-----CHAPTER 1: CELL----- - lacks ribosomes, responsible for lipid and hormone production.

At the end of each the topic the learners will be able to understand the: • Golgi Apparatus
1. Principles of the cell theory - packaging center of the cell.
2. Structures and functions of cell • Vacuole
3. Difference between prokaryotic & eukaryotic - serve as storage of the cell.
4. Different cell types • Lysosome
5. Cell modification - contains digestive enzymes, organelle - recycling facility of an animal
6. Phases of the cell cycle cell.
7. Importance of Mitosis and Meiosis b. ENERGY RELATED ORGANELLES
8. Transport mechanisms in cells • Chloroplast
9. Difference between exocytosis& endocytosis - disk shaped that specialize in photosynthesis.
• Mitochondrion
CELL - structural & functional units of living body. - place of cell respiration & where most ATP is generated.
- it is the smallest structure that is able to carry out the basic functions of c. CYTOSKELETON
life. -system of interconnected protein filament.
HOW WERE CELLS DISCOVERED? • Actin Filaments
• ROBERT HOOKE first discovered cell while viewing cork specimen. He - provide structural support to plasma membrane & facilitate mov't of the
noticed little rooms that resembled cells, & thus the term "CELL" was cell.
born. Hooke was not able to observe living cells but they were remnants • Intermediate Filaments
of a cell specifically the cell wall. - provide structure to cell.
• ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK invention of a much better microscope • Microtubules
led to the study of living cells. - important during cell division.
The following years, other scientists also studied living cells. Their WHAT ARE THE TWO MAIN GROUP OF CELLS?
collective work led to the formulation of the CELL THEORY. Cells, based on the basis of nucleus are classified into two large groups:
WHAT DOES THE CELL THEORY STATE? 1. PROKARYOTIC CELL (pro =early/primitive)
a. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. EUKARYOTIC CELL (eu=true karyon/nucleus)
b. Cell is the structural unit of all living organisms. ▪PLANT CELL ORGANELLES
• MATTIAS SCHLEIDEN proposed that all plants are composed of cells. • Nucleus
The following year, THEODORE SCHWAN made a similar statement • Nucleolus
regarding animals. • Mitochondria
a. Cells come from pre-existing cells. • Plasma membrane
• RUDOLPH VIRCHOW showed that cells self reproduce which • Cytoplasm
contributed to the third principle of the cell theory. • Vacuole
WHAT'S INSIDE A CELL? • Cell wall
Cell is made up of organelles, structures with a membrane that perform a • Chloroplast
variety of functions such as protein production, storage of materials, • Starch granules
harvesting energy & digestion of substance, & among others. Organelles ▪ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES
roles are interdependent. • Nucleus
• Nucleolus
WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANELLES?
• Mitochondria
a. ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
• Cytoplasm
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Vacuole
- filled with ribosomes, production of glycoprotein.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Centriole WHAT IS MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS?
• Pinocyte MITOSIS is a process of cell division in which a cell divides produces
WHAT MAKES UP A TISSUE? identical copies of itself. This process is important for growth and repair of
Tissue is a group of same or similar cells that perform a specific function the body. (PMAT)
in the body. Importance of Mitosis
Two Major Types of Tissue a. It ensures equal distribution of nucleus material down to each daughter
1. PLANT TISSUE cell.
• Meristematic Tissue b. Constancy of species is maintained by keeping a constant
• Primary Plant Tissue chromosome number of each daughter cell that is genetically identical to
2. ANIMAL TISSUE the parent cell.
• Epithelial Tissue - for protection & coverings. c. It restores wear & tear of the body tissues heals wounds & replaces
• Connective Tissue - it connects. damaged or lost organs through regeneration .
• Nerve Tissue - for signal & supports. d. It is a means of asexual reproduction for some organisms.
• Muscle Tissue - for movements. e. Facilitates growth from a single fertilized egg to an individual with
billions or trillions of cells.
WHAT IS CELL MODIFICATION?
