentrates the diffe-
rent functions of the building envelope
in one layer. The technology of mirrored
glass and tinted glass has come to a
dead end: More reflection or more
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 23
absorption does not make sense. The
energetic disadvantages of this kind of
skin can only be compensated for with
extensive air-conditioning. This causes
an increase of energy consumption
which leads to increased life-cycle
costs. From an architectural point of
view the potential of these facades is
also limited to expressing the precise
shape of the building’s volume in a
mirrored coating that reflects the adja-
cent structures, probably more mirrored
buildings.
To split off the different functions of the
building envelope into a multi-layer
construction is an interesting design
challenge.
Each layer has a specific function which
it meets with customised structural
details. Environmental conditions are
not kept out by a single tough mem-
brane - they are filtered in several
stages and reach the interior in a
modified condition.
Maintenance balconies in front of the
facade are especially suited to take up
sun shading devices. The most advan-
ced multi-layer envelopes incorporate
buffer-zones between the inner insula-
tion and the outside air. This intermediate
space has to be ventilated in summer. In
the transition period the warmed air can
be used for heat exchange. The prede-
cessors of this concept can be found in
glazed verandas, projecting bay win-
dows, winter gardens and glass-covered
courts of the 19th century.
As already discussed these openings
for light and air incorporated different
ways of sun shading and additional
glare protection. All these elements
were manually operated and needed a
lot of maintenance. Today’s atria also
have to be constantly adjusted to
meteorological and climatic conditions
to maintain comfortable room tempera-
tures. They are equipped with different
sun shading devices such as mechani-
cally operated louvres, lamellas and roller
blinds. Mechanically operated and
controlled by electronic sensors these
adjustable elements can react immedia-
tely to climatic changes. In spite of their
complex equipment these buffers-zones
are an appropriate solution when the
need to save energy becomes more
evident. Undesirable atmospheric
conditions - cold in winter, heat in sum-
Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing
mer - are mitigated by a buffer-zone in
a more natural and elegant way than by
extensive air-conditioning.
A material superior to glass in the
building envelope can hardly be imagi-
ned: it is durable, resistant against cor-
rosion and does not need maintenance.
Its main components - silica and oxygen
- are available in almost unlimited quan-
tities. Glass can be refined, its qualities
can be adjusted within certain limits.
Bright interiors are of vital importance
for human well-being: There is no substi-
tute for glass. Steel as the material with
the highest loadbearing capacity is
especially suited to be combined with
glass. In some aspects steel and glass
have the same qualities: both are high
performance building materials, and
can be manufactured into components
of high precision. If these qualities are
applied to the building as a whole, it will
be bright and spacious, transparent and
open.
Sophisticated Building
III. Thermal Interaction with
the Environment
in Atrium Buildings
Originally an atrium was the open cour-
tyard of a Roman house. In modern
buildings an atrium is a glass enclosed
space to the side or within a building. If
issues of heating, cooling and lighting
are ignored, atrium designs can add
significantly to the energy cost of the
building by requiring above-average
energy for heating and cooling. On the
other hand energy efficient atrium
spaces can contribute savings through
natural lighting, passive heating and
natural cooling strategies. There are dif-
ferent types of atria with different func-
tions and goals within the building
context:
• The atrium as a semi-conditioned
buffer-zone
• The atrium as a source of natural light
• The atrium as a green space of extra
comfort for occupants
If integrated carefully, combining various
and perhaps conflicting requirements,
an atrium can be used for passive
heating, natural cooling and day-lighting.
The effectiveness of an atrium depends
on its orientation and on daylight and
insulation control at its glazed surface.
An atrium of the first type does not need
extra heating or cooling. It functions as
a buffer-zone between the inside and
outside climate. In winter the building
facade adjacent to the atrium has a
significantly lower heat loss through
ventilation and convection than the
exterior facade. Furthermore the glazed
roof of the atrium provides passive solar
heat gains that can be conveyed to
adjacent heated rooms in winter and
during the transition period. Even in
summer it is possible that the tempera-
ture in the atrium is lower than the out-
side temperature. Openings in the glass
roof and openings for cooling rooms
like the basement cause a stack effect
that supplies cool air to the atrium
space. Overheating in summer can be
further reduced by the following mea-
sures: shading devices on the roof and
on the south, east and west facades; the
use of reflecting and bright materials for
roof and facades; thermal insulation on
surfaces exposed to the sun; reduction
23
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 24
Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing
Sophisticated Building
of artificial lighting; use of artificial
lighting with a minimum heat emission;
controlled ventilation: low ventilation
when the outside temperature is above
the inside temperature, extensive venti-
lation when the outside temperature is
lower than the inside temperature. In
buildings with sufficient thermal mass
extensive ventilation during the night is
highly effective. (For a discussion of the
effects of thermal mass in steel buildings
please refer to the next chapter). The
glazed atrium in the centre of a building is
attached to all surrounding rooms.
Therefore it is a more effective buffer-
zone than other buffer-zones, for
example perimeter buffers in the outer
facade. The figures show different generic
shapes of atrium buildings :
Fig. 36
1 conservatory atrium
2 two-sided atrium (two open sides)
3 three-sided atrium (one open side)
4 linear atrium (open ends)
5 bridging atrium between multiple
buildings
6 podium atrium at base of tower
7 multiple lateral atria (any shape)
8 multiple vertical atria
24
IV. The Effects of Thermal Mass
in Steel Buildings
Thermal mass is a frequently discussed
phenomenon in the context of intelligent
climate concepts for buildings. However,
sometimes misinterpretation of the
effect of thermal mass can lead to inef-
ficient and unnecessarily expensive
building designs e.g. planning a heavy-
weight structure with structural concrete
walls instead of a more efficient steel
skeleton structure.
The physical mass of a building
influences the interior climate. The
influence is caused by the heat storage
ability of certain materials. The effect is
comparable with the mitigation of climate
in maritime territories. A large body of
water is able to store thermal energy.
Therefore In many coastal regions of the
earth summers are cool and winters are
mild compared to continental climates.
The mitigation of air temperature as a
result of heat-exchange between water
and air not only affects climate during
the seasons but also during day and
night. In a contemporary building
context, however, the effects of the diurnal
temperature cycle are of prime impor-
tance. The effects of the seasonal cycle
can be neglected in comparison.
Commonly in large commercial or office
buildings the energy required for
cooling in summer by far exceeds the
energy required for heating in winter.
Alternative climate concepts making use
of the structure’s thermal capacity are
beginning to develop. Thermal capacity
is the ability of a building structure to
absorb a portion of the excess heat
developed over the working hours and
to gradually release it when the building
cools down at night. Intelligent ventila-
tion concepts are suitable to make good
use of thermal mass. Cold night air may
be circulated through the building to
increase the cooling capacity of the
structure. This process is known as
night purging. There are customised
floor systems, e.g. “Thermodeck” which
exploit this effect to its maximum by
circulating air up and down in a serpen-
tine like fashion through a precast
concrete slab. One of the key findings of
recent research is that the physical
mass necessary to provide adequate
thermal storage is actually quite low -
much lower than commonly assumed.
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 25
New research undertaken by Oxford
Brookes University, BSRA, Oscar Faber
Consulting Engineers and the Steel
Construction Institute suggests that
physical mass and effective thermal
mass have only a tenuous relationship
beyond a certain depth of material (50-
70mm). Furthermore, it is the choice of
heating and ventilation systems that
affects a building’s ability to perform
effectively - from both an energy
consumption and a temperature-
comfort point of view. In principle all
parts of a building have a certain heat
storage capacity. The major amount of
mass lies in the loadbearing structure.
In buildings with bearing walls there is
potential heat storage capacity in walls
and floor slabs alike. In skeleton buildings
heat can only be stored primarily in the
floor slabs. For thermodynamic reasons,
however, the most important structural
part for heat-storage is the underside of
the floor slab. Upward heat transfer is
always dominant compared with down-
ward heat transfer. For a case study on
this effect please refer to the Swiss
example of the Administration Centre
Langenthal where the predominant ther-
mal capacity of the underside of floor
slabs was carefully examined.
Fig. 37 temperature fluctuation in amplitude and time
Thermal Insulation and Moisture Proofing
For the predominant diurnal energy
charge/discharge cycle, the amount of
thermal storage in the floor slab is limited
by surface heat transfer characteristics
rather than by the thickness of the floor
slab. Due to the more effective loadbea-
ring capacity of steel-framed buildings
in comparison to concrete skeleton
buildings the floor slabs in the steel-
framed buildings are thinner than those
in concrete-framed buildings. Assuming
that the floor slab in a steel framed
building is only 120mm thick there still
is enough concrete to absorb heat
transferred into the floor by the adjacent
air. The top of the floor, which is usually
carpeted or has a raised floor, is less
effective in heat absorption than its
underside. But even if both sides of the
construction are active in terms of heat
transfer the underside is still dominant
and there is still more than enough
mass in steel-composite floor systems
to make use of thermal fabric storage.
Another common misconception exists
about the effects of “temperature ram-
ping” in the seasonal cycle. “Tempe-
rature ramping” is the phenomenon of
energy accumulation in building elements
as a result of excess heat inflow at the
end of the daily cycle thus gradually
increasing the stored energy (and interior
temperature) on a day by day basis.
Research data, however, suggests that
whilst this does occur, net temperature
gains or losses tend to be small, and
their effects extremely marginal.
Sophisticated Building
Conclusion
Certainly the physical mass of a building
has an effect on the adaptation of interior
temperature. However, the often presu-
med equation “Great mass equals great
thermal storage capacity” is a non
sequitur as it turns out. Intelligent venti-
lation concepts are far more important
than just mass. The effects of thermal
mass can easily be put to use in light-
weight steel skeleton buildings. And for
many reasons it is desirable to use
thermal mass for effective daily regulation
of temperature:
• It reduces the dependence on
mechanical services and therefore
has ecological benefits.
• The life cycle costs of a building can
be reduced since less energy is
required for mechanical heating and
cooling.
• The costs and capacity of mechanical
services can be reduced.
• The volume taken up by services can
be reduced.
25
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 26
Sound Insulation
Basic Terms and Physical Principles
Sound Insulation
Basic Terms
and Physical Principles
I. Description of Sound
III. Sound Absorption
IV. Reverberation Time T60
V. Transmission of Sound
I. Description of Sound
Sound is caused by vibration of an
object in an elastic medium. The way
humans perceive sound governs the
way it is measured and described. Two
important characteristics of sound
which humans can detect are:
• how loud a sound is (level)
• whether it is high or low pitched (pitch
or frequency)
Sound levels and sound insulation
values are expressed in Decibels (dB),
whilst pitch or frequency is expressed in
Hertz (Hz).
Sound level
The sound level describes how loud a
sound is. Its unit is the decibel (dB). The
human ear is more sensitive to mid-
range than to low frequencies.
Thus sounds of a same sound level but
of a different frequency may be perceived
differently.
26
Fig. 38 oscillation of a loud and “sharp” sound
Fig. 40 frequencies 20 - 10,000 Hz
Noise usually consists of a whole variety
of different sounds with different fre-
quencies. The dB rating describes two
different sound related quantities: first it
simply represents the volume of sound,
and secondly it describes the quality of
sound insulation as a measure to quan-
tify the amount by which sound trans-
mitted from one room to another is
reduced by the partition construction.
The A-sound level is used for acoustic
measurements in order to take these
effects into consideration. Its unit is
dB(A).
Frequency
The pitch of a sound is described by its
frequency. Human hearing ranges
approximately from 16 to 20,000 Hertz
(Hz). Building acoustics usually deal
with a frequency range from 100 Hz to
3,150 Hz (see Fig. 40).
Fig. 39 oscillation of a low and flat sound
II. Sound Absorption
When a sound wave hits a building ele-
ment one part of the sound energy is
reflected while the other part is transfor-
med into thermal energy. This is called
sound absorption. It reduces the sound
level in the room. The grade of absorp-
tion can be expressed in the sound
absorption factor α. It ranges from 0
(= total sound reflection) to 1 (total
absorption, no reflection) (also see
page 33).
III. Reverberation Time T60
The sound absorption can be estimated
by measuring the reverberation time T60
- the time taken for a reverberate noise
to decay by 60 dB. For residential and
office buildings T60 is usually conside-
red to be 0.5 seconds.
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 27

Sould Insulation
Basic Terms and Physical Principles

IV. Transmission of Sound

In order for sound to be transmitted or

propagated, it requires an elastic
medium. The most common medium for
transmission is air. However, sound is
also easily transmitted through common
building materials and components
such as steel, concrete, wood and metal
framing, piping and gypsum wallboard.

A distinction is made between

• airborne sound transmission

• impact sound transmission.
Fig. 41 airborne sound transmission Fig. 42 impact sound transmission
When airborne sound is generated air
particles vibrate. These vibrations induce
oscillations in the stiff separating building
elements, which oscillate the air in the
neighbouring rooms. The sound
transmitting media are : air - building
element - air.

Impact sound lets components vibrate

directly, e.g. by steps. These vibrations
oscillate the air of the neighbouring
rooms, too. The sound transmitting
media are in this case : building
element - air.
Fig. 43 flanking sound transmission
Flanking transmission of sound
Between adjacent rooms there are three
transmission routes: sound transmis-
sion through the floor, through the parti-
tion wall or through a flanking wall.
Whilst in the first two cases transmission
of sound is perpendicular to the building
element, sound transmission is more
indirect in the third case. The impact of
sound waves induces oscillations in stiff
building elements. These oscillations
can travel a long way within a building.
This means of transmission can lead to
unwanted noise even in rooms which are
not in the direct vicinity of the noise
source. Experience proves that flanking
transmission can be reduced by a
physical break at the junction of the
flanking wall with the separating wall.
In massive constructions the separating
wall can be tied into the flanking wall,
thus constraining movement in the 1 structural floor
flanking wall. 2 suspended ceiling
3 sealing
4 plaster
5 1,5 cm mineral wool
6 7,5 cm wood-wool slab
7 1,0 cm gypsum board
8 stopper dots

Fig. 44 Airborne sound insulation of a partition wall with different air-tightness at the
connection wall / floor (apparent sound reduction R’)

27
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 28
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation
I. Airborne Sound Insulation
III. Impact Sound Insulation
I. Airborne sound insulation
Airborne sound insulation is relevant at
a frequency range of 100-3150 Hz.
Airborne sound insulation between
rooms can be measured by generating
a steady sound of a particular frequency
in one room (source room) and com-
paring it with sound received in an adja-
cent room (receiving room). The result
of this comparison is the level diffe-
rence D. Its unit is dB(A). To define the
sound insulation properties, measure-
ments at a number of frequencies are
necessary. - usually 16 one-third octave
bands from 100 Hz to 3150 Hz (refer to
Fig. 40).
However, for many purposes including
the requirements for dwellings given in
building codes, a single figure rating is
desirable. To get one characteristic
value the measured results are compa-
red to a set of 16 standardised results
given by a reference curve (according
to industrial standards e.g. DIN 52210 in
Germany, BS 5821 in Great Britain, …N
B 8115 in Austria). The rating is made by
considering only those sound insulation
values which fall short of the reference
curve. This way, one or two very good
results have much less of an effect on
the single figure value. The method used
for airborne sound is given in Fig. 45.
The resulting single figure rating is cal-
led the weighted level difference D nT.
(the calculation procedure may vary
slightly from country to country).
This level difference is influenced by the
amount of acoustic absorption in the
receiving room. The absorption can be
estimated by measuring the reverbera-
tion time T. In order that measurements
indifferent buildings may be compared,
the level differences can be adjusted to
a standard reverberation time of 0,5 s.
This gives the standardised weighted
level difference DnT,w.
28
Airborne sound insulation of buil-
ding elements
Individual building elements such as
partitions, doors or windows can be
tested in acoustic laboratories. These
laboratories comprise two massively
constructed adjacent rooms which are
isolated against flanking transmission
and connected by an aperture containing
a test panel of the building element. The
level difference is measured between
the two rooms and the result is norma-
lised with respect to the area of the
panel and the acoustic absorption of the
room. The resulting value is the sound
reduction index R. The standardised
weighted sound reduction index R’w
can be evaluated the same way as Dnt,w.
Fig. 45 Calculation of DnT,w. by R-value measurement [dB].
Impact Sound Insulation
Impact-sound insulation tends to be
relevant only to floors. A standardised
procedure is used to measure the
impact sound insulation qualities of a
floor slab. A “tapping machine” gene-
rates a certain amount of impact noise
comprising a row of hammers, which
strike the floor repeatedly at a standard
rate. The resulting sound in the receiving
room underneath is measured. The
resulting value is termed impact sound
pressure level L. This test method
means that the better the impact sound
insulation is the lower is the value of L.
Measurements in buildings can be stan-
dardised to a reverberation time of 0.5 s.
This gives the standardised impact
sound pressure level L’nT. Tests in
laboratories, normalised for area and
absorption give the normalised impact
sound pressure level Ln. L’nT therefore
is generally an on-site measurement
while Ln is a more absolute laboratory
type of measurement.
1. Measure DnT values at the 16
frequencies and assess these
against values of the reference
curve in an arbitrary position
(→ position 1).
2. Identify those of the 16 fre-
quencies where the measured
DnT values are lower than
those of the reference curve
and subtract these figures
from those of the reference
curve to determine the adverse
deviations in dB.
3. Sum all of the adverse devia-
tions (The sum of adverse
deviations in dB.
4. Shift the reference curve in 1
dB steps until the sum of the
adverse deviations is as large
as possible but not greater
than 32 dB, i.e. sum of adverse
deviations = 27 (→ position 2).
The reference curve may have
to be shifted either up or down
in order to obtain the required
result.
5. The DnT value of the reference
curve (→ position 2) at 500 Hz
is the standardised weighted
level difference DnT,w. A devia-
tion of over 8 dB at any fre-
quency has to be mentioned
with the DnT,w.
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 29

Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation

Sound and Noise in Buildings I. Sound Insulation in Solid and III. Acoustic Design
Lightweight Constructions

I. Sound Insulation in Solid and Traditional methods of construction with
Lightweight Constructions heavy, loadbearing masonry walls or
III. Subjective Loudness timber framed buildings with infills of
IV. Acoustic Design stone can be looked upon as primitive
structures in the sense of concentrating
V. Tolerable Noise Levels
all functions of a wall or floor in one
single layer. Walls and floors define
spaces, they act as loadbearing struc-
tures and as dividing layers they sepa-
rate different spaces from each other.
These types of construction may have
been clumsy and rather inefficient in
making use of the material’s capacities.
On the other hand they at least fulfilled
the minimum requirements for thermal
and acoustic insulation.
both tables according to Gösele u. The complex requirements for sound
Schüle: insulation are connected to the develop-
ment of advanced building techniques.
The development of skeleton load-
Room, Room Tolerable bearing structures has had major
Location Noise Levels
consequences for all other structural
systems of buildings.
Night
Daytime (10 pm -
7am) In modern building, technological stan-
in bedrooms, dards were established as a reference
30 dB(A) 25 dB(A) to rate the performance of each structu-
windows open
ral component, describing for example
its loadbearing capacity, its thermal
in living rooms 45 dB(A) 35 dB(A)
insulation properties or its sound insula-
tion quality. In an efficiency-oriented
in gardens,
35 dB(A) 30dB(A) context each technical system and
balconies etc.
every element within a structure has to
meet certain requirements with mini-
Fig. 46 tolérable noise levels mum effort
The sound insulation quality of a building
is described as its ability to shield the
interior from outside noise or to stop
sound created in one room of the building
from being transmitted to another room.
There are many sources of noise in a
building and various routes of transmis-
sion. Therefore no general technique
exists to provide good sound insulation.
Many single measures have to be com-
bined to avoid acoustic disturbances.
Sound insulation is a primary architec-
tural quality of a building. It cannot be
added as a supplementary detail later
on, as for example a coating against
corrosion. Mistakes in planning
concerning the building’s acoustic qua-
lities cannot be completely corrected
after the building is completed.
Subsequent repairs can only marginally
improve the situation. Therefore it is
essential to solve acoustically relevant
questions in the design process.
The following such questions concerning
the design of a building have to be
addressed:
• How is the building site affected by
noise and what is the orientation of
the proposed building?
• How is the floor plan organised
concerning the location of wash-
rooms, toilets, kitchens, elevators and
mechanical rooms?
• Is the building con-struction light- or
heavyweight?

speech required sound • What type of partitions, ceilings and

audibility insulation Rw [dB]
II. Subjective Loudness
floors are to be used?
noise level noise level
The required sound insulation in a room,
20 dB(A) 30dB(A) • How does the exterior wall react to
for example not understanding talks in
flanking transmission of sound?
not audible 67 57
the adjacent room, depends on its noise
level. In a room with a low noise level
audible, not • Insulation of windows and facade
57 47
(e.g. a reading room) you can sense
understandable against street noise?
more readily the biting outdoor noise
party much harder than in a room with a high
52 42 • What acoustic questions are posed
understandable noise level (e.g. a meeting room). Sound
by the sanitary installations and
insulation must be in tune with this (see
well mechanical services?
42 32 Fig. 47).
understandable

Fig. 47 correlation between noise level and

required Rw

29
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 30

Sound Insulation
Sound and Noise in Buildings

IV. Tolerable Noise Levels

The amount of sound insulation requi-
red depends on the use of the rooms.
The use of a room determines the noise
level produced in the room (see
“Subjective Loudness”) as well as the
required stillness. Acoustic standards
are a product of both physical needs,
for example the need to sleep or to have
an undisturbed conversation, and the
general expectations of building occu-
pants. It is generally acceptable, for
instance, for a certain amount of sound
tocross between a typical residential kit
-chen and living-room. However it is not
acceptable in most western cultures for
conversations to be audible between
dwellings. It is apparent that the stan-
dards of acoustic insulation which are
required in different parts of a building
will vary and that the performance
required of individual building elements
will reflect these variations. For example,
walls between offices and a worksho-
pare likely to require greater acoustic
insulation than those between a trade-
counter and the same workshop.
In general sound intruding from the out-
side or from adjacent rooms should not
exceed the sound level produced by the
activities in this room.

Type of Location of required A CH D F GB I S Benelux

building insulation
DnT L’n DnT L’n DnT L’n DnT L’n DnT L’n DnT L’n DnT L’n DnT L’n

Between rooms belonging to 55 48 52 55 53 53 58 49 65 55 58

different dwellings

Between rooms within the same - - - - 53 - - - - -

dwelling

Between rooms and staicase/ 55 48 42 55 52 40 58 - - 39 64

corridor
Residential Between bedrooms; between 55 48 52 55 - - - - 53 -
buildings bedroom and corridor/neigh-
bour’s bathroom

Between bathrooms 55 48 47 60 51 - 38 70 - -

Between bedroom and restau- 55 48 57 50 58 58 - - - -

rant/hall/meeting-room

Between meeting-rooms - - 52 55 - - - - - -

Between classrooms; between 55 48 52 55 47 43 60 35 70 48 64

classroom and office/auditorium

Between music-rooms; between 58 43 57 45 55 50 60 45 70 - -

music-room and rooms which (62)
Schools
need quietness

Between gymnasiums/work- - - 57 50 53 45 45 70 - -
shops and rooms which need
quiet

Between rooms for mental work - - 52 55 - - 45 - 44 68

or private discussions and orher
rooms without excessive noise

Between rooms for usual office - - 47 60 40 - 35 - - -

work
Offices Between rooms for accounting - - 57 55 50 - - - - -
machines etc. and rooms for
mental work

Between rooms for accounting - - 52 60 - - - - - -

machines and rooms for usual
office work

Between special isolation 55 48 57 45 - 63 - - 48 64

rooms; between special isolation
rooms and other rooms

Between operating rooms; - - 52 55 47 63 - - - -

Hospitals between operating rooms and
other rooms

Between wards; beetween wards - - 47 60 39 63 - - - -

and conversation rooms/offices

Fig. 48 required sound insulation

30
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 31

Sound Insulation
Principles of Sound Insulation

Principles of Sound Insulation

In multi-storey steel buildings where a

certain sound insulation is required by
local authorities or the client, measures
have to be taken to insulate against air-
borne and impact sound and to avoid
flanking transmission. Exterior walls,
partition walls and floors must have cer-
tain sound insulation properties to either
reduce or prevent transmission. Design
of construction elements and choice of
material for high transmission losses is
based on three principles:

I. Mass in Single Leaf Elements

III. Separation in Double Leaf
Elements
IV. Sound-absorbent Materials

Fig. 49 weighted sound reduction index R’w

I. Mass in single leaf elements

The sound insulation quality of a single
layer wall or partition is almost entirely
determined by its mass per unit area.
The weighted sound reduction index R’w
increases with the mass of the wall.
lightweight materials do not block sound
very well.
“The more mass per unit area the more
insulation”
is a common rule-of-thumb for single-
layer structures. The degree of sound
transmission is also influenced by fre-
quency, flexural rigidity of the construc-
tion element and cavity absorption.
Theoretically the dB rating increases by
6 dB if the mass per unit area is dou-
bled. The idea of providing good sound
insulation by means of mass is espe-
cially convincing where heavy walls are
also needed for other
reasons. In fire walls between dwellings • unequal distribution of mass and
for example a mass of 450 kg/m2 is cavities affect the insulation quality.
necessary to obtain an insulation of 55 Non-homogenous walls or floors,
dB. The airborne sound insulation per- areas which include hollow spaces
formance is influenced by the following and cavities determine the insulation
factors: quality of the whole structure
• oscillations can be transformed into
• non-air-tightness of walls and their
heat energy by absorption. Every
intersections
material has different absorption qua-
lities.
• gaps, holes and slots substantially
reduce insulation, especially at high
• unfortunately thermal insulation
frequency ranges
decreases with increasing mass. This
effect has to be taken into considera-
• the lack of plaster is especially bad if
tion when designing a building.
the walls are untight; the sound insu-
lation qualities of a building are
dependent on good craftsmanship
which has to be ensured by site
supervision.

31
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 32
Sound Insulation
Principles of Sound Insulation
Coincidence frequency fgr [Hz]
The sound insulation of a single layer
wall increases logarithmically with its
mass. It decreases around a certain fre-
quency which depends on the flexural
rigidity of the building material due to a
resonance effect. After reaching a mini-
mum it increases again. This coincidence
frequency of a single layer wall can be
determined as follows:
√
1 σ
fgr = 6,4 x 104 x
d E
d thickness of wall [m]
σ specific mass of wall [kg/m3]
E modulus of elasticity of material
[N/m2]
The threshold frequency is lower the
thicker and more rigid a building ele-
ment is.
32
II. Separation in double leaf elements
High mass per unit area can be undesi-
rable in a structural element. A double
layer wall can provide a better sound
insulation than a single layer wall of the
same mass per unit area. Good sound
insulation qualities can be achieved with
lightweight walls composed of two inde-
pendent frames with a cavity between
and each frame supporting one surface
of the wall. Basically there are three
routes which sound can travel through a
double layer construction element (see
Fig. 50 and 51)
A direct transmission
B transmission through connections
between the two layers (“sound bridge”)
C flanking transmission.
If two layers are directly connected the
sound insulation only increases loga-
rithmically according to the mass law.
Best results can be obtained with two
frames which are strictly separated by a
cavity which may additionally be filled
with a lightweight resilient insulation
material. In this way the sound insula-
tion properties of the single layers can
be added under certain circumstances.
Fig. 50a sound transmission double-leaf wall
Special care has to be taken of the
width of the airspace. The coincidence
frequency of the two layers should be
greater than 3150 Hz.
Flanking transmission can be reduced
by introducing a physical break in the
flanking wall at the junction with the
separating element. Steel-framed
construction normally uses separate
panels so that there is a natural junction
between flanking and separating ele-
ment. This junction and the fact that all
wall and floor elements tend to be of
similar mass, means that flanking trans-
mission is much less of a problem than
in many masonry buildings. It is likely to
be direct transmission which deter-
mines the requirements for sound insu-
lation.
The edges of the wall require special
consideration for good acoustic design.
Any rigid connection between the two
layers might spoil the insulation. Linear
connections like studs made of wood or
sheet metal perform as sound bridges.
This type of lightweight wall is minor
than an equivalent masonry wall of the
same thickness.
Fig. 50b separation + resilient insulation material
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 33

Sound Insulation
Principles of Sound Insulation

III. Sound-absorbent materials

According to their acoustic properties

materials are divided into

• porous absorbers and

• resonant absorbers.

Porous absorbers
Pores and capillary openings are cha-
Prous absorber Resonance absorber
racteristics of the first group of materials sound absorption factor αs with different sound absorption factor αs with different
which includes textiles, rock wool, cer- frequencies frequencies
tain elastomers, wood-fibre boards and
single-sized concrete. Sound waves are
absorbed by these openings. Oscillating
air is transformed into heat energy due
to friction which occurs at the surface of
the openings. The degree of absorption
depends on the thickness and the flux-
resistance of the material. Generally
sound absorbing material which is atta-
ched to walls or ceilings has to have a
thickness of at least 1 cm. Often the sur-
face of this kind of material is visually
unattractive. They can be covered and
protected by a cladding which has only
aesthetic functions. Perforated sheet
metal and perforated corrugated sheet
metal with a layer of rockwool beneath Fig. 51 (according to Gösele u. Schüle)
is widely used for sound-absorption.

Another common method of sound- sound absorption factor αs

wall covering
absorption is the use of fibre boards with different frequencies [Hz]
with a dense surface. These materials 125 250 500 100 2000 4000
do not loose their performance qualities
when coated. 25 mm cement plaster with vermiculite
0,05 0,1 0,2 0,55 0,6 0,55
additive
See also page 26. pumice concrete, unplastered 0,15 0,4 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6

Resonant absorbers 115 mm honeycomb brick, unplastered,

cores open towards room, 60 mm cavity 0,15 0,65 0,45 0,45 0,4 0,7
Resonant absorbers make use of the
behind bricks with mineral wool
mass-spring principle to transform the
energy of oscillating air into motion. 25 mm wood-wool slab, unplastered
With this technique any kind of board directly at the wall 0,05 0,1 0,5 0,75 0,6 0,7
24 mm before wall, mineral wool 0,15 0,7 0,65 0,5 0,75 0,7
material can be installed in front of a
in cavity
wall or a ceiling with an airspace bet-
ween. Mineral fibre boards are used as 50 mm mineral fibre tile (100kg/m3) 0,3 0,6 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
an infill to increase the effect of sound
20 mm mineral fibre tile with paint 0,02 0,15 0,5 0,85 1,0 0,95
absorption.
16 mm mineral fibre tile, 375 kg/m3,
room side with paint, surface with fine 0,4 0,45 0,6 0,65 0,85 0,85
cut-outs, 200 mm floor distance

sheet metal cassette, perforated with

20 mm mineral fibre felt, 300 mm floor 0,3 0,7 0,7 0,9 0,95 0,95
distance

gypsum board, perforated with mineral

0,3 0,7 1,0 0,8 0,65 0,6
fibre, felt, 100 mm floor distance

timber frame with 15 mm wide, open

gains, 20 mm mineral fibre
30 mm floor distance 0,1 0,25 0,8 0,7 0,3 0,4
200 mm floor distance 0,4 0,7 0,5 0,4 0,35 0,3

Fig. 52 sound absorption factor of different types of wall coverings (see also page 26)

