Subject Name: Communication Networks and Transmission Lines

Subject Code: EC-5004

Semester: 5th
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Sub Code: EC 5004 Subject Name: Communication Networks & Transmission line

UNIT I
Characteristic Parameters of symmetrical and asymmetrical two port networks and their design
Image impedance, iterative impedance, characteristic impedance, propagation coefficient, image
transfer coefficient , iterative transfer coefficient, Lattice and Bridged T networks, reactive matching
networks, matching techniques, insertion loss, symmetrical and asymmetrical attenuators and their
design.

Characteristic Parameters of symmetrical and asymmetrical two port networks and their design:

Asymmetrical Networks: Image Impedance

Image impedance is that impedance, which when connected across the appropriate pair of
terminals of the network, the other is presented by the other pair of terminals. If the driving point
impedance at the input port with impedance Zi2 is Zi1 and if the driving point impedance at the
output port with impedance Zi1 is Zi2, then Zi1 and Zi2 are the image impedances of the two-port
network.
Basically Image impedance is a concept used in electronic network design and analysis and most
especially in filter design. The term image impedance applies to the impedance seen looking into
the ports of a network. Usually a two-port network is implied but the concept is capable of being
extended to networks with more than two ports. The definition of image impedance for a two-port
network is the impedance, Zi 1, seen looking into port 1 when port 2 is terminated with the image
impedance, Zi 2, for port 2. In general, the image impedances of ports 1 and 2 will not be equal
unless the network is symmetrical (or anti-symmetrical) with respect to the ports.

Zi2

Z Z Z
Zi1 Zi2 Zi1
Y Y Y
Zi2

Fig 1.1 Image impedance

The difficulty here is that in order to find Zi 1 it is first necessary to terminate port 2 with Zi 2.
However, Zi 2 is also an unknown at this stage. The problem is solved by terminating port 2 with an
identical network: port 2 of the second network is connected to port 2 of the first network and port
1 of the second network is terminated with Zi 1. The second network is terminating the first network
in Zi 2 as required. Mathematically, this is equivalent to eliminating one variable from a set of
simultaneous equations. The network can now be solved for Zi 1.
Writing out the expression for input impedance gives;
And solving for Zi 1,

Z2i 1= Z2+Z/Y

Zi 2 is found by a similar process, but it is simpler to work in terms of the reciprocal, that is image
admittance Yi 2,

Y2i 2= Y2+Y/Z

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Asymmetrical networks: Iterative impedance

Iterative impedance: In electrical circuits, for a four-terminal network, the impedance that, if
connected across one pair of terminals, will match the impedance across the other pair of
terminals.

Iterative impedance is a particular value of the load impedance that can be found which will
produce input impedance having the same value as the load impedance. When connected at one
end of the port produces equal impedance when looking at the other.
It is defined as the particular value of the load impedance which has the ability to produce an input
impedance with the value as same as the value of the load impedance. In the two ports system
when it is connected at the one end then it produces equal impedance when looking at each other.

Zt2

Z Z Z
Zt1 Zt2 Zt1
Y Y Y
Zt2

Fig 1.2 Iterative

Iterative impedance of T& π- network:

The iterative impedance at a pair of terminals such as 1-2 or 3-4 of Fig 1.3 is defined as "the
impedance which will terminate the other pair of terminals in such a way that the impedance
measured at the first pair of terminals is equal to this terminating impedance." For an
unsymmetrical section the iterative impedances at the two sets of terminals are different; for a
symmetrical section the iterative impedances are equal and the same as the image
impedances. Because of their wide use, symmetrical sections will be treated in the remainder of
this section.

The otatio used for the ele e ts of the T a d π se tio s of Fig. is the sa e as as used for the
sections of Fig. This notation is usually employed for the circuits now to be considered. The input
impedances at terminals 1-2 of Fig 1.3 (a) when terminals 3-4 are terminated in the iterative
impedance ZKT of the T network is:

ZKT=1/2Z1+ Z2 (1/2Z1+ ZKT)/ 1/2Z1+ Z2+ ZKT,

Which, when solved for ZKT, gives

ZKT = Z1 Z2+ Z12/4

ZKT = Z1 Z2 (1+ Z1/4 Z2)

For the π se tio , the iterati e i peda e )Kπ is the input impedance at terminals 1-2 of Fig. (b)
When terminals 3-4 are terminated in the iterative impedance ZKπ of the π et ork. Thus

2Z2 (Z1+ (2Z2 ZK∏ / 2Z2+ ZK∏))

ZK∏=
2Z2 + Z1+ (2Z2 ZK∏ / 2Z2+ ZK∏)

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Z1 Z2
ZK∏=
Z1 Z2+ Z12/4

Z1 Z2
ZK∏= .
ZKT
1/2Z1 1/2Z1
3
1
ZKT ZKT
Z2

2
4
Fig (a)

Z1
1 3

ZKT
ZKT 2Z2 2Z2

2 4

Fig (b)

Fig 1.3 (a) & (b) Iterative impedance of T& π- network

The iterative impedance of a network such as shown in Fig (a) Or (b) is readily determined from
open-circuit and short-circuit impedance measurements. Thus, if an impedance bridge is used to
measure the input impedance at terminals 1-2 of the T section of Fig.1.3 (a) When terminals 3-4 are
open,

Z12oc=1/2Z1+ Z2

And the input impedance at terminals 1-2 with terminals 3-4 short circuited is If these two
equations are multiplied together and the square root taken:

Z12sc=1/2Z1+ 1/2Z1 Z2
1/2Z1+ Z2

Although this deri atio as for a T se tio , it a e sho that the iterati e i peda e of a π
section also can be found from open-circuit and short-circuited measurements.

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Z12oc Z12sc = (1/2Z1+ Z2) (1/2Z1+ 1/2Z1 Z2 )

1/2Z1+ Z2
2
= Z1 Z2+ Z1 /4

= ZKT

Four-terminal transducers are used for passing electric energy from one part of an electric system to
another. Often it is desired that the transducers draw maximum possible signal power from the
preceding part of the system and pass it on to the following part of the system. Ordinarily, this
cannot be done under the condition of conjugate impedances, and hence the conditions of the
second power transfer theorem must be met. The image impedances of a transducer are defined as
the "impedances which will simultaneously terminate each pair of terminals.

Z1= ZP – ZM Z2= ZS – ZM
3
1
INPUT PRIMARY
OUTPUT SECONDARY
Z2= Wm= ZM

2
4
Fig (c)

An unsymmetrical, unbalanced T network is shown in Fig The network being unsymmetrical because
Z1 does not equal Z2. It is desired to find the two image impedances ZI and ZI' that Will satisfy the
definition previously given. If this is accomplished, then maximum power transfer would occur from
the transducer to the impedance (or from the impedance to the transducer) at either set of
terminals.
Z1 Z2
3
1

ZI ZI
Z3

2
4
Fig (d)

The equations for the image impedances can be written for the conditions specified in the
definition. Thus, the input impedance at terminals 1-2, with image impedance ZI' connected at
terminals 3-4 (but with ZI not connected), is

Z3 (Z1+ ZI’
ZI= Z1 +
Z2 + Z3+ ZI’

The input impedance at terminals 3-4, with image impedance ZI connected at terminals 1-2 (but
with ZI' not connected), is

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Z3 (Z1+ ZI)
ZI’= )2 +
Z2 + Z3+ ZI
When these two equations are solved, the image impedances are found to be

Z3 (Z1+ ZI’
ZI= (Z1 Z2 + Z3 Z2 + Z1 Z3)
Z2 + Z3+ ZI’
And
Z1+ Z3
ZI’= )1 Z2 + Z3 Z2 + Z1 Z3)
Z2 + Z3

Image transfer coefficient: It is usually considered for the linear passive type of the two-port
network, such network must be terminated with the image impedance of the network.
Let
V1 – voltage at the input terminal
I1 – current at the input terminal
V2 – voltage at the output terminal
I2 – current at the input terminal
Hence, the image transfer coefficient can be calculated as half the logarithm of the product of
V1andI1 divided by the product of the V2 and I2 .Represented as:
1/2log ((V1I1)/ (V2I2))

Properties of symmetrical network:

1. Characteristic Impedance Z0

2. Propagation constant 

For efficient propagation, the network is to be terminated by Z0 and the propagation constant 
should be imaginary.

Characteristic Impedance of Symmetrical T section network:

Z1/2 Z1/2
2
1

ZIin Zo
Z3

1
2
Fig (e)
For T Network terminated in Zo:

Z1 Z 2 ( 2  Z 0 )
Z1
 
2 Z1  Z  Z
Z1in
2 2 0

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When Z1in  Z 0

 z1 z 2  z 2 z0  Z1Z 0 2
Z0 
Z12

2  z 2  z0
4
Z1

Z 02   Z1 Z 2
Z12
4

  Z1Z 2  Z1Z 2 (1  1
Z12 Z
Z 0T
4 4Z 2

Characteristic impedance Zo is that impedance, if it terminates a symmetrical network, its input

i peda e ill also e )o is full de ided the et ork’s i tri si properties, su h as ph si al
dimensions and electrical properties of network.

Characteristic Impedance  section:

Z1
1 2

Zo
ZIin 2Z2 2Z2

1 2

Fig (f)

 2Z 2 Z 0 
 Z1  ( 2 Z  Z )  2 Z 2
 2 0 

Z1 
Z1in
2Z 2 Z 0
2Z 2  Z 0  2Z 2

When Z1in = Zo, for symmetrical:

Characteristic Impedance:

Z 0 
Z1Z 2
1  Z1
4Z 2

Z1oc  Z oc   Z2
Z1
2
Z1Z 2
Z1sc  Z sc  
Z1 2
2 Z1  Z
2 2

Z oc Z sc  1  Z1Z 2  Z 02T
2
Z
4
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Z 0c Z sc   Z 02
4Z 22 Z1
Z1  4Z 2

1/2Z1 1/2Z1
2
1
ZIin Zo
Z2

1
2
Fig (g)

Z1
1 3

Zo
ZIin 2Z2 2Z2

2 4

Fig (h)

Propagation Constant ():

 1  eN
V1 I
V2 I2
The magnitude ratio does not express the complete network performance, the phase angle
between the currents being needed as well.
The use of exponential can be extended to include the phasor current ratio.

 e
I1
I2

Where γ is a o ple u er defi ed :

    j

 e  e  j
Hence I1
I2

 A 
I1
I2

A  e
I1
I2
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  e j

With Z0 termination, it is also true:

 e
V1
V2

The term γ has been given the name propagation constant:

α= attenuation constant, it determines the magnitude ratio between input and output quantities. It
is the attenuation produced in passing the network. Units of attenuation are nepers.
β= phase constant. It determines the phase angle between input and output Quantities. The phase
shift introduced by the network. The delay undergone by the signal as it passes through the
network. If phase shift occurs, it indicates the propagation of signal through the network. The unit
of phase shift is radians.

If a number of sections all having a common Z0 the ratio of currents is:

   ........  1
I1 I 2 I 3 I
I 2 I3 I 4 In
From which

e 1  e 2  e 3  ........  en

And taking the natural logarithm

 1   2   3   4 ..................   n

Thus the overall propagation constant is equal to the sum of the individual propagation constants.

Zo and  of symmetrical networks:

Use the definition of and the introduction of  as the ratio of currents for an e  termination leads to
useful results Zo.

Z1/2 Z1/2
2
1

ZIin Zo
Z2

1
2
Fig (i)

I1 I2

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The T network in figure is considered equivalent to any connected symmetrical network terminated
in a Zo termination. From the mesh equations the current ratio can be shown as
Z1  Z2  Z0
  e
I1 2
I2 Z2

Where the characteristic impedance is given as

Z 02   Z1Z 2
Z12
4
For eliminating Zo:

cosh   1 
Z1


2Z 2

sinh 
Z1
2 4Z 2
The propagation constant can be related to network parameters by use of (10) for Z oT

e  1  2  ( 1 )2  1
Z1 Z Z
2Z 2 2Z 2 Z2

Taking the natural logarithm:

  Z1  Z1 

  ln 1     
2

 2Z 2 2Z 2  Z 2 
Z1

  

For a network of pure reactance it is not difficult to compute.

hyperbolic functions of .
The input impedance of any T network terminated in any impedance ZR , may be written in terms of

Z in  Z11  12
Writing: Z2
Z 22
It is reduced to

 Z cosh   Z0 sinh  
Z in  Z 0  R 
 Z0 cosh   ZR sinh  
For short circuit, ZR = 0

tanh 
 Z 0circuit
ForZaSCopen

ZR  

Z lim Z  
tanh 
Z0

From these two equations it can be shown that

tanh  
Z SC
Z OC

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Z 0  Z OC Z SC

Thus the propagation constant  and the characteristic impedance Z0 can be evaluated using
measurable parameters
Z SC and Z OC

Impedance matching:

In electronics, impedance matching is the practice of designing the input impedance of an electrical
load (or the output impedance of its corresponding signal source) to maximize the power
transfer or minimize reflections from the load.
In the case of a complex source impedance ZS and load impedance ZL, maximum power transfer is
obtained when
ZS= ZL *

Where * indicates the complex conjugate. Minimum reflection is obtained when

ZS= ZL

The concept of impedance matching was originally developed for electrical engineering, but can be
applied to any other field where a form of energy (not necessarily electrical) is transferred between
a source and a load. An alternative to impedance matching is impedance bridging, where the load
impedance is chosen to be much larger than the source impedance and maximizing voltage transfer
(rather than power) is the goal.

Zs

+ +

I ZL VL
Vs
-
-

Insertion loss: Insertion loss is a figure of merit for an electronic filter and this data is generally
specified with a filter. Insertion loss is defined as a ratio of the signal level in a test configuration
without the filter installed (V 1) to the signal level with the filter installed (V 2). This ratio is
described in d B by the following equation:
� �
Insertion loss in dB - 10log ⁄� - 20log ⁄�
The insertion loss can be explained as the loss in load power because of the insertion of a particular
component or device in a transmission system. It is represented in the ratio of the decibels of the
power received at the side of the load before the insertion of the component to the power received
at the load side after the insertion of the component or the device.
In telecommunications, insertion loss is the loss of signal power resulting from the insertion of a
device in a transmission line or optical fiber and is usually expressed in decibels (dB).
If the power transmitted to the load before insertion is PT and the power received by the load after
insertion is PR, then the insertion loss in dB is given by:
10 log10 (PT/PR)
Insertion loss = 20 log10 (I1/I2) dB.

