V.

 M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Toughening mechanisms

E
theoretical strength ≈ (≈10 GPa)
10
Brittle materials:!
E
failure stress ≈ (≈100 MPa)
10

lack of inelastic deformations at crack tip ¢ limited KC o GC!

defects (c) fabrication!

mechanical strength
K microstructure (KIC) material & processing!
" f = IC
# c

intreaction between defects and microstructure!

 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

fracture mechanics ž homogeneous and continuous solid

KI " K IC K IC c
 fracture  " f =
G " GC # c

policrystalline material:
(grains and grain boundaries)

Path?!
2 !
c
Effect on GC?!
1 !
4 Toughening effects (increasing GC)?!
3

microstructure
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Transgranular and intergranular fracture

fracture on clivage planes (transgranular)!

tilt

twist

GC increases (θ, φ ≈ 45°, ΔGC ≈ 30%)

crack surface increases, too

Fracture of brittle solid 2nd ed., B. R. Lawn, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993

 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

fracture along grain boundary (intergranular)!

G(" ) GC bg GC0 # $ bg $ $
> = = 1# bg = 1# bg
G(0) GC 0 GC 0 GC 0 2$

θ if θ = 90°, G(θ)/G(0) ≈ 0.25 ➠ γbg > 1.5 γ

! usually θ < 90° , γbg > γ (impurities)

GC increases with fracture surface (≈50%)

Other effects:!
• Statistical rotation and deflections!
• Intersections among deflections! limited effect on GC!
• Residual stresses !
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Crack deflection

Composite materials!

4
G C comp
GC matr bars
3
disks

2 spheres

1
Problems:! 0.2 0.4
• Intergranular fracture! volumetric fraction

• Residual stresses!
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Toughening - mechanical strength

KC constant! KC increases with c !

K K
σφ2
σφ

σφ1

stable growth! KC (c)
KC2

KC1
σφ1

c00.5 c0.5 c00.5 c0.5

σf depends on c σf independent

R-curve or T-curve effect

 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Toughening mechanisms
(a) (b)
(a) process zone (frontal wake)

weakening of frontal zone material

σ grain bridging
dislocations

σC !G C " 2# $ C % T h

εT ε microcracking fibers

(b) bridging zone (bridged interface)

whiskers
closure stress (t) phase transformation
u*
!G C " 2# $ t(u)du
0

ductile particles
ductile particles
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Process zone mechanisms

Transformation toughening !

zirconia (ZrO2) temperature

allotropic phases: cubic (c), tetragonal (t), monoclinic (m)

martensitic transformation (MS ≈ 1200°C - 600°C)

ΔV ≈ 4%, εij ≈ 1-7%

MS decreases with:
•  stabilizing oxides (MgO, CaO, Y2O3, CeO2)
•  (grain size)-1 t phase can be !
•  compressive stresses (matrix) metastable at Tamb!
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

ZrO2 - Y2O3 system

partially stabilized zirconia

(t in c, g ≈ 30 - 60 µm)

tetragonal zirconia polycrystals

(only t, g ≈ 0.5 - 2 µm)
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Toughening mechanism

σχ

ε
εΤ φ
σr

t m
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

** asymptotic fracture toughness:

E
"KC = 0.22 %T & h
1# $
t grains fraction

Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 1990

 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Bridging mechanisms
1. Bridging by fibers or whiskers! weak interface (Γi<Γf)
limited friction coefficient

strong interface (Γi>Γf)

high friction coefficient

asymptotic fracture toughness (long fibers):

interface fracture toughness
fiber strength friction stress
pull-out length
'# 2 2
2 4&i *, 2- " hp
!KC = " d ) f $ E % T
)( E
( ) +
R 1$ " ,+
(
+
R
)
differential deformation fiber radius

Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 1990

 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

2. By bridging grains !

fundamental condition: intergranular fracture

Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 1990

V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

α-SIALON
V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Si3N4
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

Al2O3 - SiCw
 V.  M.  SGLAVO  –  UNITN  –  2011  

grain pull-out
friction at grain boundary

2R=W
pull-out stress: σ = 2 τ (L-u)/R = 4 τ (L-u)/W
L
2
L /2 dx x 1 & L )
energy for pull-out: G = V #0 # " du = $ % W ( +
L/2 0 6 'W *
u
fraction of “working” grains

!
2 2
EG E% ' L * ' L *
"KC = 2 2
& W ) , = - & W ) ,
1# $ = 6(1# $ ) W
( + W
( +

!
ΔKC > 0 (200 - 300%)