33
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 34
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Sound Insulation Techniques
I. Structure-borne Sound Insulation
III. Methods of Impact Sound Insulation
IV. Acoustic Performance of Steel
Construction
I. Structure-borne
Sound Insulation
Adequate acoustic privacy in multi-
family dwellings and other structures is
an integral quality of a building.
Therefore it must not be considered to
be a superficial treatment which can be
applied after the building’s completion.
In this aspect the control of impact-
sound transmission is as important as
the control of airborne sound transmis-
sion.
Floors, walls and stairs are subject to
structure borne or impact sound. Noise
caused by footfalls, dropped objects,
scraping furniture, slamming of doors
and even the use of electrical sockets
are sources of structure-borne sound.
Of the variety of sources the only type of
impact-sound covered by code regula-
tions in most countries is that from
footsteps. Therefore specific measures
to control impact-sound are commonly
only associated with floor surfaces.
34
Fig. 53 The City Gate in Düsseldorf
II. Methods of Impact Sound
Adequate impact insulation depends
on :
• the introduction of floating floors,
interrupted at partition walls to avoid
flanking transmission of sound
• insulating the floating floor surface
from the rest of the structure at the
floor perimeter. This is commonly
achieved by folding the resilient layer
up to the edges of the walking surface
• specifying the appropriate resilient
layer with the correct dynamic stiff-
ness under the imposed loads
• ensuring that the systems have suffi-
cient durability e.g. that the resilient
layer will not permanently compress
during service and that all
components sufficiently withstand
anticipated floor loads
• properly designed discontinuities
such as interrupted floor slab top-
pings
• resilient joints between exterior walls
and partitions
• insulation of mechanical services like
continuous pipes, conduits or ducts
which could act as routes of transmis-
sion
Other precautions are common sense
measures which can help to minimise
problems in multi-family
dwellings:
• door closures or stops can be added
to cushion impact energy so that it is
not transmitted directly into the struc-
ture
• desks should not be placed directly
against a wall
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 35
• kitchen cabinets should not be placed
at a wall adjacent to the neighbours
bedroom
Curtain walls, thin concrete floors and
bar joists require special attention
because transverse waves set up in
continuous rigid lightweight walls or
floors can cause sound transmission
with little attenuation over a long distance
from the source to other parts of the
structure.
Massive Floor Slabs
The peak footfall sound of homoge-
neous floor slabs can be predicted
approximately. If the frequency is
increased by ten times an increase of
the sound peak of 5 dB will be detected.
The footfall sound peak can be reduced
by increasing the thickness of the floor
slab. Doubling the thickness of the floor
slab leads to a sound peak reduction of
about 10 dB. The interrelationship of the
degree of footfall, sound insulation and
mass per unit area of the floor is shown
in Fig. 53.
The airborne sound insulation of floors
basically follows the same principles as
the sound insulation of walls. It is usually
determined by the mass per unit area of
the floor construction.
Multi-layer Floors
The introduction of a floating floor and a
resilient floor topping is a prerequisite
for good footfall sound insulation. An
additional measure to reduce footfall
sound transmission is a suspended
ceiling which acts as a resilient single
leaf element maybe with an additional
insulation layer of mineral wool fibre.
Suspended ceilings are especially
effective in skeleton buildings with light-
weight partitions. These partitions can
be easily insulated with a resilient joint
between partition and loadbearing floor.
In this way impact-sound transmission
through the floor to the adjacent rooms
can be avoided. Horizontal resilient
joints are needed between ceiling and
partitions when using a suspended cei-
ling for impact-sound insulation in ske-
leton buildings.
In buildings with loadbearing walls
impact sound is immediately transmitted
by rigid parts of the structure because
of the rigid connection of wall and floor
slab. Therefore a suspended ceiling
cannot stop impact-sound transmission
from one room to another. Good footfall
sound insulation of massive slabs with
floating floors is obtained if the mass
per unit area of both leaves, floating
floor and structural floor, are relatively
large and if both leaves are separated
by a resilient intermediate-layer.
Floor Finishes
A resilient floor finish (e.g. carpeting) on
top of a floating floor can further impro-
ve footfall sound insulation. When used
as part of a calculation one has to take
into account that resilient floor finishes
are subject to wear and tear and indivi-
dual taste of the occupants and thus
might be changed. While floating floors
improve airborne and impact-sound
insulation of a floor, resilient floor
finishes can only improve footfall sound
insulation.
Stairs and Stair Landings
Footfall sound insulation of stairs and
stair landings in relation to adjacent
rooms depends on the structural
connections. Very good footfall sound
insulation can be obtained if the stairs
are separated from the staircase and if
the partition walls between dwellings
are doubled up. Additionally the stairs
should have resilient supports.
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
III. Acoustic Performance of
Steel Constructions
Materials and Applications
Cold formed sections are manufactured
from cold rolled steel coil. The most
common sections are the C or the
Sigma shape, although other sections
are used for special applications. Steel
thickness range from 0.5 mm to 3.2 mm.
Corrosion protection is usually achieved
through galvanising.
Floor joists
Cold formed steel sections can be used
instead of timber floor joists. They can
be supported by masonry walls or joist
hangers as well as by steel frames. Cold
formed steel sections generally make a
lighter floor than either timber or hot
rolled steel.
Stud walling
Using steel studs to build lightweight
partitions is very common in commercial
buildings and is becoming increasingly
popular for residential applications, too.
Residential Building
Systems for residential construction
using structural steel sections have
been offered for many years. Three
basic forms exist.
• Column and beam systems
• Prefabricated panel systems
• Volumetric systems where buildings
are designed and delivered as a
series of prefabricated modules which
are assembled on site.
Cladding
Various types of steel cladding are avai-
lable including:
• Systems comprising an interior liner
sheet and exterior corrugated sheet
with insulation and spacers between.
• Systems comprising an inner structural
tray and exterior corrugated sheet
fastened to the returned edges of the
tray with insulation between.
• Composite panels
35
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 36
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Exterior Walls
Fig. 54 Built-up cladding system comprising
inner structural tray and exterior
corrugated sheet with insulation
between the layers
Typical airborne sound insulation:
23-30 Rw
Fig. 57a Composite panels comprising inner
and outer steel sheets bonded to
either side of an insulated core.
Typical airborne sound insulation:
23-30Rw
36
Fig. 55 Built-up cladding system compri-
sing inner liner sheet and exterior
corrugated sheet with insulation and
spacers between the layers.
Typical airborne sound insulation:
28-38 Rw
Fig. 57b Built-up cladding system, com-
prising inner slid stud wall with
plasterboards on both sides and
insulation in between and corru-
gated sheet metal as outer leaf
Typical airborne sound insulation
30-38 Rw
Fig. 56 Built-up cladding system, com-
prising brick outer leaf, cavity,
insulation, cold formed steel framed
inner leaf, plasterboard
interior lining.
Typical airborne sound insulation:
48-56 Rw
Fig. 57c Built-up cladding system, com-
prising slit metal studs with plas-
terboard lining on both sides and
brick outer leaf
Typical airborne sound insulation:
48-56 Rw
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 37
Floors
Basic Interior floors
Fig. 58 Timber flooring on steel joists with
plasterboard ceiling.
Typical airborne sound insulation:
45-54 Rw
Typical impact sound insulation:
70-78 Ln,w
Fig. 61 Timber flooring on steel deck joists
with plasterboard ceiling.
Typical airborne sound insulation:
45-54 Rw
Typical impact sound insulation:
70-78 Ln,w
Interior floors / compartment floors
with enhanced acoustic insulation
Fig. 59 Floating timber floor on isolated quilt
on timber layer on steel joists with
plasterboard ceiling.
Typical airborne sound insulation:
47-52 Rw
Typical impact sound insulation:
60-65 Ln,w
Fig. 62 Floating timber floor with plaster-
board planking on isolated quilt on
steel deck supported by steel joists
with plasterboard ceiling.
Typ. airborne sound ins.: 47-52 Rw
Typ. impact sound ins.:60-65 Ln,w
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Interior floors, compartment floors
with composite steel and concrete
construction
Fig. 60 Composite slab on steel joists with
plasterboard ceiling
Typ. airborne sound ins.:39-43 Rw
Typ. impact sound ins.:82-89 Ln,w
With additional floating layer -
Typ. airborne sound ins.:44-50 Rw
Typ. impact sound ins.:58-65 Ln,w
Fig. 63 Slim floor comprising deep deck
composite slab.
Typ. airborne sound ins.:39- 43 Rw
Typ. impact sound ins.:82 - 89 Ln,w
With additional floating layer -
Typ. airborne sound ins.:44- 50 Rw
Typ. impact sound ins.:58 - 65 Ln,w
37
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 38

Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques

Interior Walls

Basic interior partitions. Interior partitions with enhanced

acoustic insulation

Fig. 64a Steel studs, one layer of plaster- Fig. 64b Steel studs, one layer of plaster- Fig. 65 Steel studs, two layers of plaster-
board on one side board each side. board each side.

Typical airborne sound insulation: Typical airborne sound insulation: Typical airborne sound insulation:
30-34 Rw 30-34 Rw 46-54 Rw

Fig. 66a Steel studs, two layers of plaster-
board on one side with additional
insulation
Typical airborne sound insulation:
30-36Rw
Fig. 66b Steel studs, two layers of plaster-
board on each side with additional
insulation
Typical airborne sound insulation:
40-44 Rw
Fig. 66c Boxed steel studs, two layers of
plasterboard each side
Typical airborne sound insulation:
44-49 Rw

38
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 39
Interior partitions / compartment
walls with enhanced acoustic insula-
tion
Fig. 67 Large steel studs, two layers of
plasterboard each side
Typical airborne sound insulation:
52-58 Rw
Fig. 70 Large boxed steel studs, two layers
of plasterboard each side
Typical airborne sound insulation:
52-55 Rw
Interior staggered stud partitions /
compartment walls
Fig. 68 Staggered stud partitions / compart-
ment walls
Typical airborne sound insulation:
49-68 Rw
Fig. 70b Staggered stud partitions, two
layers of plasterboard on each side
and additional insulation
Typical airborne sound insulation:
49-68 Rw
Sound Insulation
Sound Insulation Techniques
Interior partitions / compartment
walls with independent framing
Fig. 69 For normal height, two layers of
plasterboard each side, with quilt in
cavity
Typical airborne sound insulation:
60-70 Rw
Fig. 71 Independent steel stud framing for
auditorium ceiling height applica-
tions, multiple layers of plaster-
board each side, with quilt in
cavity
Typical airborne sound insulation:
60-70 Rw
39
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 40

Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna

Senior Citizen’s Home

“Haus Prater” in Vienna,
Austria

Client
Kuratorium Wiener Pensionistenheim,
Seegasse 9, 1090 Wien

Architect
Dipl.-Ing. Hedy Wachberger,
Architekt Dipl.-Ing. Peter Mikolasch,
Franzenbrückenstraße 8, 1020 Wien
Gesiba Gemeinnôutzige Siedlungs- und Fig. 72 courtyard with entrance
Baugesmbh, Eßlinggasse 8-10, 1013
Wien

Civil-Engineer,
physics relating to construction,
general contractor
Doubrava Gesmbh & Co. KG,
Industriestraße 17-20,
4800 Attnang-Puchheim

Interior finishes
Leistungsgemeinschaft Lindner
GmbH, A. d. Heide 1, 2500 Baden,
Willich Trockenbau GmbH,
Wehlingstraße 29, 1200 Wien Fig. 73 site plan, scale 1:4000

Dry-construction
Knauf Gesellschaft mbH,
1050 Wien,
8940 Wei§enbach/Liezen, Stmk.

Location
Engerthstraße 255, Wien

Completed
1995

On the 9th of June in 1995 “Haus

Prater” officially opened its doors. The
senior citizen’s residence is located in
the second community district of
Vienna. It is one of 30 homes for the
elderly.

The residence has more than 300 apart-

ments specially designed to meet the
particular needs of elderly people. Due
to improved care the average age of the
residents is 84 years in the open resi-
dence and 97 years in the integrated
care facility.
Fig. 74 ground floor, scale 1:1000
40
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 41
The complex also includes three staff
apartments, 17 bedrooms for the nur-
sing staff, administrative offices and
numerous recreational facilities for indi-
vidual and group activities.
Facilities include: library, skittle-alleys,
billiards, hobby-rooms, gymnasium,
sauna, table tennis.
Special services like doctors, physio-
therapy, pedicure, hairdresser and
laundry are constantly available.
Fig. 75 bird’s eye view
Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna
A spacious hall with the kitchen under- The facade of the penthouse floor is set
neath is used as a room for festivities, back and forms a distinct silhouette with
dining room and central meeting point the projecting roofline.
next to the entrance.
The U-shaped building makes a clear
urban design statement. Different
facades indicate different functions.
A transparent intermediate level sepa-
rates the public functions of the ground
floor from the apartment-storeys above
with their characteristic loggias.
41
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 42

Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna

Structure

The two-storey basement is a standard

in situ concrete construction. On top of
the basement a prefabricated steel-
frame was assembled from standardi-
sed elements. This building system,
developed by Doubrava, was intentio-
nally designed to re-establish methods
of steel construction in multi-storey
buildings. The most striking feature of
the system is the hexagonal grid resulting
in a structure with three load bearing
directions. Each structural cell therefore
consists of six equilateral triangles. Twin
girders consisting of two cold-formed
U-shape sections back to back with a
gauge of 5 or 6 mm are used throughout.
Each girder spans 3.15 m. Each inter-
section within the grid requires a rigid
connection of 12 structural members.

Hexagonal anchor plates connect the

girder’s top and bottom chords. Steel
tubes of either 159 mm or 219 mm dia-
meter are used as columns. Since all
structural connections in this system
are rigid no additional lateral bracing
was needed in the building.
Fig. 76 hexagonal grid, scale 1:1000

Fire proofing

In accordance with the building code

the building was designed with a 90
minute minimum fire rating. The hexago-
nal structure supporting the floors is
protected on both sides. On top of the
girders 70 mm precast concrete slabs
are laid out. A 60 mm floating floor was
poured on top. A suspended ceiling
clad with F90 rated gypsum boards
shields the steel structure from below.
The columns are encased in gypsum
board and mineral wool. Where the steel
is exposed for aesthetic reasons the
columns were either filled with reinfor- Fig. 77 structural bay, scale 1:1000 Fig. 78 column/beam connection, scale 1:50
ced concrete or coated with a F90 rated
fire resistant finish.

Fig. 79 structural joint in centre of bay Fig. 80 structural joint betw. bays, scale 1:50
42
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 43

Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna

Assembly

It only took 24 months to complete the

entire building (33.000 m2). The seven-
storey steel frame was erected within 11
weeks by 23 workers and three cranes.
The final phase of dry construction was
completed within 12 months. Compared
to conventional building projects the
cost of construction was low due to
extensive pre-fabrication and a relatively
short construction time.

Steel structure by the numbers

777 structural cells

328 anchor plates as connectors
between steel frame and
concrete basement
2464 steel columns (diameter:
219/159 mm)
14321 girders (cold-formed sheet
metal, d=5/6 mm)
174000 bolts

Total weight of steel structure:

1350 t which equals 58 kg/m2

Fig. 81 assembly of the steel frame

Thermal Insulation

Prefabricated concrete elements were Ceiling under roof

used to enclose the steel skeleton.
For thermal insulation 100 mm of PS 60 mm reinforced screed
with a thin plaster finish was applied. 110 mm ext. Polystyrene
70 mm precast concrete
Exterior wall, sector 1 265 mm airspace
15 mm gypsum board
5 mm thin plaster
Fig. 82 preassembled structural unit 100 mm thermal insulation k = 0.29 W/m2K
140 mm concrete required: 0.3 W/m2K (1993)
15 mm interior plaster
Flat roof, planted
k = 0.33 W/m2K
required: 0.7 W/m2K (1993) 30 mm planting
100 mm gravel
Exterior wall, sector 2 120 mm ext. Polystyrene
20 mm waterproofing
80 mm facing concrete 100 mm precast concrete
20 mm impact-sound insulation 265 mm airspace
board TDP 25/20 15 mm plaster board, acoustic
100 mm ext. Polystyrene ceiling
120 mm load-bearing concrete leaf
k = 0.29 W/m2K
k = 0.34 W/m K 2 required: 0.3 W/m2K
required: 0.7 W/m2K (1993)
Fig. 83 star connection
43
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 44

Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna

Sound insulation

In this building special emphasis was

given to providing acoustic comfort. In
order to achieve optimum sound insula-
tion special attention was given to the
design of the enclosing elements of
each room. These elements are: exterior
walls, partitions, floors and ceilings.
Multi-leaf elements are a standard design
feature for each separating layer in this
building.

Fig. 84 typical apartment floor plan, scale1:1000

Fig. 85 horiz. section internal wall, scale 1:20 Fig. 86 airborne sound measurement

1 2 x 12.5 mm gypsum board

2 40 mm mineral wool
3 10 mm gap
4 12.5 mm gypsum board
5 147,5 mm gap
6 40 mm mineral wool
7 2 x 12.5 mm gypsum board

Fig. 87 stand. weight. level difference R’w=59 dB

44
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 45

Austria
Senior Citizen’s Home “Haus Prater”, Vienna

Fig. 88 vertical section, scale 1:250 (sound measurement)

Fig. 89 vertical section floor, scale 1:20

1 3 mm PVC
2 60 mm screed
3 interlayer
4 20 mm impact-sound insulation board
5 20 mm insulation board
6 70 mm precast concrete
7 265 mm air space
8 15 mm gypsum board

Fig. 90 stand. weight. level difference R’w=57 dB Fig. 91 impact sound pressure T’n,T,W= 45dB
45
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 46

Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen

Gartner Design Office

in Gundelfingen,
Germany

Client
Fa. Josef Gartner & Co.

Architect
Prof.Dr.techn.h.c. Kurt Ackermann &
Partner Jürgen Feit, Munich

Civil-Engineer Fig. 92 south elevation

Dr. Ing. Bernhard Behringer,
Dipl. Ing. Walter Müller, Munich

Technical installations
Dr. Karl Pitscheider, Munich

Physics relating to construction

Prof. Dr. Ing. habil. Karl Gertis,
Prof. Dr. Ing. Walter E. Fuchs,
Stuttgart

Location
Gundelfingen/Donau

Completed
1992

Fig. 93 site plan, scale 1:3000

Fig. 94 longitudinal section, scale 1:1000

This two-storey office building consists

of two pavilions connected to a linear
unit. Each pavilion is 42m long and 22m
wide. Workstations for 150 engineers
are provided on two levels. The building
and its sophisticated detailing reflects
the close collaboration of the architect
with the client Joseph Gartner & Co. -
Fig. 95 ground floor, scale 1:1000
the internationally renowned manufac-
turer of high-quality custom-made metal
facades. The open layout of the building
creates an atmosphere of communica-
tion and teamwork in the workplace.
Each workstation had to be suitable for
work on the drawing board and computer
screen. To promote the idea of a non-
hierarchical working environment all
workstations are identical.
Fig. 96 lower floor, scale 1:1000
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Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen

Fig. 97 south elevation

47
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Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen
Structure
The primary load-bearing structure of
the building consists of pairs of Y-
shaped steel frames based on a 6.8m
grid. The clear span between the frames
is 13.6m. Both frames cantilever 3.4m
towards the facade and 4.2m toward the
middle axis of the building. The remaining
space in the centre is covered by a
cable suspended skylight structure.
The leg of the steel frame running
through both storeys of the building is
made of tubular steel while the horizon-
tal members are made from welded
steel sections.
The first floor slab is a composite struc-
ture of steel and concrete which is deta-
ched from the steel structure of the roof
and the facade. Rectangular openings
are cut out of the slab to bring daylight
down to the ground floor.
48
The building’s envelope
The building envelope is made of glass,
aluminium and steel. The support struc-
ture of the facade is a steel framework
of rectangular hollow sections welded
together to form a continuous grid of
tubes. The resulting circulatory system
is used for seasonal heating or cooling.
During the heating period water with a
flow temperature of up to 40°C circu-
lates through the hollow sections.
This way the facade acts as a low-tem-
perature radiator. In summer cold water
can be used instead to cool down the
room air.
The steel grid is infilled with either insu-
lated glazing or aluminium panels for
the closed areas. The use of triple
glazing with two infra-red reflecting
layers and Argon in the gaps between
the two panes reduces transmission
heat-loss by 70% compared to standard
double-glazing.
Fig. 98 perspective view integration of structure and envelope
On the building’s outside pivoted glass
fins are attached to projecting mainte-
nance catwalks to provide adjustable
solar protection. These fins can also be
used to project daylight towards the
building’s ceiling and thus provide ideal
glare-free daylight to each computer
workstation.
On top of the skylight adjustable alumi-
nium fins keep out direct sunlight and
allow only reflected light to pass
through. The fins are adjusted automati-
cally to the sun’s position.
On the roof I-beams support load-
bearing, lightweight aluminium sandwich
elements. The outer and inner leaf of
these self-supporting sandwich ele-
ments consist of 3 mm sheet-aluminium.
120 mm of rockwool is used as thermal
insulation. Next to the inner leaf an addi-
tional heavyweight hardboard adds
thermal inertia to the roof panel.
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:30 Page 49

Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen

Interior climate

The main concern during the design

process was to ensure maximum quality
of the individual workstations. In terms
of human comfort issues of natural light-
ing, surface temperatures and air move-
ment in the vicinity of the engineer’s
desk had to be considered. In this case
the whole building is a test bed for new
concepts in the field of thermal efficiency,
solar protection and daylighting.

On the interior a suspended ceiling has

several different functions: first white
coated perforated aluminium sheets act Fig. 99 cross section, scale 1:200
as reflectors to diffuse daylight and arti-
ficial light. Secondly the U-shaped
reflector panels support a sound absor-
ber board and thirdly being connected
to a pipe-system circulating cold water
they act as low-temperature coolers to
keep down room air temperature in
summer. The building is equipped with
numerous computers which substantially
add to the heat load. Excess heat is not
only counteracted by the water-cooled
ceiling but it is also buffered by an air-
conditioning system. This system is part
of the raised floor construction and
draws off warm air directly from the heat
source. Exhaust air is immediately
cooled down and added to the supply
air. Air exchange in the building is ensu-
red by decentralised air-outlets and
additional ventilation through the win-
dows. All changes in room temperature
whether caused by external (climate) or
internal (human occupancy, electrical
systems) influences are immediately
counteracted by all thermally active
surfaces of the building.