It is a features or structure of the cell that makes it different from another FOUR MITOTIC STAGES
type of the cell that makes it different from another type of cell & at the A. PROPHASE -chromosomes condense & organize nuclear membrane
same time enables it to carry out unusual functions. & nucleoli disapper, spindle apparatus assembled & attached to
centromeres of duplicated chromosomes.
WHY DOES CELL MODIFICATION OCCUR? B. METAPHASE -spindles line up duplicated chromosomes along
Plant & animal cells are specialized to be able to carry out their tasks equator of cell, one spindle to each half or chromatid of duplicated
efficiently. They have particular adaptation to their structure to suits its chromosome.
function. C. ANAPHASE -centromere of each duplicated chromosome is separated
WHAT IS CELL CYCLE? and paired chromatids are pulled apart.
Cell cycle is an orderly sequence of stages that takes place from the time D. TELOPHASE -chromosomes uncoil; nucleoli reappear; cytokinesis
an eukaryotic cell divides to the time the resulting daughter also divides. occurs and two genetically identical daughter cell are produced.
Its two main parts are: INTERPHASE & M PHASE. MEIOSIS is a kind of cell division exclusive to gametes or reproductive
INTERPHASE is the longest stage of cell cycle. It has three stages: cell. This process reduces the number of chromosomes from a diploid
a. G1, the first interval when the cell grows before DNA replication. (2n) number to a haploid [n] number.
b. S, the time of DNA replication. It occurs in two stages as a diploid nucleus cannot be split into a haploid
c. G2, the second interval when the cell prepares to divide. nucleus in a single division. (Meiosis1 & Meiosis2)
M PHASE or Mitotic Phase, replicated DNA & cytoplasm divide to make Importance of Meiosis
two new diploid cells, both the same chromosome number. a. It reduces the number of gametes in half which allows them to unite
It involves CYTOKINESIS which is the splitting of the cytoplasm in two during fertilization without increasing the normal no. of chromosome in
making two new cells. the offspring.
b. It produces new chromosome combination in the gamete through the
CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT
process of crossing over.
It is a stage where the cell examines internal & external cues & decides
c. It promotes genetic diversity, which is essential for the survival of the
whether to go through with cell division or not.
population.
THREE MAJOR CHECKPOINTS:
Stages of Meiosis
G1 Checkpoint
Meiosis 1
G2 Checkpoint
A. Prophase 1 -spindle microtubules become attached to them as the
Spindle Checkpoint
nuclear membrane breaks up.
B. Metaphase 1 -homologous chromosome pairs line up in the middle of
the cell. The two chromosomes of each pair become joined the
microtubules at the opposite side of the cell.
C. Anaphase 1 - all of the homologous chromosome separate and move
towards the spindle pole.
D. Telophase 1 -homologous chromosome pairs reach the spindle poles,
nuclear membrane form around them & cytokinesis follows to produce
two cells
Meiosis 2
You may think of meiosis 2 as a process similar to mitosis except the
chromosomes does not replicate before division.
A. Prophase 2 -the centrioles will duplicate & separate into two
centrosomes. The nuclear membrane breaksdown & the spindle
apparatus forms.
B. Metaphase 2 -chromosomes which are still duplicated, are aligned in
the middle of the cell (metaphase plate).
C. Anaphase 2 -sister chromatids of each chromosome separate & move
towards the opposite poles.
D. Telophase 2 -nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes & cytokinesis occur, producing 4 haploid daughter cells.
WHAT IS CROSSING OVER & WHEN DOES IT HAPPEN?
Crossing over is the process that involves an exchange of genetic
material between non sister chromatids during meiosis. It occurs during
the leptotene stahes of prophase 1.
HOW DOES CROSSING OVER HAPPEN?
Crossing over happens in prophase 1 when chromosomes condense.
Each is drawn closer to its homologous partner, so that non- sister
chromatids align along their length. The tight parallel orientation
facilitates crossing over.
WHY DO CHROMOSOME CROSS OVER?
Crossing over greatly contributes to variations among individuals.
Maternal & paternal genes get shuffles to introduce new allele
combinations which results in the combination of trairs among offspring.
Without crossing over an organism's offspring would just be cloned of
themselves.