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Also Insertion loss defined as: If a network or a line is inserted between a generator and its load, in
general, there is a reduction in the power received in the load, and the load current will decrease.
The loss produced by the insertion of the network or line is known as the insertion loss. If the load
current without the network is I1 and the load current with the network inserted is I 2, then the
insertion loss is given by Insertion loss = 20 log10 (I1/I2) dB.
The value of the insertion loss depends on the values of the source and the load.

Attenuator:
An Attenuator is a special type of electrical or electronic bidirectional circuit made up of entirely
resistive elements. An attenuator is a two port resistive network designed to weaken or "attenuate"
(hence their name) the power being supplied by a source to a level that is suitable for the
connected load. The attenuator reduces the amount of power being delivered to the connected
load by either a single fixed amount, a variable amount or in a series of known switchable steps.
Attenuators are generally used in radio, communication and transmission line applications to
weaken a stronger signal.
The Attenuator is a purely passive resistive network (hence no supply) which is used in a wide
variety of electronic equipment for extending the dynamic range of measuring equipment by
adjusting signal levels, to provide impedance matching of oscillators or amplifiers to reduce the
effects of improper input/output terminations, or to simply provide isolation between different
circuit stages depending upon their application as shown.

Source Rs Attenuator
R1 Load

⃝ Zout Zout
Zin
Zin
R2 RL
Vs

Fig (j)

Simple passive attenuators:

Attenuators are the reverse of amplifier which reduces gain with the resistive voltage divider circuit.
The amount of attenuation is determined by the ratio of output/input in the network.
However using voltage, current or even power ratios to determine or express the amount of
attenuation that a resistive attenuator network may have the attenuation factor, can be confusing,
so far the passive attenuator its degree of attenuation is normally expressed using a logarithm scale
which is given in decibels making it easier to deal with small numbers.

Degrees of Attenuation: An attenuators performance is expressed by the number of decibel the

input signal has decreased per frequency decade. Decibel attenuation
dBv = 20log10 Vout/Vin (dB) Decibel is logarithmic ratio therefore has no units.

Symmetrical & asymmetrical attenuators:

Symmetrical attenuator: A perfectly symmetrical attenuator is that ho’s input and output
terminals can be transposed.
T-pad attenuator, Pi-pad attenuator, and bridge-T attenuator is a symmetrical attenuator.

Pi Attenuator:
The circuit for the Pi attenuator is shown in Figure:

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R3

Zin Zout
R1 R2

Zin>= Zout

Fig (k)

For T Type
N,
�

�−
� =�
�+

�
� =�
� −

��� = (� + � ). �
___________ + �
� + � + �

� = � . ���
_____________
��� + �

T-Attenuator: It is an unbalanced type of the attenuator network which consists of three

non-inductive type of the resistive elements connected to form T configuration. The circuit for the T
attenuator is shown in Figure:

R1 R2

Zin
Zout
R3

Zin>= Zout

Fig (l)

For T Type
N,

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�−
� =�
�+

�
� =�
� −

��� = (� + � ). �
___________ + �
� + � + �

� = � . ���
_____________
��� + �

Bridged T Attenuator: It is another purely resistive design that is a variation on the symmetrical
T-pad attenuator. As it name implies the bridged-T attenuator has an additional resistive element
forming a bridge network across the two series resistors of the standard T-pad. This additional
resistors enables the circuit to reduce the level of a signal appears to bridge across the T-pad
network. R1

Zin R=Z0 Zout

R=Z0

R
4

Fig (m)
For Bridge T Attenuator:

� =�

� =� �−

�
� =
�−

���

� = � . ���
_____________
��� + �

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Asymmetrical Attenuator: It can match the impedance in only one direction. It can be
either balanced or unbalanced.
It is simply a voltage divider circuit used in electrical & electronic circuit to generate a lower voltage.
The difference this time is that this type of attenuator is used in frequency dependent circuit to
create loss in transmission or to match the impedance of unbalanced source and load networks. The
L-pad attenuator network comprises of two purely resistive elements in series with each other
connected across a voltage source.

R1

+ +

I R2 VL
Vs
-
-

Applications of Attenuators:
1) Resistive attenuators are used as volume controls in broadcasting stations.
2) Variable attenuators are used in laboratories, when it is necessary to obtain small value of voltage
or current for testing purposes.
3) Resistive attenuators can also be used for matching between circuits of different resistive
impedances.
4) The T a d π Atte uators for atte uatio of 6.020 d .

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