An array of sensors constantly surveys

temperature and light. Room air is
conditioned mainly through low-tempe-
rature radiation. In this way draught
caused by air-conditioning can be mini-
mised.

Draught-free room air is one of the Fig. 100 meeting area underneath the skylight
major issues for creating a comfortable
working environment.

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Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen

Fig. 101 vertical section of roof, scale 1:20

Fig. 102 junction cooling roof/facade Fig. 103 column and cooling-roof Fig. 104 facade detail (interior)

Fig. 105 horizontal section of glazed corner, scale 1:20

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Germany
Gartner Design Office, Gundelfingen

1 adjustable aluminium louver

2 bar-steel, ( 25 mm
3 aluminium decking
4 triple insulation glass
5 steel tube, 60 x 120 mm
6 steel sheet edge girder
7 grid light fitting with suspended
reflectors
8 cooling water circulation
9 perforated aluminium sheet as
cooling surface
10 sound insulation board
112roof panel: 3 mm aluminium sheet.
120 mm thermal insulation, heat sto-
rage panel, 3 mm aluminium sheet
12 steel girder, IPE 240
13 neoprene profile
14 stainless steel gutter
15 steel section, 100 x 60 mm, with
water-cooled hollow chamber
16 3 mm aluminium parapet cladding
17 aluminium bar grid (for cross venti-
lation)
18 filter pad
19 stainless steel grille
20 aluminium composite section
21 plastic insulation
22 facade panel: 3 mm aluminium
sheet, 70mm thermal insulation, heat
storage panel, aluminium sheet
23 louver blind sun protection
24 steel section, 160 x 80 mm, with
water-cooled hollow chamber
25 triple insulation glass with inert gas
layer
26 aluminium bar grid
27 stainless steel bracket
28 swivelling glass louver
29 1,5 mm stainless steel kick plate
30 bituminous

Fig. 106 facade section, scale 1:20

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Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal

Administration Centre
in Langenthal,
Switzerland

Client
Baudirektion des Kantons Bern
Einwohnergemeinde Langenthal

Architect
Frank Geiser, Bern

Civil-Engineer
Duppenthaler + Wälchli, Langenthal

Physics relating to construction

Zeugin Bauberatungen AG,
Münsingen

Electrical Engineers
Bering AG, Langenthal

Lighting equipment
RM Mazzoleni Licht, Zürich

Heating, Ventilation, Sanitation

Häusler Haustech AG, Langenthal

Location
Jurastraße 22/24, Langenthal, CH
Fig. 107 site plan, scale 1:1500
Completed
1992

This elegant steel structure with a trans-

parent aluminium and glass curtain wall
resulted from a competition entry of
Swiss architect Frank Geiser in 1982.
Though initially considered an impracti-
cal concept by local administrators, the
architect’s original idea of uniting the
district administration of Aarwangen
and the community administration of
Langenthal in one single building was
realised.

The building is situated on an even site

in the park area of the former Villa
Gugelmann in the centre of Langenthal.
Also part of the ensemble is a one storey
multi-purpose pavilion for exhibitions
and meetings, which isn’t completed
yet. The civic centre adheres to a simple
structural logic with its steel construc-
tion seemingly mirroring the administra-
tive activities inside. Fig. 108 north-west elevation

52
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Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal

Fig. 109 south-west corner Fig. 110 vertical section, scale 1:100

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Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal

Floor plan

The building is set back from the street.

A straight footpath starting underneath
an ancient lime-tree on Jurastrasse
leads up to the main entrance on the
south-west side. The visitor enters a
spacious atrium which connects both
wings of the building. This entrance hall
open to the public serves as a central
circulation space and links all functional
units in the building. The floor plan
shows three bays; offices on the per-
imeter facing south-west and north-east Fig. 111 ground floor, scale 1:750
and service rooms in the middle. Above
the ground floor there are three upper
floors. Set back from the building’s
perimeter the penthouse floor contains
the assembly room for the district council,
the janitor’s apartment and a cafeteria
with a spacious roof terrace. Additional
meeting rooms and mechanical services
as well as storage and archive spaces
are located in the first basement level
whereas the second basement is used
for parking .

Fig. 112 third floor, scale 1:750

1 Main entrance
2 Information desk
3 Canton police
4 Local police
5 Registration office
6 Side entrance
7 Ramp, downstairs
8 Entrance hall
9 Forestry office
10 Real estate administration
11 Constructions administration
12 Presidency
13 Cafeteria
14 West-terrace
15 District council
16 Janitor
17 East-terrace Fig. 113 penthouse floor, scale 1:750

Fig. 114 cross section, scale 1:750 Fig. 115 longitudinal section, scale 1:750

54
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Switzerland
Administration Centre Langenthal

1 steel column Ø 177.8 mm

2 steel frame elements
3 railing, grooved aluminium-sheet
covering
4 ventilation 25 mm
5 thermal insulation layer 80 mm
6 fibreboard 19 mm
7 radiator
8 flat aluminium 2 x 60/10 mm
9 steel cable
10 catwalk and rigid sun blinds, aluminium-
console with perforated sheet metal
decking
11 secondary beam, U-section,
40/40/4 mm
12 aluminium-C-section 72/400mm
13 thermal insulation layer 30 mm
14 steel-beam IPE 400
15 hopper sash
16 louvers, perforated aluminium-sheet
17 glazing bar, aluminium
18 heat-absorbing glass,
k-value 1,3 W/m2K
19 roller blind
20 partition panel with fanlight
21 precast concrete elements,
d = 90 mm, h = 360 mm
22 textile resilient flooring
23 cement floor finish 60-90 mm
24 footfall sound insulation 10 mm

Fig. 116 vertical section: integration of load-bearing structure and building envelope

Fig. 117 solar protection blinds

Structure

Standard construction methods with in catwalks and louvres placed in between

Fig. 118 maintenance catwalk
situ concrete and masonry were used
for the basement. The remaining floors
were constructed using prefabricated
units: circular steel columns and I-
beams for the load-bearing structure
and a waffle slab made up of U-shaped
pre-cast concrete elements. The struc-
tural grid of 8.88m by 6.66m three times
in a row guarantees maximum flexibility
for the subdivision of office spaces. The
building envelope is a multi-layer cur-
tain wall. The glazed facade is set back
behind the load-bearing structure with
the columns. The floor beams penetrate
the glass skin which is the innermost
layer of the facade.
On the inside the various components,
such as the trough-shaped prefabricated
concrete floor units spanning from
beam to beam, are also distinguished.
Mechanical and electrical services are
housed in a cleverly designed partition
wall system. The structure is braced by
three concrete walls forming a structural
core in the middle of the building.

55
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Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal

Sound Insulation

Insulation against outside noise is ensu-

red by using double glazing with an
outer pane of 8mm thickness and an
inner pane of 4mm thickness separated
by a 15mm gap filled with argon. This
measure leads to a minimum weighted
sound reduction index R’w of 38 dB.

Thermal Insulation

The building is almost totally glazed. The

exposed steel structure with its intentio-
nal penetrations of structure and skin
display several remarkable design solu-
tions in regard of the insulation qualities
of the building. The building doesn’t
require air-conditioning at all; it is
equipped only with radiators adjustable
for individual comfort. The result is a
remarkably low energy consumption of
the building although the k-value of
1.3 W/m2K for the glazed facade is rela-
tively high. This astonishing performan-
ce is achieved through the following
measures:

1. Effective solar protection through

rigid fins and projecting catwalks in
front of the glazed facade
2. Cooling during the night by means
of natural cross ventilation
3. Thermal inertia and capacity of the
exposed concrete waffle slabs is
increased by leaving out a suspen-
ded ceiling
4. The glazed building envelope gene-
rates usable solar gains in winter
and transition periods.

The thermal effect of 76 I-beams inten- Fig. 119 internal circulation space
tionally penetrating the building envelo-
pe was closely examined at full-scale
under laboratory conditions. The experi-
ment was set up to compare the heat
loss through an uninterrupted section of
the beam to a beam with a neoprene
thermal break. Interestingly enough the
uninterrupted beam showed a substan-
tially lower heat flow resulting in a heat
loss of only 126.9 kW/h for all 76 beams,
compared to 734.9 kW/h for the ther-
mally broken beams. The amount of
126.9 kW/h represents 0.03% of the
buildings overall heat loss. The heat loss

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Switzerland
Administration Centre, Langenthal

through all 76 thermal bridges caused

by the structural steel beams leads to
an increase of the heating bill of only 30
Swiss Franks per annum.

The experiment also showed that there

wouldn’t be any condensation on the
interior surface of the beam in winter,
assuming a room temperature of 20°C
and 45% relative humidity.

Maximum room air temperature

Peak room air temperature could be
substantially decreased by leaving out
the originally planned suspended ceiling.
As a result the thermal inertia of the Fig. 120 maximum room air temperature in an office (studies by Sulzer-Energy-Consulting
concrete waffle slab acts as a thermal
buffer.

The diagram compares resulting room

air temperatures achieved purely by
means of natural ventilation with and
without a suspended ceiling throughout
the year.

Surface temperatures of test rigs

Fig. 122 surface temperatures of test
rigs, 45% relative humidity (locations of
reading = 1-9)

The diagram depicts temperatures

Fig. 121 test rig I and II and locations of reading (1-9)
taken at different locations of the
beam’s surface. The temperatures are
shown for summer and winter condi-
tions.

Fig. 122 surface temperatures of test rigs, 45% relative humidity (locations of reading = 1-9)

Fig. 123 surface temperatures of test rigs, 60% relative humidity

57
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 58

France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims

Multi-Storey Dwellings
“La Ferronniere”
in Reims, France

Client
OPR - Office Public HLM, Reims

Architect
BCDE Architecture - Laurent Debrix

Civil-Engineer Fig. 124 frontage view

EDIS-3D, Cormontreuil (51)

Location
Quartier de Val de Murigny, Reims

Completed
November 1991

Fig. 125 site plan, scale 1:2500

The name “La Ferronniere” which can

be translated as “blacksmith’s shop”
already hints at the characteristic fea-
tures of these three new steel skeleton
buildings. The ensemble is the result of
an architectural competition which was
initiated to develop an urban endpoint Fig. 126 west elevation, scale 1:500 Fig. 127 east elevation, scale 1:500
for a recently completed housing pro-
ject in the outskirts of Reims.

35 timber framed chalets had already

been built in this area. As a visual
counterpoint to this development the
three new buildings are a type of low
rise high density housing which
enriches the local variety of living space.
The project comprises 71 flats in three
separate buildings. There are 46 apart- Fig. 128 south elevation, scale 1:500
ments with 69m2 and 25 apartments
with either 132 or 149 m2 floor area. It is
remarkable that in each apartment the
bathroom and kitchen is located on the
buildings perimeter and benefits from
daylight and natural ventilation.

The dynamic roof line engages in a dia-

logue with the existing houses the sur-
rounding slightly terraced landscape. Fig. 129 north elevation scale 1:500

58
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 59
Fig. 131 metal cladding and ceramic tiles on a typical facade
There is not necessarily a contradiction
between sensitive urban design and the
fact that advanced building technolo-
gies developed in the field of industrial
building for production plants and retail
applications were used for a residential
project. On the contrary the high preci-
sion of the metal clad facades together
with a mixture of materials and colours
that blend with the colours of the earth
show that a high-tech building can be
contextual to local surroundings.
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
Fig. 130 balconies
This design approach must not be
misunderstood as an attempt to mimic
traditional architectural forms with
modern materials. These buildings are
undoubtedly modern architecture;
incontestably these are steel skeleton
buildings with a skin that is a true
expression of a multi-layered, ventilated
wall system. The bow shaped columns
which embrace projecting balconies are
clearly a motif of high-tech architecture Fig. 132 bow shaped steel columns
which characterises “La Ferronniere”. with balconies scale 1:20
59
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 60
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
Structure
The steel skeleton rests on a concrete
basement which, among other rooms,
includes the garage. It is based on a
modular grid with varying spans. Typical
spans range from 4,75 m to 6,15 m in
cross direction and 2,93 m and 5,86 m
in longitudinal direction. IPE sections
ranging from IPE 200 to IPE 330 were
used as floor beams. In all three buil-
dings the columns are made of HEA 140
sections.
Fig. 133 longitudinal and cross section of the loadbearing steel skeleton scale 1:500
60
In the longitudinal direction fixed
columns and rigid connections between
beams and columns were used to stiffen
the frame. Standard cross bracing in the
three separating walls within one buil-
ding was used in the cross direction.
The 18 cm thick concrete floors were
cast in situ on top of metal decking
which acts as reinforcement in the
resulting composite structure.
Fig. 134 site assembly of prefabricated components
Fire proofing
For this type of multi-storey “low rise”
building a fire rating of half an hour for
all structural parts such as beams,
columns and floors is required.
Therefore all structural steel was clad in
gypsum board. Separating walls bet-
ween the three units in each building
and all staircases have a one hour fire
rating.
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 61
The advantages of a steel skeleton
What are the advantages of a steel
skeleton used as load bearing structure
in a multi-storey dwelling?
These three buildings with their uncon-
ventional use of materials and construc-
tion methods originally developed for
industrial applications give the answer
to this question. This experimental
housing project leads to a series of
architectural and technological innova-
tions which were rather unexpected and
are quite remarkable in comparison with
conventional building methods:
• Within the limits of a fixed budget for
this category of housing the living
space in each individual flat could be
increased by 25%.
• The economical way of building allo-
wed projecting balconies to be inclu-
ded as an extra feature that adds an
exterior space to each individual
apartment.
Fig. 135 typical floor plan scale 1:200
France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims
• The roofs and facades were desi-
gned with a high standard of acoustic
and thermal insulation.
• The facade is maintenance free
through the use of durable materials.
• Resolving the exterior walls, interior
walls and floors into multi-leaf
construction resulted in components
adjusted to their specific functions
and engineered to meet exact requi-
rements of thermal insulation, acoustic
insulation and fire safety.
• Maximum prefabrication of building
components in the shop reduces the
required work on site to a mere
assembly process. Thus the buildings
could be erected very quickly without
loss of quality.
• Last but not least the actual costs
were 12% below the estimated costs.
1 living room
2 hall
3 kitchen
4 bathroom
5 WC
6 storeroom
7 hall-stand
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France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims

Construction of floors and walls

Floor

1 concrete cast in place

2 bead with holding clip
3 metal decking
4 steel rod Ø 6 mm
5 steel beam
6 mineral wool
7 lathing 47 mm
8 clip lathing
9 gypsum board 13 mm Fig. 136 vert. section composite floor, sc. 1:5 Fig. 137 isometric view of composite floor

Separation Walls
1 cold rolled section, rail 70 mm
2 plastic foil
3 cold rolled section, post 70 mm
4 gypsum board 18 mm
5 grout jointing
6 2 x gypsum board 13 mm
7 air tight sealing
8 mineral wool
9 gypsum board 13 mm
10 sealing
11 holding clip
12 IPE beam Fig. 138 vertical section sep. wall, scale 1:10 Fig. 139 horizontal section sep. wall, scale 1:10

Outer Walls

1 cold rolled section, post 70 mm

2 moisture barrier
3 gypsum board 18 mm
4 cold rolled section, rail 70 mm
5 air tight sealing
6 steel decking Fig. 140 horiz. section outer, sep. wall, scale 1:10
7 mineral wool
8 bead with holding clip
9 lathing 47 mm
10 counter lathing 70 mm
11 2 x gypsum board 13 mm
12 sealing
13 moisture barrier
14 cold rolled steel section, post 70 mm
15 mineral wool
16 metal cladding
17 facade strapping
18 wind and water barrier
19 outer leaf

Fig. 141 vertical section outer wall, scale 1:10 Fig. 142 vertical section outer wall, scale 1:10
62
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France
Multi-Storey Dwellings “La Ferroniere”, Reims

Sound insulation
Sound transmission between adjacent
rooms - next to each other or on top of
each other - is either caused by airborne
transmission through separating building
elements (walls or floors) or impact
sound transmission caused by vibration
in building elements that can be
conducted over a distance to the affected
room. In conventional multi-storey
dwellings with load bearing concrete or
masonry walls, the standard sound
insulation between adjacent units is
Dn= 51 dB(A) and Ln= 70 dB(A).
The amount of sound transmission in this
type of structure is predictable and
depends on material properties which are
well known. Special measures to prevent
lateral sound transmission are neces-
sary if a significant increase of sound
transmission (6-10 dB (A) is desired.
When airborne sound exceeds 59 dB (A),
it is recommended that the mass of sepa-
rating building elements is increased.
A more economical way to improve enhancing acoustic and thermal insula-
sound insulation than just increasing tion as well as ensuring fire safety.
mass is to double up a separating wall Flanking sound transmission is preven-
or floor by an additional layer of e.g. ted because all structural parts that
gypsum board and maybe adding might conduct vibration are encased.
thermo-acoustic absorber materials like
mineral wool. The table below gives a summary of
lightweight building methods and their
However, the limits of this kind of acoustic relative physical parameters.
enhancement are also predictable.
If a substantially improved level of
sound insulation is desired a more
sophisticated approach is needed.
In a building structure with linear load
bearing elements like a steel skeleton
with columns and beams the enclosure
is usually supported by a secondary
structure.
The complete encasement of all structural
steel in layers of plasterboard conse-
quently results in a two fold make-up of
all enclosing building elements creating
thermal and acoustical breaks, thus

Building Composition Details Thermal Soundation insulation Fire

component insulation resistance
[mm] [W/m2K] indicated required measured

Composite – concrete 180 R’w Lnw R’w Lnw

floor – metal deck 70 vertical vertical
R = 1,8
+ suspended – mineral wool 60 R 51 70 61 66 30 min
K = 0,55
ceiling – gypsum board 13 horizontal horizontal
70 70

Suspended – sheet metal

ceiling – holding device
– mineral wool 200 R = 5,10
30 min
– counter lathing 47 K = 0,20
– lathing 47
– fire resistant gypsum board 15

Separation wall – 2 gypsum boards 13

220 – 2 cold rolled steel sections 70 R = 2,32
65 dB(A) 51 dB(A) 55 00 60 min
– mineral wool 75 K = 0,51
– 1 gypsum board 18

Separation wall – 1 gypsum boards 13

220 – 2 cold rolled steel sections 70 R = 2,32
48 dB(A) 49 00 60 min
– mineral wool 75 K = 0,51
– 1 gypsum board 18

Ventilated – metal cladding

multi-leaf outer – strapping 36
R = 3,57 Rrose = 52 00
wall – rock wool 120 30 min
K = 0,28 Rroute = 45
– cold rolled steel section 60 31
00
– 1 gypsum board 18

Encased steel – HEB 140, IPE 200-230

beams and – fire protection encasement 30 min
steel columns – 1 gypsum board 13

Fig. 143 Thermal insulation and sound insulation qualities of the buildings
63
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Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette

Arbed Headquarter
in Esch-sur-Alzette,
Luxembourg

Client
ProfilARBED

Architect
Prof.Gottfried Böhm, Jürgen Minkus

Civil-Engineer
Schröer Associates, Luxembourg; Arne
Hill A.S., Oslo / Paris

Frame System
Lindab Profil AB / Danogips AB

Physics relating to construction

RMC Consulting, Luxembourg

Acoustics
TÜV Rheinland, Köln

Location
Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
1 old tower
Completed 2 enclosed walkway
September 1993 Fig. 144 site plan, scale 1:1000 3 existing office building

Esch-sur-Alzette is located in the South Fig. 145 floorplan, scale 1:1000

of Luxembourg. As the second largest
city of the country it is well connected to
the capital and can easily be reached
by public transport. The area is charac-
terised by the iron and steel industry,
which started 120 years ago in the
region. The site of Arbed’s new head-
quarters is located in a historical park of
the former castle of “Berwart”. The new
building lies in the immediate vicinity of
the existing research centre of
ProfilARBED and is close to the down-
town district of Esch. As the result of an
international architectural competition
the design of the Cologne-based archi-
tect Gottfried Böhm was selected for
further development and realisation. Fig. 146 isometric view of structure

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Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette

In contrast to ordinary office buildings,

where the workspace is usually organi-
sed in an open-plan layout, here the
new concept of the so called “Combi-
Office” was used at large scale for the
first time. The way the floor plan lines
up single offices along the building’s
perimeter with an open space area
in-between reflects this new concept of
organising an office.

Starting with the design of a single work

space the building’s geometrical order
evolves from the multiplication and
connection of one basic module.

The building’s two eight storey wings

define an angle of 140°. On each floor
there are 48 identical individual works-
paces and an open central area for
common activities.

Fig. 147 view of the north-east wing

The basement contains mechanical and

electrical services, storage and archive
rooms as well as a central computer
system and the building’s central
mechanical systems control-room.

Part of the mechanical equipment is ins-

talled on the building’s roof. The open
areas between the offices are interrupted
by daylight openings. These 60 m2 wide
openings run from top to bottom and
reveal the building’s lateral bracing. The
end of each wing is used for elevators,
stairs and toilets. The central hinge is
Fig. 148 longitudinal section, scale 1:1000
accentuated by a circular staircase, it
also has a kitchen and a central confe-
rence room on each floor.

A characteristic feature of the building is

the circular enclosed walkway which
links both wings of the building to a
masonry tower, which is all that remains
of the old castle and now serves as
main entrance and reception area.

Fig. 149 cross section, scale 1:1000

65
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 66
Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette
Structure
The building’s load bearing structure is
a steel skeleton. In each wing of the
building seven rows of columns define
six bays on a regularly spaced grid of
6 x 7,20 m. The columns are connected
by custom-made floor beams. The
beam’s asymmetrical section consists
of a regular IPEa 500 in tempered steel
460 of highest quality, cut in half, and a
10 mm steel plate welded to its web.
One of the advantages of this asymme-
trical design is that it is possible to
place prefabricated hollow core slabs to
receive an in situ concrete topping.
Special slotted steel plates are welded
to the end cross-sections floor beams
fascia on each end. This facilitates
connecting the beams to the columns
and substantially reduces the erection-
time of the steel-frame.
This type of a slim floor was developed
by ProfilARBED and became known as
IFB-system (integrated floor beams).
Fig. 152 exposed steel structure over eight storeys in central atrium
66
The system combines the advantages of
dry construction with the advantages of
monolithic concrete floor slabs. There
are no ceiling joists and the floor top is
of a quality ready for decoration with
only minimal site making good required.
The in situ concrete topping bonds with
the prefabricated elements of the floor
to form a rigid diaphragm which trans-
fers lateral loads to the building’s verti-
cal and longitudinal bracing. To further
reduce lateral stress rigid and semi-
rigid column-beam connections were
used within the braced frames.
Fig. 150 fireproof escape stairwell
1 steel column
2 bolt bridging
3 slotted steelplate “quick-erect”
4 pre-fabricated hollow core slab-elements
5 composed IFB-beam
Fig. 151 isometric view of IFB-flat floor system
Fire proofing
Since all structural steel is exposed
without any encasing or coating, care-
fully planned precautions have to ensure
the building’s fire safety. This led to the
design of a comprehensive custom fire
safety concept. First of all structurally
independent fireproof escape stairwells
are easily accessible from every work-
space. Secondly in the event of a fire
smoke is exhausted through openings
within the atria and smoke vents in the
roof. In addition the whole building is
equipped with a sophisticated sprinkler
system. The steel skeleton was addi-
tionally modified by insulating the facade
columns and by strengthening column-
beam connections within the lateral
bracing to ensure structural integrity in
case of fire.
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 67

Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette

1 facade column HE 180 B 19 warm water radiator

2 facade column HE 180 M 20 parapet channel for electrical installation
3 “Integrated Floor Beam” of high strength 21 thermal insulation 10 cm mineral wool
steel: 1/2 IPEa 500 with a 10mm thick 22 double glazing with incorporated reflective
steelplate welded to it, as bottom flange daylight deflectors 30 mm
4 regular hinged column-beam connection 23 silk screened enamelled glass
of fascia plate 24 sash window: insulated double glazing
5 midified rigid column-beam connection + reflective sun protection glass 22 mm
within braced frames 25 non transparent reflective glass with
6 interior column HE 220 A thermal insulation 30 mm
7 interior column HTM 220 x 230 26 joint element between glazed facade and
8 wind bracing HTM 220 x 93 stair case enclosure
9 wind bracing TM 220 A 27 L-section 150 x 100 x 10 mm
10 prefabricated hollow core slab 20cm 28 railing post steel bar 20 x 50 mm
11 cast in place reinforced concrete 10cm 29 round section Ø 8 mm
12 cast in place concrete filling 30 round section Ø 6 mm
13 rubber floor finish 31 hand rail steel bar 50 x 50
14 prefabricated parapet element
15 pocketed connection 80 x 80 x 100 mm
of parapet element to column
16 steel plate 150 x 100 x 10 mm
17 thermal insulation and steel cladding of
facade column
18 interior partition

Fig. 153 vertical section, scale 1:10

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Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette

The building’s envelope

The structure of the entire building is

enclosed by a curtain wall. In front of the
offices the facade is completely glazed
with different infills in a post and rail
structure: silk screen imprinted glass
below window sill height, above a band
of mirrored glass. An operable sash
window in each office allows outside
views. Integrated reflective lamellas in
the double glazing act as an optical
device to direct daylight into the building.

The service towers at the end of each

wing are clad in stainless steel. A spe-
cial corrugated type was used to wrap
the rounded corners of these towers.
This cladding was used to cover the roof
of the ring shaped, barrel vaulted walk-
way.

Fig. 154 horizontal section of facade, scale 1:10

1 stainless steel sheet “Miniwelle”, 1mm 10
2 bent corner element, stainless steel, 11
50 x 30 x 2 mm 12
3 counter rail, stainless steel, 1mm 13
4 stainless steel sheet, 1mm
5 rectangular tubular section, stainless 14
steel, 80 x 40 x 2 mm 15
6 stainless steel connecting plate 16
7 U 160 with fire-retarding coating
8 PUR sandwich element: 17
coated steel sheet 0,5 mm 18
thermal insulation, 40 mm 19
coated steel sheet 0,5 mm
9 connection to glazed atrium
precast concrete stair landing
bracket
HE 140 M/B/AA
extra thermal insulation, 40mm, at nodal
joint, stainless steel flashing, 1mm
stainless steel batten, 1mm
interior partition
thermal insulation and steel cladding of
facade column
facade column HE 180 B
prefabricated parapet element
pocketed connection 80 x 80 x 100 mm
of parapet element to column
20 steel plate 150 x 100 x 10 mm
21 non transparent reflective glass with
thermal insulation 30 mm
22 sash window with insulated double gla-
zing and reflective sun protection glass
22 mm
23 double glazing with incorporated reflecti-
ve daylight deflectors 30 mm
24 joint element between glazed facade and
stair case enclosure

Fig. 155 vertical section of facade Fig. 156 horizontal section of insulated facade column; facade column at cross section

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IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 69
Environmental Services
The building makes effective use of
natural light, which not only shines
through the glazed areas of the facade
but is also projected deep into the buil-
ding by reflective lamellas which are
incorporated in double-glazed panels.
The partitions between individual offices
have a continuously glazed toplight and
are almost completely glazed towards
the common area in the centre. Natural
light is also filtered into the building
through glazed surfaces in the roof and
the side walls of the central atrium. It
adds to the light coming in through the
facade and illuminates nearly every
space within the building so well that
there is no need for artificial lighting
during daytime. When artificial lighting is
necessary its intensity can be manipu-
lated individually.
Fig. 157 view from common area towards individual offices
To ensure maximum thermal comfort in
the individual workspace warm water
radiators can be adjusted to individual
comfort by the staff.
Peak temperatures in summer are redu-
ced by water-cooled ceiling convectors.
Air exchange is ensured by central air-
conditioning; in addition there is the
opportunity to make individual use of
the operable windows in each office.
Ceiling mounted noise absorber panels
made of perforated sheet metal with a
mineral wool infill effectively reduce the
ambient noise level. All parts of the
building’s mechanical equipment are
left exposed to express the way the buil-
ding functions. More importantly this
also facilitates maintenance and
Luxembourg
Arbed Headquarter, Esch-sur-Alzette
supplementary installation. In this buil-
ding it becomes clear that thermal and
sound insulation are only two out of
many criteria that determine environ-
mental comfort. To achieve optimum
environmental quality at each workspa-
ce an integrated design solution is
much more important than just to meet
single requirements. This building
demonstrates, quite impressively, that a
modern steel-skeleton building can pro-
vide optimum working conditions even
when compared to a castle which was
the former “residence” of ARBED’s
Headquarters.
69
IMPO CTICM P.1-75 15/11/02 11:31 Page 70

Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen

Multi-Storey Dwellings
“Domus Flandria”
in Mechelen, Belgium

Client
De Mechelse Goedkope Woning

Architect
Projectbureau Signa n.v., Brussel

Civil-Engineer
Bureau d’Etudes C.E. Schwachhofer,
Nivelles

Physics relating to construction

Bureau d’Etudes C.E. Schwachhofer,
Nivelles

Location
Lange Heergracht, Zwartezusterstraat,
Mechelen

Completed
1995-96

Fig. 158 site plan, scale 1:100

In the downtown district of Mechelen

“Domus Flandria”, a local housing asso-
ciation, has constructed 90 apartments
within a complex of three buildings. The
main building facing the Lange
Heergracht contains 50 apartments
while each of the two smaller buildings
contain 20 apartments. The complex fills
Fig. 159 elevation Lange Heergracht, scale 1:500
a vacant site and blends with the exis-
ting streetscape in scale and proportion.
The two smaller apartment buildings are
perpendicular to the main building and
are connected to the Lange Heergracht
by a two storey bridge. While the units in
the main building are laid out in a typi-
cal semi-detached arrangement with
apartments oriented either to the street
or to the inner courtyard, the access to
the two smaller, three storey high build-
ings is through access balconies facing
a common yard. The buildings are
connected by a footbridge. The brick
cladding is perforated by regularly spa-
ced, vertical window openings.
Projecting bay windows in the main
building contribute to the contextual
integration and add rhythm and
proportion to the exterior. Fig. 160 typical floor plan, scale 1:500

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Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen

Fig. 161 elevation towards Lange Heergracht

The distinct appearance of these buil-

dings with their brick facades contri-
butes to the impression of traditional
construction methods. Only on second
sight does it become obvious that these
buildings have a steel skeleton.
There are several advantages to a steel
structure in this type of building:

• quick erection of the load bearing

structure

• prefabricated floors and roof ele-

ments

• standard of quality of all structural

components is independent of on-site
activity

• dry construction methods can be

used for internal partitioning

• maximum use of available space

because construction needs a mini-
mum of floor area

These buildings demonstrate the poten-

tial of a load bearing steel structure in
Fig. 162 interior court yard and access balconies an urban context.

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Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen

Structure

All three buildings have a steel skeleton

with varying spans because of base-
ments and an underground parking
garage with minimal moving space.
Foundation slab, walls, basement floors,
elevator shafts and staircases were
constructed in in situ concrete.

All concrete floor slabs are prestressed,

prefabricated hollow core slabs which
were finished with an in situ topping at
the front and rear facades. All beams
have narrow upper flanges in order to
facilitate the installation of the hollow
core slabs

Columns are made from single or com-

posite steel sections, beams from HEA,
HEB and UPN sections. Vertical bracing
is in between the columns, horizontal
bracing is integrated in the floor zone.

Fire proofing

The local building code requires a

1 hour fire rating for all structural parts
above ground level and a 2 hour rating
for all structural parts below ground
level.
Fig. 163 footbridge and access balconies
In addition all staircases and elevator
shafts have to be divided into indepen-
dent fire compartments by means of
walls, ceilings and structural elements
with a fire rating of 60 minutes or auto-
matically closing doors with a fire rating
of 30 minutes.

1 hall
2 living room
3 kitchen
4 bedroom
5 bathroom
6 toilet
7 access balcony
8 storage

a ventilated outer wall, 300 mm

b separation wall, 220 mm
c separation wall, 210 mm
d partition wall, 100 mm
e partition wall, 75 mm Fig. 164 partial floor plan of three-storey dwelling with access balcony, scale 1:200

72
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Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen

The building’s envelope

The outer walls are designed as a multi-

layer system with a 9 cm masonry outer
shell with a 7 cm ventilated cavity and a
5 cm layer of mineral wool insulation
and a 14 cm inner shell in the plane of
the load bearing steel structure.

The outer shell is fastened to the longi-

tudinal UPN sections at floor height; the
steel skeleton and the outer masonry
layer have an independently built-up
system with a minimum number of
contact- and anchor points in order to
avoid thermal bridges.

The roof is built-up with steel purlins set

between the main steel frames. The pur-
lins support the slate covering with pre-
fabricated roof plates and have an inte-
grated insulation underneath.

1 access terrace
2 baseboard
3 IPE 270
4 fair-faced masonry, clinker, 90 mm
5 ventilated cavity, 20 mm
6 mineral wool, 50 mm (thermal insulation)
7 masonry infill, 140 mm
8 linoleum on anhydrite concrete, 50 mm
9 extruded PE, 5 mm (acoustic insulation)
10 mineral wool, 40 mm (thermal insulation)
11 concrete, cast in place
12 prefabricated hollow core slab, pre-
stressed concrete (200)
13 HEB 280
14 prefabricated hollow core slab, pre-
stressed concrete (250)
15 PUR-insulation, 70 mm
16 EPDM membrane
17 concrete blocks on sand bed

Fig. 165 vertical section of outer wall and access balcony, scale 1:20

73
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Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen

Partition wall, 210 mm

1 fire-protection encasement of under

flange (2 x 12,5 mm gypsum board)
2 acoustical strip
3 cold rolled vertical sections, 2 x 75 mm
4 gypsum board, 2 x 12,5 mm
5 glass-wool insulation 16kg/m3, 45 mm
6 cold rolled horizontal sections,
2 x 75 mm
7 floor beam with narrow upper flange
8 cast in situ concrete, 50 mm
9 hollow core floor slab, 80 mm bearing
surface
10 base board
partition wall, 210 mm 11 impact sound insulation, 15 mm
12 PE-sheet, 0,2 mm
13 screed (floating floor), 50 mm
14 load bearing column, HEM 140

Separation wall, 100 mm

15 cold rolled vertical sections, 50 mm

16 sound insulation, rock wool 80 kg/m3,
50 mm

Separation wall, 75 mm

17 gypsum board, 12,5 mm

18 sound insulation, rock wool 30 kg/m3,
50 mm

partition wall, column

Fig. 166 vertical section of partition wall, partition wall / separation wall 100 mm separation wall 100 mm and 75 mm
210 mm, scale 1:10

Outer wall, 300 mm

19 fair-faced masonry, clinker, 90 mm

20 ventilated cavity, 20 mm
21 PUR insulation, 50 mm (thermal insu-
lation)
22 infilling masonry, 140 mm
23 plaster, 15 mm

Fig. 167 horizontal section (partition wall, separation walls and outer wall), scale 1:10
74
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Belgium
Multi-Storey Dwellings “Domus Flandria”, Mechelen

Sound Insulation

Acoustic and fire safety requirements

for multi-storey dwellings resulted in a
differentiated design for interior walls
and floors. All interior walls are non load
bearing lightweight structures composed
of steel studs with a gypsum board
planking and an infill of mineral wool.

According to their function five types of

walls were designed:

1. Walls with a thickness of 220 mm and

a fire rating of 60 minutes were used
as partition walls between apart-
ments. This type of structure was also
used to encase the vertical parts of
the steel skeleton and to clad the
underside of the beams.

2. 210 mm walls were used for parti-

tions without a fire rating require-
ment.

3. 100 mm walls with a 60 minute fire

rating were used for partitions bet-
ween two rooms in the same apart-
ment that needed acoustic insulation.
Fig. 168 on-site measurement of the sound insulation quality of a partition wall
4. 75 mm walls were used for partitions
within an apartment without fire resis-
tance requirements.

5. 100 mm walls with a doubled up shell

on one side were used as enclosure
for the duct shafts.

All floors are floating floors on acoustic

felting.

Fig. 169 on-site measurement of the sound insulation quality of a partition wall
(measured in the middle of the source room and the receiving room)
75
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Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Main

Commerzbank
Headquarters
in Frankfurt am Main,
Germany

Client
Immobilien Vermietungsgesellschaft
Alpha/Beta Dr. Grubelt - Objekt
Hauptverwaltung Frankfurt AG

Architect
Sir Norman Foster and Partners
Fig. 170 site plan, scale 1:5000
Civil-Engineer
Ove Arup and Partners/ Krebs & Kieferle

Location
Frankfurt am Main

Completed
1997

Fig. 171 sketch of the ventilation concept

The new headquarters for the

Commerzbank in Frankfurt concentrates
the office space formerly distributed in a
number of buildings in Frankfurt, into
one single urban complex.

Foster and Partners won the competi-

tion for this building in 1991. The new
complex which includes offices, apart-
ments, retail, a major new pedestrian
route across the site, an enclosed
public plaza and a new public banking
hall was officially opened in 1997. It
could be completed within three years
because the use of steel as the structural
material for the building allowed exten-
sive prefabrication and minimized site
construction.

The 298.74 m high tower is presently the

tallest European skyscraper and adds a
new landmark to the Frankfurt skyline.

At the base of the tower a glazed atrium

and several low-rise buildings connect
Fig. 172 architect’s sketch to illustrate the view from an internal work space
76
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 77
Commerzbank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Main
Fig. 173 view from the river Main
the tower to the existing 19th century
block structure. The plan layout of this
sixty-two-storey building is based on a
gently curved triangle. Reversing the
idea of the central core, the typical core
functions are placed in the corners of
the building leaving a triangular atrium
space in the centre. This layout has
structural, functional and ecological
advantages. The closed corners of the
building contain the service cores with
lifts, stairs, risers and toilets. Between
the corners there are three functional
zones grouped around the atrium. Two
of these three zones are office spaces
while the third is a winter garden on
each floor. These four-storey winter gar-
dens ascend on an upward spiral
around the atrium providing natural ven-
tilation, views and light to the heart of
the building.
This concept allows each internal office
at the inner face views across the atrium
to one of the gardens and beyond.
Germany
Ecological Concept
One of the main thrusts of the concept
is energy efficiency. Therefore environ-
mental design aspects are the key and
influence structural and functional deci-
sions.
The ecologically sophisticated concept
makes use of the fact that the outside
climate allows natural ventilation throu-
ghout most time of the year. In this
aspect the building doesn’t differ from
any other naturally ventilated building.
The central atrium acts as a huge glazed
air-duct with openings for supply-air
and exhaust-air via the winter gardens.
Air movement is also induced by a
stack-effect within the triangular atrium.
On the outside facades natural ventila-
tion is ensured by operable windows. In
a tower of this height standard operable
windows are impractical. Therefore spe-
cial windows had to be designed which
are shielded by a single wind-breaking
layer of glazing as outer skin.
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Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters Frankfurt am Main

Structure

The structural system combines the

advantages of concrete and steel as
structural materials.

The structure of the tower consists of six

vertical supports. Two at each corner of
the plan. These mega-columns are
composed of steel and concrete to
ensure the necessary stiffness.

In conjunction with the three “legs” the

8-storey high Vierendeel-beams which
alternate with the open 4-storey gar-
dens form a mega-frame with three
large openings to each side. The rigid
Vierendeel-frame shear walls allow a
column-free office space throughout the
building while the floor beams have a
clear span of 16.5 m.
Floor beams and floor slab interact as a
composite structure of concrete and
steel.

This type of structure creates an opti-

mum moment of inertia to counteract
lateral loads because the whole depth
of the plan is utilized to provide stiffness.
Fig. 174 structural system in a partial view (base fo the tower)
Basically the structure is a triangular,
perforated tube with rigid corners and
irregular incisions for the winter gar-
dens.

The dead load of the building, approxi-

mately 180.000 t, is transferred into the
ground by 111 caissons with an average
length of 45m and a diameter of 1.8 m.

Fig. 175 construction stage

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Germany
Commerzank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Main

Fig. 176 typical floor plan, scale 1:1000

Fig. 177 combi-office, scale 1:1000

Fig. 178 open-plan-office, scale 1:1000 Fig. 179 east-west section, scale 1:1000
79
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Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Main
Fig. 180 natural ventilation in summer
Fig. 181 natural vent. on a sunny winter’s day
Fig. 182 natural vent. on a cold winter’s day
80
Thermal insulation
The inner layer of the building’s skin is
thermally insulated and double-glazed.
Louvres at top and bottom of the centre-
hung sash windows connect inner and
outer skin and enable individual control
of natural ventilation. They run around
the outer skin in a band of 1.5 m height.
The centre-pivoted sash windows are
glazed with double layer insulated
glass. A single layer of 8 mm safety
glass, 1400 x 2250 mm, is used for the
transparent part of the outer skin. An
8mm layer of grey enamelled opaque
glass covers the insulated part of the
non-transparent facade in front of the
Vierendeel-beams. This layer covers
the structure and is also part of its fire
proofing. The metal framework of the
glazed winter gardens serves as a low
temperature radiator. The entire load-
bearing structure of these facades is
made from tubular steel which is used to
circulate warm water for heating pur-
poses (integrated facade, Gartner).
Fig. 183 winter garden
Sound insulation
Consisting of two rigid shells of different
stiffness the building’s double layered
envelope performs very well with regard
to sound insulation. Additional mea-
sures are not required.
An insulation capacity of (-18dB) was
achieved with a double layer pane of
safety glass internally equipped with
thin metal strings of 23 µm diameter for
the transparent part and an additional
layer with a defined deflection and
absorption capacity in the opaque part
of the outer skin.
For air-traffic safety a radar-reflection
damper had to be incorporated into the
building’s outer skin above 160 m. For
the same reason all facades of the winter
gardens have a downward inclination of
three degrees.
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 81

Germany
Commerzbank Headquarters, Frankfurt am Man

Fig. 184 typical window

Fig. 185 montage of the facade

1 aluminium opening flap with double gla-

zing (6/14/8 mm)
2 facade cavity: corridor for fresh air
3 6 mm toughened safety glass
4 6 mm screen-printed toughened safety
glass covering to upstand wall on felt
underlay and sheet metal section
5 aluminium extruded section facade rail
6 panel abutment with 12 mm expansion
and construction joint
7 475/1100 mm welded steel Vierendeel
girder with fire-resisting cladding
8 80 mm (50 mm) thermal insulation
9 8 mm toughened safety glass, grey-
enamelled on rear face
10 casement motor
11 aluminium sunscreens louvers, painted
silver-grey with cord runners
12 40 mm metal panel acoustic soffit; used
partly as cooling soffit

Fig. 186 vertical section through floor and upstand wall, scale 1:5

81
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Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm

Housing Complex in a
Residential Neighbour-
hood in Ängelholm,
Sweden

Client
Ängelholmshem

Architect
Pontus Möller Arkitektkontor

Structural Design
Bloco AB

Construction Company
Consortium Wigralbyggarna

Wall-and Decking System

Lindab Profil AB / Danogips AB

Location
Storgatan, Ängelholm, Sweden

Completed
1996

This five storey residential building with

structural frame, flooring system and
stud walling made entirely from light
gauge steel has been designed and
built in the centre of Ängelholm in south
west Sweden. The site is beautifully
located on the banks of the Rönne River
and is part of a larger residential deve- Fig. 187 site plan, scale 1:1000
lopment. The other structures of the
development were constructed using in
situ concrete, enabling a direct compa-
rison between the steel and concrete
framing systems. This comparison deci-
sively proved the superiority of the steel
frame alternative.

The building has five apartment floors

with two units per floor. The first three
floors consist of one-bedroom units
only. On the top floor there are two-
bedroom attic flats with mezzanine
floors.
Fig. 188 ground floor, scale 1:300 Fig. 189 first floor, scale 1:300
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Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood , Ängelholm

Fig. 190 view from River Rönne

Fig. 191 second floor, scale 1:300 Fig. 192 third floor, scale 1:300 Fig. 193 attic floor, scale 1:300
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Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm

Structure

The building’s primary structure is a

steel frame. The columns are rectangular
hollow sections and the joists consist of
I-sections. The structure is braced by
additional diagonal members built into
the wall. The structural frame supports a
lightweight flooring system made up of
loadbearing C-joists 250 mm deep with
a 2,5 mm sheet gauge, corrugated sheet
metal and two layers of floor quality
gypsum boarding on the upper side and
a suspended ceiling of two layers of
gypsum board hung from the acousti-
cally insulated purlin. The total floor
thickness is 381 mm. The flooring frame
was assembled on the site and hoisted
into position using the site crane.

The exterior walls were designed as

lightweight non-loadbearing frames of
light gauge steel with an outer mineral
wool board of 50 mm and 150 mm
mineral wool between the steel studs.
The wall frames were assembled on site
and hoisted into place using the site
crane.

Fig. 194a perspective view of steel-structure

Fig. 194b assembly of the steel structure

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Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm

Outer Walls Floor

1 120 mm brick work 10 2x13 floor quality gypsum board

2 37 mm ventilated cavity 11 20 mm profiled sheet metal
3 50 mm mineral wool 12 250 mm flooring elements with purlin C
4 150 mm facade element in light gauge 250-2,5
steel + mineral wool insulation 13 30 mm sound absorber clip + mineral
5 0,2 mm vapour barrier wool insulation
6 13 mm gypsum board 14 25 mm secondary profile type S25
15 2 x 13 ceiling quality gypsum board
16 IPE 300
Partition Wall 17 H 100x100 mm
18 IPE 240
7 2 x 13 gypsum board
8 70 mm Danoiq-stud + 50 mm insulation
9 20 mm cavity Fig. 195 slotted steel girder, external wall

Fig. 196 vertical (cross- and longitudinal) sections: floors, partition wall and outer walls, scale 1:20
85
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Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm

Sound insulation

There are high standards for airborne

and impact sound insulation in modern
residential construction. These stan-
dards are easily met with light-gauge
steel profiles for flooring and light-
gauge steel studded wall systems, both
with gypsum boarding.
1 2x13 Floor quality gypsum board
In order to achieve a high level of sound 2 20 mm profiled sheet metal
insulation the flooring system must be 3 250 mm flooring elements with purlin C
250-2,5
designed as two independent struc- 4 30 mm sound absorber clip + mineral
tures. The disconnected ceiling structure wool insulation
of C-joists and gypsum boards has 5 25 mm secondary profile type S25
been suspended by using a special 6 2 x 13 ceiling quality gypsum board Fig. 197 floor
acoustically insulated joist made of
light-gauge steel which creates a
flexible (energy absorbing) connection
to the loadbearing structure of the floor
system (see Fig. 197). This design
results in an airborne sound insulation
level (R’w) of approximately 60-62 dB
and an impact sound insulation level of
(L’n,w) of approximately 51-54 dB.

The partition walls between flats were

designed with two separate steel stud
frames with a cavity between (see Fig. 1 2 x 13 gypsum board
2 70 mm Danoiq-stud + 50 mm insulation
198). The wider the cavity, the better the 3 10 mm cavity
sound insulation. The space between 4 70 mm Danoiq-stud + 50 mm insulation
the studs was filled with mineral wool 5 2 x 13 gypsum board Fig. 198 interior partition
insulation. Two layers of gypsum board
on each side were sufficient to meet
sound insulation requirements. A third
gypsum board would further improve
sound insulation. A structural column
built into the wall does not affect the
sound insulation. Figure 195 shows the
wall construction used in this project.
The airborne sound insulation value was
approximately (R’w) 60 dB.

The interior stud walling was designed

using a new type of stud in expanded
sheet metal, the Danogips Danoiq wall
system. The idea behind this new design
is to simplify the connection of the gyp-
sum board to the stud. The perforation
in the expanded metal simplifies the fas-
tening of the screws to the flange of the
stud. A further advantage is that the
sound insulation value of the stud is
improved by the small slits in its web.

Fig. 199 standardized weighted level difference R’w of a floor between two apartments
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Sweden
Housing Complex in a Residential Neighbourhood, Ängelholm

Thermal insulation

By building well insulated exterior walls

it is possible to save considerable
amounts of energy in the building’s life.
This is of considerable economic
consequence since the investment in
thermal insulation leads to an immediate
return in the form of reduced heating
costs. Well insulated exterior walls have
a significant environmental impact. In a
life cycle analysis for a building, the
energy consumption for domestic heating
is a major factor. The high degree of Fig. 200 economical insulation
thermal insulation in this project has
been achieved, partly by using a total of
200 mm of mineral wool, partly by using
a special slit-web light gauge metal
stud. By slitting the web of the section
the heat-flow path through the stud has
been greatly increased, thereby consi-
derably reducing the thermal bridge
effect. In this project non-load bearing
steel studs with a sheet thickness of 0,7
mm have been used. The heat flow
through each of these sections is 0,02
W/mK, which is better than the equiva-
lent timber stud. The heat loss is further Fig. 201 deviation of heat flow in a slit-web stud Fig. 202 slit-web light gauge metal studs
reduced by an exterior insulation layer
of 50 mm of mineral wool.

thickness of the outer insulation layer

Fig. 203 correlation between total U-value for outer wall and thickness of insulation layer
87
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Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge

Office Building in
St. John’s Innovation
Park in Cambridge,
Great Britain
1 raised planting bed
2 meeting room
3 open plan office
Client 4 office
St John’s College Cambridge 5 plant
6 entrance hall
Architect 7 kitchen
R H Partnership 8 future restaurant
9 sub-lettable space

Civil-Engineer
Hannah, Reed and Associates Fig. 204 site plan, scale 1:10000

Physics relating to construction

Battle McCarthy, Cambridge Archi-
tectural Research Hansen Carlsen
Froulund and Bristol University Aero-
nautical research

Location
St John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge,
England

Completed
1995

Fig. 205 ground floor, scale 1:1000

The Ionica Office Building is sited on

St.John’s innovation park facing the
interchange of the motorway to
Newmarket and the Milton road approach
to Cambridge. The building is
north-south orientated with a generous-
ly glazed facade to the south. The
convex north facade facing the road is
masonry clad and appears rather clo-
sed. The project extends the existing Fig. 206 first floor, scale 1:1000
infrastructure of the park with a perime-
ter road and car parking in the north
and a pedestrianised planted central
park area facing the existing water fea-
ture and sunken rose gardens. St.
John’s innovation park was first concei-
ved in 1984 as a facility to encourage
and develop technology transfer from
academic research to commercial
exploitation. As the most recent
development in the park the Ionica buil-
ding was completed in 1995 as a tech-
nology centre for telecommunication.
The scope was developed by Ionica and
St. John’s college.
Fig. 207 second floor, scale 1:1000
88
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 89
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge
Fig. 208 south elevation
Fig. 209 cross section, scale 1:1000
Fig. 210 longitudinal section, scale 1:1000
Great Britain
For their new headquarters Ionica
didn’t want a hermetically sealed air-
conditioned box but a high quality
working environment with the ability for
individual users to control their work
spaces. The project brief comprises
some 4000 square meters which include
a boardroom, offices, a restaurant,
crèche and ancillary facilities. To encou-
rage communication between staff an
open work space was conceived with
glass partitions where necessary to
maintain visual continuity.
Computer screens at almost every work
space required careful glare control
and a high degree of diffused natural
daylight within the building. Certain
areas functioning continuously for
24 hours needed special lighting,
heating and ventilation systems.
Communications systems also required
uninterrupted power supply backed up
by a standby generator as well as a
23m high radio mast which supports
microwave dishes.
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IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 90

Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge

Structure

A four storey braced steel frame is the

load bearing structure of the building.
Slimfloor beams support precast
concrete floor and roof slabs with an in
situ concrete topping. The beams and
concrete floor units act together compo-
sitely to form a diaphragm which distri-
butes the horizontal loads to braced
frames within the service cores at the
centre and either end of the building.
Thus the south elevation could be fully
glazed and is unobstructed by any bra-
cing. The curved north elevation and
open plan concept of the building
required structural columns to be
arranged on overlapping rectangular
and radial grids. Generally spans are up
to 9 metres for the steel beams and
precast floor units. To achieve a visually
clean soffit and to avoid interruptions in
the densely serviced floor voids Slimflor
beams were selected. The primary floor
beams are 254x254x132 UC sections
which act compositely with the structural
topping with 470x15 soffit plates sup-
porting precast floor units. Since all but
the soffit of the primary steel members
are contained within the concrete floor
there is an inherent fire rating of 1 hour.
Specification of the surface quality and Fig. 211 steel frame precast erection, concrete pump topping to floor slabs
dimensional regularity of the units
resulted in a surface ready for decorating
with only minimal making good on site.

Fig. 212 typical slimflor beam/column connection

90
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Environmental Objectives
The primary design objective was to
provide an office of high environmental
quality and comfort without expending
the excessive amounts of energy asso-
ciated with an air conditioned office. The
main aims of the design were to create
a building that:
• offset the problem of urban devel-
opment without sealing the building
• allowed maximum use of daylight
whilst ensuring minimal increase of
heat gain in summer or loss in winter.
• ensured maximum use of the building
mass to store or reject heat, to provide
a means of cooling and heating.
• maximises the use of free cooling and
natural resources.
• achieves comfortable internal space
temperatures in summer, which could
not be achieved in a comparable
sealed building without the use of
mechanical refrigeration.
• maintains a high level of air quality
throughout the year without excessive
heat loss
• maximises occupant control of per-
sonal environment
• uses simple and proven technologies
in an innovative way.
Comfort is achieved by a balance of air
quality, the thermal, visual and acoustic
environments, whilst satisfying the
needs for personal control. The traditional
office comfort criterion was reassessed
with a summer maximum of 27°C being
set enabling windows to be opened.
The completion of specialist daylight,
thermal, airflow and acoustic analysis
together with wind tunnel performance
testing of the wind towers, were major
design activities.
Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge
The design of environmental
services
The building incorporates five main
environmental components that signifi-
cantly reduce energy consumption
when compared to a similar air condi-
tioned office building.
1. Interactive Facade
The building facades play a vital role in
moderating the external climate.
Designed as environmental filters, they
allow the environmental systems and
occupants to take advantage of the
moderate external conditions. Fig. 213 the interactive facade (south)
The facade has the following functions: 1 glare control
2 solar control
• External shading reduces glare and
solar gain during mid-season and
summer (south only)
• Internal blinds allow occupant control
over daylight levels and solar pene-
tration especially during periods of
low angle sun.
• Opening windows with automatic
openings provide night time ventila-
tion (south only)
• Provides a high degree of daylight
reducing the need for artificial light.
A well insulated construction with low
E glazing minimises winter heat loss.
• Provides good views.
2. Central Atrium and Wind Towers
The central atrium reduces the effective
deep plan office depth, increasing day-
light levels, permitting natural cross
ventilation during most of the year. Wind
towers at the top of the atrium ensure
a constant flow direction of cross-
ventilation and a high degree of control-
lability during high winds. A shading
system at the top of the atrium gives the
offices protection from direct sunlight
and an even distribution of daylight.
During summer and mid-season the
heat trapped in this area enhances
stack effect ventilation. In winter the
passive solar gain can be used to preheat
the incoming fresh air via a thermal
wheel.
Fig. 214 south facade with sunshading
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Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge

3. Ventilated hollow core slabs and

low level air supply
The offices are naturally ventilated uti-
lising the atrium and wind towers to
drive cross ventilation. However, during
winter and mid-summer a low level
mechanical ventilation system will be
used to control ventilation giving good
air quality. Four identical air handling
units each serve an office zone. Each
plant incorporates a thermal wheel for
high and low temperature recovery, an
evaporative cooler for “virtually free”
natural cooling and an electrically driven
heat pump for cost-effective heat pro- Fig. 215 daylight factors section
duction in winter.
Fresh air is distributed through a net-
work of under-floor ductwork to the
hollow core floor slabs, flowing
through a pressurised floor plenum
before emerging into the occupied
space via a series of displacement
ventilation terminals. Air is exhausted
either through the atrium in the south
zones or a central corridor section in
the north zones where there is a need
for cellular accommodation.

The approach offers the following

advantages:

• Guaranteed minimum level of ventila- Fig. 216 ventilation strategies

tion day and night.
• Access to the centre of the hollow
core slabs, giving improved thermal
storage properties.
• Greater degree of controllability over
the use of thermal store.
• Ability to pre-cool the structure
mechanically by night, using off-peak
electricity or by day using indirect
evaporative cooling.
• Lower ventilation requirements and
better comfort by using air and
radiant temperature control.
• A higher air supply temperature
allows free cooling to be maximised, Fig. 217 interior climate in an office
enabling windows to be opened at
any time without increasing energy
use. Fig. 216: Fig. 217:
1 weather station constantly monitors 1 winter sun can enter and warm internal
• Controlled winter ventilation. climate and allows control of ventilation space
• No requirement for a false ceiling with and temperature 2 effective shading from overhang
increased floor to ceiling height. 2 solar energy enhances stack effect 3 supply air duct
ventilation 4 outlet from slab into floor void
3 prevailing winds assist natural 5 low velocity outlet in floor
ventilation 6 150 mm connector through screed
4 shading system provides protection 7 power data outlet boxes in floor
from sunlight ensuring good daylight 8 air passes through hollow core slab
penetration 9 propriatry flooring system with air seal
5 south side naturally ventilated 10 radiant cooling from slab
6 cool slab maintains thermal mass 11 connective gains from people and
7 cellular offices in north zone have equipment
separate supply and extract 12 extract drawn by stack effect through
8 open plan areas an north side can rely atrium
on natural ventilation
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Great Britain
Office Building in St. John’s Innovation Park, Cambridge

4. Energy strategy
Although the building is intended to be
naturally ventilated for most of the year,
an energy strategy has evolved to take
advantage of the seasons.

Winter day: perimeter heating, mecha-

nical ventilation and heat recovery

Winter night: redistribution of stored

heat in slabs (thermal store)

Mid-season day: stack and wind

assisted cross ventilation

Mid-season night: passive and

mechanical night-time cooling

Summer day: mechanical ventilation,

heat recovery with evaporative cooling

Summer night: as mid-seasons night

with evaporative cooling

5. Performance monitoring
Performance monitoring during the first
year should show a predicted energy
use saving of 103 kWh/m2a, a saving of
46% on a good standard air conditioned
building. Full commissioning will also
take a year due to seasonal changes.

Fig. 218

1 350 x 350 cm terne-coated as sump 12 acoustic panel

and rainwater outlet
2 terne-coated stainless steel roof
covering with standing seams and
herringbone valleys
3 canopy shown raised for clarity
4 seating for canopy support structure
5 access door from walkway
6 82 mm UPVC rwp
7 10 mm ( ms tie-rods as cross-bracing
8 terne-coated ss coping birdproof nylon
mesh omitted for clarity
9 terne-coated ss cladding with coulis-
seau joints
10 hinged ms safety grille
11 automatically operated painted ply
solid-core doors
13 13 mm plasterboard and skim on ms
studwork forming curved atrium wall
14 polyester powder coated aluminium
louvres to reduce solar gain
15 150 mm mineral fibre insulation on 150
mm precast planks supported by steel
structure
16 ventilation void
17 treated sw rafters with 18 mm WBP ply
deck clad with terne-coated ss sheet on
geotextile
18 slot allowing drainage from interior of
wind tower
19 82 mm UPVC rwp draining on the roof
20 wind path
21 self-supported pitched rooflight
93
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Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Reseach, Leiden

Centre for Human Drug

Research in Leiden,
Netherlands

Client
Centre for Human Drug Research

Architect
CEPEZED, Delft

Civil-Engineer:
ECCS bv, Hoofdoorp
Fig. 219 site plan, scale 1:2000

Physics relating to construction

R.I.B. bv, Raadgevend Ingenieursbureau
Boonstoppel, Nijmegen

Location
Leiden, Netherlands

Completed Fig. 220 west elevation, scale 1:500

1995

The Centre for Human Drug Research in Fig. 221 longitudinal section, scale 1:500
Leiden was founded in 1988. At the
beginning of the planning process for a
research building for this new firm the
scope was somewhat indeterminate
because present activities and future
development of this young and evolving
company were subject to constant
change. One of the key issues of the
design was to provide maximum flexibi-
lity and offer potential for future expan-
sion. Furthermore the building should
provide a stimulating environment for its
occupants. The Dutch standard layout
for an office building based on a grid of
5.4 x 1.8 x 5.4 m was proved to be Fig. 222 ground floor, scale 1:500
unsuitable in this case. Instead an
asymmetric grid with a 7.4 m span for
office spaces and a 9.2 m span for labo-
ratories, examination rooms and confe-
rence rooms was developed. The local
zoning plan required a minimum building
height of 10 m above ground level. This
led to a three-storey design solution.
The ground floor includes the reception
area, administration, the central computer
space, archives and a cafeteria. The first
and second floor are reserved for the
laboratories, scientist’s offices and
assorted facilities.
Fig. 223 second floor, scale 1:500
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Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden

Fig. 224 view on the private garden, terrace and balconies between the two screens at the south

Design concept

The integration of functional and struc-
tural aspects in the design process led
to a unique structural solution that is a
true expression of the design priorities
which were maximum flexibility, possibi-
lity of future expansion, cost efficiency
and a minimum use of mechanical
conditioning systems.
The screens weren’t designed purely for
aesthetic reasons, they clearly have a
practical use as part of the building’s
loadbearing structure and envelope and
as a fire escape. They also shield the
building against solar radiation and
wind.

The appearance of the Centre for

Human Drug Research is dominated by
two large screen-structures which frame
the building on the east and the west
side. Architecturally these screens lend
a strong north south direction to the
building and define a private garden
area to the south and open up the
building to the entrance side on the
north. They also define space for future
expansion.

Fig. 225 screen structure

95
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 96
Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden
Structure
The vertical supports of the 2 m wide
screens are spaced on a regular grid of
3.6 m. Most of the building’s lateral
bracing is part of this screen structure.
In the enclosed part of the building the
structural grid of 3.6 m is continued. The
20.2 m wide space between the screens
is subdivided in three bays: 9.2 m in the
west, 3.6 m in the middle and 7.4 m in
the east. All floor and roof slabs are
braced to distribute horizontal loads to
the rigid screen structure.
Since most of the lateral bracing is inte-
grated in the screen elements additional
diagonal cross bracing was necessary
only in one bay in the middle. Of course
this is very important to achieve maxi-
mum flexibility.
96
Fire proofing
The special lay-out of the building with
easy access to fire escapes on each
floor made it possible to leave the load
bearing steel skeleton exposed. Only
the internal hollow core columns needed
a concrete infill to enhance their fire
resistance. The two screen elements
serve as fire escape with associated
escape stairs on each side.
Fire load is considered to be relatively
low and no extra precautions were
required for fire safety. The fire safety
concept is based on a fire rating of 30
minutes.
Fig. 226 screens serve as fire escape
Fig. 227 perspective view of the load-bearing structure
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:36 Page 97
The building’s envelope
The building’s envelope consists of the
roof and the foundation slab with
concrete piles as horizontal elements.
The north and south facades are
enclosed in a single-layer structure, the
east and west facades are completely
glazed with a multi-layer structure.
The outer layer of the building’s envelope
in the east and west consists of a perfo-
rated metal sheet which is mounted
onto the screen structure. This layer
appears almost transparent.
The escape balconies, decked with
grating, act as additional sun shading
for the completely glazed inner layer of
the east and west facade. It consists of
1.8 m wide sliding glass panels.
Fig. 231 cross section, scale 1:100
Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden
Above each sliding element there are
closed panels with fixed louvres on the
outside face. If necessary fan-coil units
for air intake can be installed in place of
these panels to improve air supply
mechanically. The central hall and the
elevator shaft are used as natural draft
air ducts for exhaust air.
Most parts of the facades in the north
and the south are closed with metal
panels. The glazed middle strip in the Fig. 228 detail A, scale 1:20
south is shielded by projecting horizontal
sun shades. On the first and second
floor there are balconies laid out with
grating. These balconies provide addi-
tional sun protection.
Fig. 229 detail B, scale 1:20
Fig. 230 detail C, scale 1:20
1 PVC membrane
2 sandwich panel
3 thermal insulation (PS) 80-180 mm
4 concrete floor 200 mm, prestressed
5 L 150 x 15
6 UNP 220
7 rectangular section profile 70 x 2,9 mm
8 facade profile, 120 mm
9 anhydrite screed 40-80mm
10 steel junction plate 400 x 200 mm
11 rectangular section profile 100 x100mm
12 UNP 280
13 cross bridging 70x70 mm
14 thermal insulation (PS) 80 mm
15 concrete floor 170 mm
16 steel grating
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Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden

Environmental Control
Heat requirement calculation
In order to reduce air conditioning
which is usually standard in this type of
Prerequisits
building a new approach was chosen to
achieve the required flexibility and to net floor area 1158 m2
stay within the limits of the budget. gross floor area 1287 m2
mass of construction 100-400 kg/m2
Due to today’s improved insulation
room temperature 20°C
standards heat loss in winter is not the
U-value (K-factor) 0.65 W/m2K
major challenge of climate control any
more. In summer and the transition building surface 1738 m2
periods internal heat sources such as volume mechanical fresh air 2130 m3/h
machines, computers, artificial lighting internal heat load machines 10.00 W/m2
and the occupants themselves cause lighting 8.00 W/m2
excess heat which has to be removed. occupants 5.00 W/m3
One possibility to cut down internal heat radiant heat surface area shadow solar gain
gain is to reduce artificial lighting. As a [m2] factor value
consequence daylight supply was maxi- north side 76.4 1.00 0.70
mised through large areas of glass on east side 157.0 0.85 0.35
the east and west facades. Glazed south side 50.4 0.40 0.70
facades without proper sun protection west side 157.0 0.85 0.35
however lead to tremendous solar heat
gains that ruin the room climate. Insulation quality of the building’s enveloppe
Therefore the quality of sun protection
is crucial for human comfort. Perforated total transmission heating demand 316401 MJ
steel sheets on the outside of the
total ventilation heating demand + 333846 MJ
screen structure act as a filter against
= 650247 MJ
solar radiation and screen out 50% of
internal and solar heat gains – 154099 MJ
the radiated energy even in the most
adverse case of a sun angle nearly per- = 496148 MJ
pendicular to the facade. For all other system efficiency + 80%
angles the performance is even better. total heat demand = 620185 MJ
perspective gas consumption 17688 m3
The unconventional concept of the
Centre for Human Drug Research not Power consumption caused by conditioning systems
only provides comfortable climatic
conditions for its occupants. It also uses ventilation 7101 kWh
steel as a structural material to provide central heating 1390 kWh
open space for maximum freedom cooling 6000 kWh
within the load bearing structure. A total 14490 kWh
sense of spaciousness characterises
this building and conveys an architectural Power consumption caused by lighting and other mechanical systems
expression which is adequate for a
contemporary steel skeleton building. lighting 34740 kWh

Prospective energy consumption,

a) total consumption
total gas consumption p.a. 17668 m3
total power consumption p.a. 49230 kWh

b) consumption per m2 BVO

total gas consumption p.a. 17668 m3/aeq
total power consumption p.a. + 5049 m3/aeq
= 22716 m3/aeq
total energy consumption per m2 BVO 17.65 m3/aeq

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Netherlands
Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden

Calculation of thermal insulation index (lt)

orientation outer wall building surface A Thermal resistance values U-value weeg- a.A.U
components [m2K/W] factor

[m2] Rc Ro Rt [W/m2K] [W/K]

north glazed parts 168.35 0.46 0.17 0.63 1.59 1.00 267.22
closed parts 79.97 2.50 0.17 2.67 0.37 1.00 29.95
east glazed parts 157.68 0.46 0.17 0.63 1.59 1.00 250.29
closed parts 43.20 2.50 0.17 2.67 0.37 1.00 16.18
south glazed parts 190.55 0.46 0.17 0.63 1.59 1.00 267.22
west glazed parts 157.05 0.46 0.17 0.63 1.59 1.00 249.29
glazed parts 43.20 2.50 0.17 2.67 0.37 1.00 16.18
horizontal roof 460.40 3.23 0.17 3.40 0.29 1.00 135.41
foundation slab 483.20 2.50 0.26 2.76 0.36 0.73 127.80
Total 1783.60 1394.78

Total surface A0 1783.60 m2

average K-value K 0,78 W/m2K
gross volume V 4200 m3

Thermal insulation index (lt) 13.52 lt = 14

Fig. 232 partial view on the east facade

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Sound Insulation
Physical Symbols and Units

Physical Symbols and

Units

A surface area [m2]

d thickness [m]

t time [s]

Thermal Insulation Moisture Proofing Sound Insulation

a thermal diffusivity [m2/s]
b thermal intrusion [J/s √m2K]
c specific thermal capacity [J/kgK]
G amount of water migrated by
diffusion [kg]
kD specific vapour diffusion coeffi-
cient of element [kg/m2hPa]
θ sound absorption factor [0-1]
D level difference [dB]
D nT
weighted level difference [dB]

h heat transfer coefficient of building I amount of water migrated by DnT,w standardised weighted level
element’s surface diffusion per hour [kg/s] difference [dB]
[W/m2K]
µ diffusion resistance factor f frequency [Hz = Hertz]
λ thermal conductivity of building
material [W/mK] ϕ relative humidity [0-1 or %] fgr coincidence frequency [Hz]

ρ density [kg/m3] p partial vapour pressure [Pa] L impact sound pressure level
[dB]
q density of heat flow [W/m2] ps saturated vapour pressure [Pa]
L n. normalised impact sound pres-
Q amount of thermal energy [Ws] s diffusion equivalent air-layer [m] sure level [dB]

Qs heat storage capacity [J/m2] θs dewpoint temperature [°C] L’nT standardised impact sound
pressure level [dB]
R thermal resistance [m2K/W] v absolute humidity [g/m3]
R sound reduction index [dB]
θ temperature [°C] vs amount of vapour necessary
to reach saturation [g/m3] R’w standardised weighted sound
∆θ temperature difference [K] reduction index [dB]
Z vapour diffusion resistance
U (“U-value”) Thermal transmit- [m2hPa/kg] sound level [dB = Decibel]
tance [W/m2K]
A-sound level [dB(A)]

T60 reverberation time

100
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Appendix
Technical Standards and Building Codes
Appendix
Technical Standards and Building Literature
Codes
Books
1] Achtziger, Buchmeier, Casselmann,
Halfkann: Elementiertes Bauen in
Stahl - Bauphysikalische Aspekte
im Geschoß- und Hallenbau.
Referate der Fachsitzung IV -
Deutscher Stahlbautag 1982.
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2] Andersson, Hamrebjörk, Miettinen,
Saarni, Salonen, Sandberg: Att
bygga bostäder med stal.
Stalbyggnadsinstitutet (Swedish
Institute of Steel Construction),
1995.
3] Brandt, J.und Moritz, H.: Bauphysik
nach Maß. Schriftenreihe der
Bauberatung Zement. Hrsg.
Bundesverband der Deutschen
Zementindustrie, Köln. Beton-
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4] ECCS : European Recommen-
dations für Sound Insulation of
Steel Construction in Multi-Storey
Buildings. First Edition. Brussels,
1990.
5] Glässel, J. Städtische Sonnen-
räume. Karlsruhe, 1985.
6] Gösele, K. und Schüle, W.: Schall -
Wärme - Feuchte. Bauverlag,
Wiesbaden-Berlin, 1985.
7] Grimm, F. und Richarz, C.:
Hinterlüftete Fassaden - Fenstertechnik e.V., Rosenheim,
Konstruktionen vorgehängter hin-
terlüfteter Fassaden aus
Faserzement. Karl Krämer Verlag,
Stuttgart + Zürich, 1994.
8] Hitchcock, H. R. und Danz, E.:
Architektur von Skidmore, Owings
& Merrill, 1950 - 1962. Verlag Gerd
Hatje, Stuttgart, 1962.
9] Ernst Neufert: Bauentwurfslehre.
F. Vieweg & Sohn, 1980.
10] Ramsey/Sleeper: Architectural
Graphic Standards. The American
Institute of Architects, 1994.
11] Saxon, R.: Atrium Buildings -
Development and Design. Publ. by
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
BAS Printers Limited, 1983.
12] Steffan u.a. (Hrsg.) Solararchitektur.
Akademie d.B.K., München, 1988.
13] The Steel Construction Institute:
Building Design using Cold Formed
Steel Sections: Acoustic Insulation,
Ascot, Berks, 1993.
Booklets and Essays
1] Arbeitsgruppe Stahlhochbau:
Schallschutz im Stahlhochbau
Österreichischer Stahlbauverband.
2] Bartenbach, C.: Neue Tages-
lichtkonzepte. Sonderdruck aus
TAB 4/1986.
3] Behr, E.-U.: Die Gebäudehülle und
ihr Einfluß auf Energieverbrauch
und Behaglichkeit. München, 1991.
4] Böhm, F. und Heberle, M.: Variable
Fassaden.
5] Brandstetter, Dipl-Ing. K.: DIN
18000 “Modulordnung im
Bauwesen” Erläuterungen zur
Norm. DAB 18/74.
6] Froelich, Dipl.-Ing. H., Hepp, Dipl-
Ing. B., Löffel, G., Schmid, Dipl.-Ing.
J: Konstruktionsmerkmale für
Fenster. Fenster und Fassade.
Forschungsbericht des Instituts für
1986.
7] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K. und Erhorn,
Dipl.-Ing. H.: Wohnfeuchte und
Wärmebrücken. Sonderdruck aus
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8] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K. und
Soergel, C.: Tauwasserbildung in
Außenwandecken - Kritische bau-
physikalische und rechtliche
Anmerkungen zu einem Urteil des
Oberlandesgerichts Hamm. DAB
10/83.
101
IM CTI P76/FIN 15/11/02 11:37 Page 102
9] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K.: Jetzt:
Wärmebrücken im Kreuzfeuer?
BAUPHYSIK, Sonderdruck aus 4
(1982), Heft 4, Verlag Wilhelm Ernst
& Sohn, Hohenzollerndamm, 1982.
10] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K.: Passive
Solarenergienutzung - Umsetzung
von Forschungserkenntnissen in
den praktischen Gebäudeentwurf.
BAUPHYSIK, Sonderdruck aus 5
(1983), Heft 6, Verlag Wilhelm Ernst
& Sohn, Hohenzollerndamm, 1983.
11] Gertis, Prof. Dr.-Ing. K.: Zehn Jahre
Energieeinsparung im Hochbau -
Können wir zufrieden sein?. wksb
(31), Heft 20, Grünzweig +
Hartmann und Glasfaser AG,
Ludwigshafen, 1986.
12] Grimm, F.: Klimahüllen. Der
Architekt 8/94.
13] Grimm, F.: Metallfassaden. DETAIL
3/93.
14] Hass, Dr. R.: Schallschutz. From
“Stahlbau im Detail”, Hrsg. F.
Grimm. WEKA-Verlag, Stuttgart.
15] Hegger, M.: Energie und
Architektur - Auswirkungen des
energiesparenden und solaren
Bauens auf die Baugestalt. Vortrag
im Seminar 2023 “Minimal-
Energie-Architektur” der Umwel-
takademie Oberpfaffenhofen, Mai
93.
16] Heinemann, Prof. Dr. H. D.:
Stahltrapezprofile DIN 18807 -
Entwicklung - Stand der heutigen
Technik - Zukunftsperspektiven.
DBZ 6/92.
17] Helmle, J.: Tageslicht und
Sonnenschutz. DAB 2/94.
18] Hullmann, Dr.-Ing. H. und Pfeiffer,
Dipl.-Ing. M.: Fassaden mit
Stahlbauteilen. DBZ 4/90.
19] Köster, H.: Neues
Energiemanagement in der
Fassade. DAB 3/90.
20] Informationsschrift der Fa. Josef
Gartner & Co., Gundelfingen:
Amplitudendämpfung und
Zeitverschiebung.
102
Appendixc
Technical Standards and Building Codes
21] Krahmer, R.: Konzepte zur rationel-
len Wärme- / Kälteerzeugung in
Gebäuden mit Tagesnutzung.
Vortrag anläßl. des Seminars 2023,
Minimal-Energie-Architektur, der
Umweltakademie Oberpfaffenhofen,
Mai 93.
22] Krings, E.: Ausführung und Kosten
verschiedener Wärmeschutzmaß-
nahmen bei der Altbaumoder-
nisierung. DAB 8/89.
23] Merkblatt Stahl 259: Korros-
ionsschutz im Stahlbau.
24] Molitor, Dr.-Ing. K.: Minimierung
von Energiebedarf durch Integrierte
Gebäudesimulation. Frechen.
25] Österreichischer Stahlbauverband,
Wien: Bau-Biologie und Bau-
Ökologie im Stahlhochbau.
26] Oswalt, P.: Licht, Luft, Sonne.
ARCH+ 114/115.
27] Pohl, Dr.-Ing. R.: Metalldeckungen -
auch als Warmdächer eine sichere
Sache. DBZ 3/93.
28] Pohlenz, R.: Bauen mit Stahl - Die
neue Leicht(sinn)igkeit - Gestalten
mit Stahl ohne Kältebrücken
unmöglich? DAB 11/91.
29] Pohlenz, R.: Stahlgeschoßbau -
Konstruktion und Bauphysik.
30] Pohlenz, R.: Wärmebrücken.
31] RSB Rheiner Stahlbau GmbH: Der
thermisch-getrennte Stoß. Bau-
system zur Vermeidung von
Feuchtschäden.
32] Schwarz, R.: Bleche - ein †berblick.
Der Architekt 9/1989.
33] Steffan, C.: Die Gebäudehülle als
kybernetisches System Vortrag im
Seminar 2023 “Minimal-Energie-
Architektur” der Umweltakademie
Oberpfaffenhofen, Mai `93.
34] Seidlein, P.: Glas und / oder
Energiesparen? Referat anläßlich
eines VDI-Seminars in Stuttgart.
glasforum 2/83.
35] Taus,M.: Schallschutz im Stahl-
hochbau. 5. Entwurf 12/ 1994.
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Appendix
Figures

Figures

Title: Southwest-view Langenthal Fig. 21: Diagram Fig. 41: Airborne sound
Photo: Sacha Geiser Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after
Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle
Fig. 1: Painting by Christopher Fig. 22: Table Fig. 42: Impact sound
Vilhelm Eckersberg Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 2: Bourgeois-Residenz Rue Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle
Réaumur, Paris Fig. 23: University of Lüneburg, Mensa Fig. 43: Flanking sound
Photo: F. Grimm Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 3: Mies van der Rohe, Lakeshore Fig. 24: Diagram Gösele / Schüle
Drive Appartments 860/880 Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 44: Airborne sound insulation
Photo: F. Grimm, Gösele / Schüle Illustration: F. Grimm after
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 25: Diagram Gösele / Schüle
Fig. 4: Lever-Building, New York Illustration: F. Grimm after Prof. Fig. 45: Calculation of DnT,w
Photo: F. Grimm Karl Gertis Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 5: Detail Lever-Building Fig. 26: Diagram Gösele / Schüle
Drawing: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm Prof. Karl Fig. 46: Tolerable noise levels
Fig. 6: Lever-Building, New York Gertis Illustration: F. Grimm after
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 27: VdAK Siegburg Gösele / Schüle
Fig. 7: University of Magdeburg, Otto Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 47: Noise level - Rw
van Guericke Institute Fig. 28: Single-layered metal panel Illustration: F. Grimm after
Photo: Werkfoto Gartner system, Gösele / Schüle
Fig. 8: University of Bonn, Detail Fig. 48: Required sound insulation
Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Drawing: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 9: Diagram Fig. 29: Centre de Television, Luxem- Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after burg - Kirchberg Fig. 49: Weighted sound reduction
Gösele / Schüle Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 10: Diagram Fig. 30: Multi-layered metal cladding Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after system, Fig. 50: Diagram
Gösele / Schüle Detail Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 11: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 31: Diagram Fig. 51: Diagram
Gösele / Schüle Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 12: Table Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 32: Diagram Fig. 52: Sound absorption factor
Gösele / Schüle Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after
Fig. 13: Table Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle
Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 33: Geometrical Order Fig. 53: City Gate Düsseldorf
Gösele / Schüle Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Werkfoto Gartner
Fig. 14: Diagram Fig. 34: Illustration Fig. 54: Brick outer leaf
Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after Detail
Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 15: Diagram Fig. 35: Illustration Fig. 55: Built-up cladding system
Illustration: F. Grimm after Illustration: F. Grimm after Detail
Gösele / Schüle Gösele / Schüle Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 16: Diagram Fig. 36: Atria Fig. 56: Built-up cladding system
Illustration: F. Grimm after Drawing: F. Grimm Detail
Gösele / Schüle Fig. 37: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 17: Table Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 57: Composite panels
Illustration: F. Grimm after Gösele / Schüle Detail
Gösele / Schüle Fig. 38: Oscillation Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 18: Diagram Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 58: Timber Flooring
Illustration: F. Grimm after Gösele / Schüle Detail
Gösele / Schüle Fig. 39: Oscillation Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 19: Diagram Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 59: Floating timber floor
Illustration: F. Grimm after Gösele / Schüle Detail
Gösele / Schüle Fig. 40: Frequencies Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 20: Diagram Illustration: F. Grimm after Fig. 60: Composite slab
Illustration: F. Grimm after Gösele / Schüle Detail
Gösele / Schüle Drawing: F. Grimm

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Appendix
Figures

Fig. 61: Timber flooring Fig. 87: Diagram Fig. 117: Solar protection blinds
Detail Illustration: F. Grimm Photo: Sacha Geiser
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 88: Vertical section Fig. 118: Maintenance catwalk
Fig. 62: Floating timber floor Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Sacha Geiser
Detail Fig. 89: Vertical section Fig. 119: Circulation space
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Sacha Geiser
Fig. 63: Slim floor Fig. 90: Diagram Fig. 120: Diagram
Detail Illustration: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 91: Diagram Fig. 121: Diagram
Fig. 64: Steel studs Illustration: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm
Detail Fig. 92: South elevation Fig. 122: Diagram
Drawing: F. Grimm Konstruktionsbüro Gartner Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 65: Steel studs Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 123: Diagram
Detail Fig. 93: Site plan Illustration: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 124: Frontage view
Fig. 66: Boxed steel studs Fig. 94: Longitudinal section Drawing: F. Grimm
Detail Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 125: Site plan
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 95: Ground floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 67: Large steel studs Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 126: West elevation
Detail Fig. 96: Lower floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 127: East elevation
Fig. 68: Staggered stud partitions Fig. 97: South elevation Drawing: F. Grimm
Detail Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 128: South elevation
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 98: Perspective view Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 69: Steel studs with plasterboards Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 129: North elevation
Detail Fig. 99: Cross section Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 130: Balconies
Fig. 70: Boxed steel studs Fig. 100: Underneath the skylight Photo: BCDE Architecture -
Detail Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Laurent Debrix
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 101: Vertical section Fig. 131: Typical facade
Fig. 71: Steel stud framing Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: BCDE Architecture -
Detail Fig. 102: Junction Laurent Debrix
Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 132: Balconies
Fig. 72: Courtyard Fig. 103: Column and cooling-roof Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: doubrava Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 133: Sections
Fig. 73: Site plan Fig. 104: Facade detail Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Werkfoto Gartner Fig. 134: Site assembly
Fig. 74: Ground floor Fig. 105: Horizontal section Photo: BCDE Architecture -
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Laurent Debrix
Fig. 75: Bird’s eye view Grimm Fig. 135: Typical floor plan
Photo: doubrava Fig. 106: Facade section Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 76: Hexagonal grid Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 136: Vertical section
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 107: Site plan Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 77: Structural bay Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 137: Composite floor
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 108: North-west elevation Photo: BCDE Architecture -
Fig. 78: Column/beam Photo: Sacha Geiser Laurent Debrix
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 109: South-west corner Fig. 138: Vertical section
Fig. 79: Structural joint Photo: Sacha Geiser Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 110: Vertical section Fig. 139: Horizontal section
Fig. 80: Structural joint Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 111: Ground floor Fig. 140: Horizontal section
Fig. 81: Assembly Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: doubrava Fig. 112: Third floor Fig. 141: Vertical section
Fig. 82: Structural unit Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: doubrava Fig. 113: Penthouse-floor Fig. 142: Vertical section
Fig. 83: Star connection Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: doubrava Fig. 114: Cross section Fig. 143: Table
Fig. 84: Typical floor plan Drawing: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 115: Longitudinal section Fig. 144: Site plan
Fig. 85: Horizontal section Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 116: Vertical section Fig. 145: Floor plan
Fig. 86: Airborne sound Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm

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Appendix
Figures

Fig. 146: Isometric view of structure Fig. 173: View from River Main Fig. 203: Diagram
Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Richard Davies Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 147: North-east view Fig. 174: Structure Fig. 204: Site plan
Photo: ARCHITEKTON, Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Dieter Leistner Fig. 175: Construction stage Fig. 205: Ground floor
Fig. 148: Longitudinal section Photo: Richard Davies Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 176: Typical floor plan Fig. 206: First floor
Fig. 149: Longitudinal section Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 177: Combi-office Fig. 207: Second floor
Fig. 150: Escape stairwell Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: ARCHITEKTON, Fig. 178: Open-plan-office Fig. 208: South elevation
Dieter Leistner Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: British Steel
Fig. 151: Isometric view Fig. 179: East-west-section Fig. 209: Cross section
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 152: Steel structure Fig. 180: Diagram Fig. 210: Longitudinal section
Photo: ARCHITEKTON, Illustration: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm
Dieter Leistner Fig. 181: Diagram Fig. 211: Assembly
Fig. 153: Vertical section Illustration: F. Grimm Photo: British Steel
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 182: Diagram Fig. 212: Connection
Fig. 154: Horizontal section Illustration: F. Grimm Photo: British Steel
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 183: Winter garden Fig. 213: The interactive facade
Fig. 155: Vertical section Photo: Richard Davies Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm (Werkfoto Gartner) Fig. 214: South facade
Fig. 156: Horizontal section Fig. 184: Typical window Photo: British Steel
Drawing: F. Grimm Photo: Richard Davies Fig. 215: Diagram
Fig. 157: Steel structure Fig. 185: Montage of the facade Illustration: F. Grimm
Photo: ARCHITEKTON, Photo: Richard Davies Fig. 216: Diagram
Dieter Leistner Fig. 186: Vertical section Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 158: Site plan Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 217: Diagram
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 187: Site plan Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 159: Elevation Lange Heergracht Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 218: Diagram
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 188: Ground floor Illustration: F. Grimm
Fig. 160: Typical floor plan Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 219: Site plan
Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 189: First floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 161: Elevation Lange Heergracht Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 220: West elevation
Photo: Projectbureau Fig. 190: View from River Rönne Drawing: F. Grimm
Signa n.v., Brussel Photo: Pontus Möller Fig. 221: Longitudinal section
Fig. 162: Court yard Fig. 191: Second floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Photo: Projectbureau Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 222: Ground floor
Signa n.v., Brussel Fig. 192: Third floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Fig. 163: Footbridge Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 223: Second floor
Photo: Projectbureau Fig. 193: Attic floor Drawing: F. Grimm
Signa n.v., Brussel Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 224: Privat garden
Fig. 164: Partial floor plan Fig. 194: Perspective views Photo: CEPEZED, Delft
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: Pontus Möller Fig. 225: Screen structure
Fig. 165: Vertical section Fig. 195: Steel girder Photo: CEPEZED, Delft
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 226: Fire escape
Fig. 166: Vertical section Fig. 196: Vertical section Photo: CEPEZED, Delft
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 227: Perspective view
Fig. 167: Horizontal section Fig. 197: Floor Drawing: CEPEZED, Delft
Drawing: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 228: Detail
Fig. 168: Diagram Fig. 198: Interior partition Drawing: F. Grimm
Illustration: F. Grimm Drawing: F. Grimm Fig. 229: Detail
Fig. 169: Diagram Fig. 199: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm
Illustration: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm Fig. 230: Detail
Fig. 170: Site plan Fig. 200: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: F. Grimm Illustration: F. Grimm Fig. 231: Cross section
Fig. 171: Sketch Fig. 201: Diagram Drawing: F. Grimm
Drawing: Sir Norman Foster Illustration: F. Grimm Fig. 232: East facade
and Partners Fig. 202: Light gauge metal studs Photo: CEPEZED, Delft
Fig. 172: Sketch Photo: Pontus Möller
Drawing: Sir Norman Foster
and Partners

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