WHAT ARE THE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS IN CELL?
A. Passive Transport
1. Diffusion - movement from an area of high to low concentration.
2. Facilitated Diffusion - a permease, or membrane enzyme, carries
substance.
3. Osmosis -diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane.
4. Bulk flow -mass movements of fluids affected by pressure & solutes.
B. Active Transport
1. Membrane Pumps -permeable used to move substance usually in the
opposite direction of diffusion.
2. Endocytosis -materials are brought into cell via:
• Phagocytosis: SOLIDS (cell eating)
• Pinocytosis: LIQUIDS (cell drinking)
3. Exocytosis -expel materials from cell.
-----CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES-----
Objectives:
At the end of each topic the learners will be able to understand the:
1. Role, structure & functions of Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and
Nucleic Acid.
2. Components of an enzyme
3.Factors that may affect the enzyme activity.
4. Oxidation / Reduction Reactions
WHAT IS BIOMOLECULE?
BIOMOLECULES are molecules that occur naturally in living organisms
like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acid.
A. CARBOHYDRATES
Structures:
• Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen.
• Simple six carbon sugar (glucose) is called a monosaccharide.
• Two molecules or units join together to form disaccharide (sucrose).
• More than ten units of monosaccharides join in a chain to form a
polysaccharide like starch and cellulose.
Functions:
• Most abundant organic substance present in nature which occurs in the
form of cellulose in plant cell wall.
• In both plants and animals it is used as a source of energy (sugar).
• An important storage form in plants is starch and in animals it is
glycogen.
• Present in Nucleic acid as five carbon sugar
(Ribose in RNA & Deoxyribose in DNA).
B. PROTEINS
Structures:
• Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen.
• Amino acid join together by peptide bonds to form protein molecules.
• Twenty different amino acid make numerous simple & complex proteins.
• Based on the complexity of structure the proteins can have primary,
secondary, tertiary & quaternary structures.
• When proteins exist with other molecules they are known ad conjugated WHAT ARE THE COMPOSITION OF ENZYMES?
proteins like glycoprotein, lipoprotein & chromoprotein. The composition of enzymes is based on two main components, namely:
Functions: 1. PROTEINIC COMPONENT
• Structurally proteins from integral part of the membranes. Enzymes are protein in nature & the proteinic component of enzymes is
• Functionally in the form of enzymes they play a vital role in metabolic called Apoenzyme.
reactions. 2. NON PROTEINIC COMPONENT
• Synthesis of DNA is regulated by proteins (enzymes). Most of the enzymes need a non proteinic component for their activity,
C. NUCLEIC ACID which is known as cofactor.
Structure: Without cofactor enzymes cannot show any enzymatic activity. In some
• They are of two types: DNA & RNA enzymes the cofactor is simply metal ion or organic molecules or ions.
• They are long chain polymers composed of units called NUCLEOTIDES WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF ENZYMES?
as PURINES (Adenine & Guanine) and PYRIMIDINES (Thymine, CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
Cytosine & Uracil) (Accdg. to the type of rexn catalyzed)
• Each nucleotide has pentose sugar, nitrogen base & phosphate group. 1. OXIDO REDUCTASES
• DNA had one Oxygen less in its sugar molecule. -oxidation-reduction rexns
Functions: 2. TRANSFERASES
• DNA is the main genetic material for almost all organisms except certain -group trabsfer rexns
viruses. 3. HYDROLASES
• RNA molecules are involved in information transfer & protein synthesis; -hydrolysis rexns
& RNA acts as genetic material in some viruses like TMV (Tobacco 4. LYASES
Mosaic Virus). -removal or addition rexns
D. LIPIDS 5. ISOMERASES
Structure: -isomerization rexns
• Composed of C, H, O. An amount of Oxygen is very less. 6. LIGASES
• They are synthesized from fatty acids and glycerol. Simple lipids are -the joining to two molecules.
called glycerides. -condensation rexns.
• Fats can be saturated or unsaturated. WHAT ARE THE FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT THE ACTIVITY OF AN
• Fats are solid at room temperature, those remain liquid at room ENZYME?
temperature are called oils.
Functions: FACTORS AFFECTING AN ENZYME ACTIVITY
• Due to their low oxygen content, & higher number of C-H bonds they 1. pH
store higher amount of energy & release more energy during their Every enzyme has its own optimum pH at which it shows maximum
oxidation. activity.
• A molecule of fat can yield twice as much energy as from carbohydrate. 2. TEMPERATURE
• Phospholipids are important components of cell membranes. Most of the enzymes show maximum activity between 37°C to 50°C.
3. SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
WHAT IS ENZYMES? ENZYME CONCENTRATION &
Enzymes are chemical catalysts & speed up chemical reactions. PRESENCE OF CERTAIN ION
They play an important role in all cellular reactions such as respiration,
photosynthesis & many others. OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS
They are globular proteins with a specific tertiary shape. OXIDATION is the loses of an electron by a molecule, atom or ion.
They are usually specific to only one reaction. REDUCTION is the gain of an electron by a molecule, atom or ion.
The part of the enzyme that acts as catalyst is called the ACTIVE SITE. LEO GER
Oxidized element is called reducing agent. A. Light-dependent reactions (LIGHT REXNS):
Reduced element is called oxidising agent. The captured light energy is transferred to electrons that come from H2O
Mg + Cl2 ----> MgCl2 (water). Oxygen(O2) is a by-product.
B. Light-independent reactions (DARK REXNS):
Mg ---->Mg(2+) + 2e Energized electrons are transferred to CO2 (reduction rexns) to form
Oxidised (lost 2 e) glucose (in the Cavin-Benson Cycle)
Cl2 + 2e ---->2Cl- WHAT IS CELL RESPIRATION?
Reduced (gained e) It is a process by which the chemical energy of food is converted to ATP.
MgCl2 C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ----> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
1 atom of Mg Oxidation no. of +2 Highly energized electrons stored temporarily in glucose are removed
2 atoms of Cl Oxidation no. Of -1 (oxidation rexns) in a step-wise fashion to maximise energy capture at
(+2 x1) + (-1 ×2) = 0 each step:
----CHAPTER 3: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION---- A. GLYCOLYSIS : Anaerobic ,without oxygen, process in cytoplasm in
Objectives: which glucose ,a 6 carbon cpd., is oxidized to 2 pyruvates which are both
At the end of each topic the learners will be able to understand the: 3 carbon chains.
1. ATP-ADP Cycle B.KREBS CYCLE: Aerobic ,with oxygen, process that oxidizes pyruvates
2. Photosynthesis: Light & Dark Reactions to carbondioxide.
3. Respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic C. CHEMIOSMOTIC PHOSPHORYLATION : The energized electrons
released during the previous steps are used to concentrate hydrogen
THE SUN
ions in one area (of the cell membrane in prokaryotes; of the
Organisms must use the Sun's energy directly or indirectly to become
mitochondrion in eukaryotes) to create a chemical gradient between
and remain in an organized state.
positively & negatively charged ions. The potential energy resulting from
WHAT IS METABOLISM? this osmotic gradient is used to resynthesis ATP from ADP & AMP. After
It is a series of chemical reactions involved in storing (ANABOLISM) or electrons have been used, they must be transferred to oxygen (O2).
releasing (CATABOLISM) energy.
WHAT IS ATP?
ATP or adenosine triphosphate is a high energy molecule with three
phosphate. Energy stored in ATP is released by breaking phosphate-to-
phosphate bonds and creating ADP (with two phosphate) or AMP (with
one phosphate).
ATP is recycled by adding back phosphate groups using energy from the
sun.
ATP-ADP Cycle
l-----------------------------------------------------------------l
A-P-P-P (ATP)------------energy release l
^l-----------------A-P-P (ADP) + P ----l
WHAT IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
It is a process by which plant convey light energy into chemical energy.
6 CO2+ 6 H2O ---> C6H1206 +6O2
Sunlight (radiant energy) is captured by chlorophyll and carotenoid photo
sigments (found in cytoplasm in prokaryotes and chloroplasts in
eukaryotes) in two main steps: