Dental Material - Waxes and Gypsum

INTRODUCTION

Waxes were used in dentistry in the early 18th century.

Purpose : recording impressions of edentulous mouths.

 Construction of dental appliances requires waxes.

 Dental waxes are usually blended from natural and synthetic materials.

DEFINITION

• Flow- the relative ability of wax plastically deform when it is heated slightly
above mouth temperature.

• Inlay wax- A specialized dental wax that can be applied to dies to form direct on
indirect pattern for the lost-wax technique used for casting metals or hot pressing
of ceramic.

• Indirect wax technique- method by whoch a wax patter is prepared on a die.

COMPOSITION

 Natural waxes: derived from mineral, vegetable, or animal origins.

 Synthetic waxes: chemically synthesized analogs of natural wax molecules.

 Are more homogeneous and pure than natural waxes.

 Coloring agents are added for aesthetic purposes.

 Some formulations contains compatible filler to control expansion and shrinkage

of the wax product.

 Paraffin wax is generally the main ingredient of inlay wax, 40-60%.

 Derived from the high-boiling fractions of petroleum.

  Contains mainly hydrocarbon of methane.

 Minor amount of amorphous or microcrystalline phase.

 Wax can be obtained in a wide melting/softening range.

 Melting range can be determined by a temperature-time cooling curve.

 The temperature-time relationship during cooling indicates the successive

solidification of progressively lower-molecular-weight fractions.

 Paraffin for type I wax requires higher melting point that type II wax.

 Paraffin wax is likely to flake when trimmed, doesn’t present a smooth, glossy
surface.

 Gum dammar: natural resin added to paraffin to improve smoothness & more
resistant to cracking and flaking.

 Dammar resin: increase toughness of the wax and enhance the smoothness and
luster of the surface.

 Carnauba wax: occurs as a fine powder on the leaves of certain of tropical palms.
Quite hard, high melting

 Combined with paraffin to decrease flow at mouth temperature

Important Properties of KG Waxes

• Melting Range

• Flow

• Thermal Expansion

• Residual Stress
Melting Range of Wax

• A range of temperatures at which each component of the wax will start to soften
& then flow
• Waxes may contain several types of molecules, each having a range of molecular
weights
• Have melting range rather than melting points.
• Mixing of waxes may change their melting range
• The melting ranges of a paraffin wax, a carnauba wax and a mixture of these two
waxes.
-Example: Paraffin wax (44ºC – 62ºC)
Carnauba wax (50ºC – 90ºC)
-When a mixture if 75% paraffin and 25% carnauba wax was prepared:
a)the paraffin component melted at essentially the same temperature
b)the melting temperature of the carnauba wax decreased slightly
-Adding carnauba to paraffin wax dramatically increased the melting range to 44
ºC, compared with 18 ºC for paraffin alone
• The effect of the composition of paraffin-canauba mixtures on the melting range
is shown

• The presence of 2.5 % canauba wax had little effect on the melting range,

• but the range increase rapidly as the concentration of carnauba wax increased to
10% had no further effect on the melting range

FLOW

• Depend on temperature, the force bringing about the deformation and the time the
force is applied.

• At low temperature , waxes hardly flow at all, but as the temperature approaches
the melting range of the wax , the flow increases dramatically.
 • Important : need relative high flow a few degrees above mouth temperature in
workable condition.

• E.g. bite registration wax you need a wax that are not melted below mouth
temperature, otherwise once you place it in the oral cavity, it starts to melt &
become too soft & it will not record occlusal relationship properly.

THERMAL EXPANSION

• Waxes expand when exposed to higher temperature and contract as the

temperature becomes lower.
• Even though various waxes are blended together but the response toward
thermal changes cannot be reduced.
• Dental waxes and their component have the largest coefficient of thermal
expansion in restorative dentistry.
• This linear thermal expansion can be explained:
• Strength of secondary valence forces
• Transition point
• Paraffin (mineral wax) have higher coefficients of linear thermal expansion
due to its weak secondary valence forces. So during the rise of temperature,
energy is absorbed and permit more movement of wax thus allow a greater
thermal expansion.
• While Carnauba (plant waxes) have lower coefficients of linear thermal
expansion due to its high secondary valence forces. This causing restrict
movement of the wax component thus small thermal expansion is observed.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Of Mineral, Plant, Insect, And Inlay Waxes

• Many waxes exhibit at least two rates of expansion between 22°-52°.

• This changes of expansion occur at transition points.
• At these points the internal structural parts become freer to move.
 • Some waxes have different rates of expansion in different temperatures ranges
as stated in the figure earlier.
• For example certain inlay waxes exhibit more than two changes in rate of
expansion. So its coefficient of thermal expansion is high, thus temperature
changes in wax patterns could contribute factor in inaccuracy of finished
restoration.

Residual Stress

• The stress distribution which exists at room temperature is called residual stress

• The amount of residual stress is dependent on

- The method of forming the pattern

- Its handling

- Time and temperature of storage of the wax pattern

- When waxes are heated, they soften but stresses are induced. On cooling, these
stresses are released which causes distortion (alteration of original shape).

• Release of stresses occurs in the pattern due to:

- Contraction on cooling

- Occluded gas bubble

- Change of shape of the wax during moulding

- From manipulation, carving, pooling, and removal

Distortion

• Distortion of wax can occur:

- If wax is not at uniform temperature when inserted in the cavity. Some parts of
the wax pattern may thermally contract more than others when stresses are
introduced

- If wax is not held under uniform pressure during cooling

- If the wax is melted and added in an area of deficiency, the added wax will
introduce stresses during cooling

- During carving some molecules of wax will be disturbed and stresses will result

• To avoid distortion

- Minimal carving and change in temperature

- Minimal storage of pattern, invest immediately

- Use warn instruments for carving

- Store in a fridge if necessary

• Some relaxation and distortion of pattern occurs regardless of the method used. It
can only be reduced to a point which is not of clinical importance.
Pattern Waxes

Pattern waxes are used to create a model of a dental restoration such as a crown or partial
denture that eventually are cast using the lost-wax technique.

Inlay Waxes

• Inlay waxes generally are used to fabricate wax patterns for crowns, inlays, or
bridges.

• These waxes generally are available in round sicks of several colors such as red,
yellow, blue, and green.

• They are also available in various hardnesses for different casting applications.

• The hardness is controlled by adjustment of the components.

• The composition of inlay wax is complex, and it may contain five or six different
waxes, such as paraffin, carnauba, ceresin, and beeswax.

• Paraffin and cresin are mineral waxes, carnauba is a plant wax, and beeswax is an
insect wax.

Casting Waxes

• These waxes are used to form the wax pattern of the metallic framework of
removable partial dentures.

• They are available in sheets and in ready-made shapes, which are convenient for
making the wax pattern of the partial denture.

• Many casting waxes possess a slight tackiness to help hold them in position on the
gypsum cast before investing and casting.
Baseplate Waxes

• Baseplate are used to build the contours of a denture and hold the position of the
denture teeth before the denture is processed in acrylic.

• Baseplate waxes is pink or red, which provides some esthetic quality during the
construction of a denture.

• It is available in sheets 7.5cm wide, 15cm long, and 0.13cm thick.

• Baseplate waxes typically contains ceresin, beeswax, carnauba wax, and various
synthetic waxes.

• Its composition can be altered to give various hardnesses.

• Three common hardnesses of baseplate wax are available, each with separate
flow requirements.

• Type I wax is soft at room temperature and is used for contouring dentures.

• Type II is a medium wax to be used for patterns that will be placed into the mouth
in a temperate climate.

• Type III waxes are hardest and are for mouth use in tropical climates.

• The flow qualities as a function of temperature of Type III wax are similar to
inlay wax.
Important Properties of Pattern Waxes

• All pattern waxes must possess low flow at their working temperature to prevent
distortion of the wax pattern.

• The melting range of the wax also must be higher than the environment in which
the pattern is made.

• This fact is especially important for so-called direct wax patterns, which are made
directly in the mouth.

• Too high of a melting range may make development of residual stresses a

problem or may make working with the wax difficult.

• Finally all pattern waxes must burn out with no residue because the residue
would interfere with the casting of the pattern.
(B) Processing Wax

1) Boxing Wax

• Soft, pliable

• Primarily used in taking and pouring impressions

• Dark in color, have a slight tackiness

• Can be melted easily

• Made from beeswax, paraffin, other soft waxes

• Supplied as 40cm long strip, 4-5cm wide, 0.1cm thick in diameter

2) Utility Wax

• Soft, pliable

• Primarily used in taking and pouring impressions

• Dark in color, have a slight tackiness

• Can be melted easily

• Made from beeswax, paraffin, other soft waxes

• In ortho, it can be white and called periphery wax

• 40cm or more long, 0.5cm diameter

• To reduce irritation on tray, to extend the tray before impression is taken

3) Sticky Wax

• Hard and brittle at room temp

• Sticky and adhere to dry stone when heated

 • Used to assemble metallic/resin pieces temporary, to seal a plaster splint to a
stone cast

4) Corrective Wax

• Used as a wax veneer

• Formulated from hydrocarbon waxes: paraffin and ceresin

• Some may contain metallic particles

• Most contain castor oil to provide adequate flow

• At mouth temp (37.5ºC), flow is 100%

5) Bite Registration Wax

• Used for accurate articulation of certain models of opposing arches

• Made from beeswax/paraffin/ceresin/ceresin and oils

• Some contain aluminium and copper

• At 37.5ºC, flow is from 2.5-22%

• E.g.: 28-gauge casting, baseplate wax

Gypsum Products

Introduction

• Gypsum is a mineral that is mined in various parts of the world.

• Chemically it is CaSO4;2H2O (Calcium sulphate dihydrate)

• 3 types of gypsum products are available in dentistry:

o Model plaster

o Dental stone

o High strength dental stone or die stone

• All these types differ in their physical form but have the same chemical structure.

Manufacture

• The process of heating gypsum for manufacturing plaster is known as

CALCINATION.

• When heated, gypsum loses part of its water of crystallisation and changes to
calcium sulphate hemihydrate.

• On further heating, the remaining water of crystallisation is lost.

• First hexagonal (soluble) anhydrite is formed.

• Later orthorhombic (insoluble) anhydrite is formed.

Two forms of hemihydrates

1. Beta hemihydrate ( plaster )

o Fibrous aggregate of fine cystal withcapillary pores.

o Fluffy porous and least dense.

2. Alpha heminydrate ( stone )

o Cleavage fragments and crystals in form of rods or prisms.

o Higher density and more crystalline.

 - hemihydrate - hemihydrate

When dihydrate is heated under steam When dihydrate is heated in open

pressure. kettle or klin.

Dense & prismatic crystals Spongy & irregular shapedcrystals

Stronger & harder products on mixing Less strong products on mixing with
with water water

Type III , IV, V Type I, II

Smaller W/P ratio Larger W/P ratio

Setting Reaction

Types & Functions of Gypsum

Gypsum (CaSO4 H2O) Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate is a mineral mined .

In dentistry gypsum products are used for :

 • model

• Molds

• Invesment

• Formed by driving off part of the water of crystallization from gypsum to form
calcium sulphate hemihydrate.(calcination)

• Gypsum → Gypsum product + water

• 2CASO4·2H2O → (CaSO4)2·H2O + 3H2O

•

Functions of gypsum

No. of type Types of gypsum Function

Type I Impression Plaster Dental impression

Type II Model plaster Fill a flask in denture construction

Type III Dental stone Cast construction in fabrication of full

dentures that fit soft tissues
( low-moderate strength)

Type IV Dental stone Die material stone

(high strength, low expansion)

Type V Dental stone Aid in compensating for the alloy

solidification shrinkage
( high strength, high expansion)
General Properties of Gypsum

General Properties of
Gypsum

Water/Powder
Mixing time Setting time Wet Strength Dry strength
ratio

Water/Powder ratio (W/P ratio)

• W/P ratio is comparison between water and powder

• Weight (volume) of water divide by weight of powder

• The mixing of gypsum powder and water have different fixed ratio and it is
different for every type of gypsum, its depend on measurement , shape and
compactness of particle of gypsum powder

Shape , compactness of crystal

• Irregular shaped, spongy hemihydrate crystal need more water compare to

hemihydrate crystal that is less spongy and have regular shaped to make the
procedure of wetting and mixing become easier
Recommended W/P Ratio

Type W/P

I 0.50 – 0.75

II 0.45 – 0.50

III 0.28 – 0.30

IV 0.22 – 0.24

V 0.18 – 0.22

• If using gypsum product with W/P ratio of 0.45. We need 100gram gypsum
powder and 45 gram (45 ml) of water.

• W/P ratio is very important in determining the physical and chemical properties of
final gypsum product

• W/P ratio is used to get smooth mould and homegen

• For chemical reaction :

H20 + 3H2O  2CaSO4.2H2O
need only 18.6ml of water.

• The actual amount of water to mix the above reaction is greater than the amount
required. This is called excess water

• W/P 0.45 means

For 100gram of gypsum powder ,we use 45ml of water,there will be excess water
in reaction of 26.4ml (45ml – 18.6ml ).

• The water will evaporate and leave pores

 • W/P ratio, the excess water that did not reaction , pores,strength of gypsum
product (not compact)

Setting time

• Definition :The time elapsing from beginning of mixing and stirring until the
material harden

• The sign of a gypsum start to harden can be noticed by its surface through eyes

• Measurement of setting time :

a) Loss of gloss method

• As reaction proceed, the gloss disappear from surface , the mold starting to
harden , until when we pour water into impression , it does not have water flow ,
this is known as initial set

• Final setting time is time at which material can be separated from impression
without distortion or fracture .

• The hardening of gypsum lead to exothermic reaction , this lead to hardening of

gypsum mould .

• We use several test to measure the setting time.

Factor that affect setting time

Factor

Stirring Accelerator
Spatulation Impurities
time & Retarder
Spatulation
The longer the plaster is mixed , the faster it will set (the faster the setting time)

Stirring time
The longer the plaster is mixed , the faster it will set (the faster the setting time)

Accelerator or Retarders
- accelerator : fasten/ shorten setting time
- retarder : slow / lengthen setting time

Impurities
Impurities found in bowl or spatula fasten setting time

Strength
--the strength increase rapidly as material harden after initial setting time

Strength

Wet strength Dry strength

• Strength have direct relationship with gypsum mass density that harden.

• The little the water used to stir ,means the little the excess water that is not used
will be.

• In others word, mass density in mould bigger until get a stronger mould

• Within one hour after stirred , the strength of gypsum is known as wet strength
(Excess free water is present)
 • After gypsum is dried, the strength of gypsum increase two times greater than the
wet strength .Dry strength is strength when excess free water is lost due to
evaporation.

Setting Time

• The time elapsing from the beginning of mixing until the material hardens is
called setting time.

• Mixing time: the time from the addition the powder to the water until the mixing
is complete.

• Working time: the time available a workable mix, generally 3 minutes.

• Initial setting time(Craig): As the reaction proceeds, more hemihydrate crystals

react to form dihydrate crystals. The viscosity of the mass is increased, and it can
no longer be poured. The material becomes rigid. It can be carved but not molded.

• Final setting time (Craig): The time at which the material can be separated from
the impression without distortion or fracture.

Normal Setting Expansion

• Setting expansion is due to the outward thrust of growing crystals. It is observed

based on the mechanism of crystallization.

• The setting expansion when a gypsum product is allowed to expand in air (when
placed on table or dry environment)

• Setting expansion may range from 0.06%-0.5%

• Sodium chloride and ground gypsum increases setting expansion.

• Importance: Setting expansion may be wanted or unwanted. It is undesirable in

impression plaster, dental plaster and stone as it will result in an inaccurate case
or change in occlusal relation if used for mounting.
Hygroscopic setting expansion

• The expansion of a gypsum products when it is allowed to set, immersed in water.

• When expansion begins, externally available water is drawn into pores, forming
in the setting mass and this maintains a continuous aqueous phase in which crystal
growth takes place freely.

• Under dry conditions this additional water is not available, and as expansion
occurs the aqueous phase in the mix is reduced toa film over the growing crystals.

• It is greater in magnitude than normal setting expansion.

• Importance: It is used to expand some gypsum bonded investments.

Factors affecting gypsum properties

• Method of mixing and spatulation – Within limits, the longer and faster the plaster
is mixed, the faster it will set because nuclei of crystallization are broken and well
distributed within the mass.

• Water/Powder Ratio - More the water used for mixing, the fewer the nuclei per
unit volume. Thus setting time will be prolonged.

• Manufacturing Process – If calcination is incomplete and excess gypsum is left in

the final product, the resulting plaster will set faster. If soluble anhydrate is in
excess, plaster will set faster. If natural anhydrate is in excess, plaster will set
slower. Finer the hemihydrate particle size, the faster the set, because hemihydrate
dissolves faster and the gypsum nuclei will be more numerous and therefore,
crystalliation is faster.
Gypsum Product Manipulation

• To secure maximum strength a low water/powder ratio should be used. The water
should be measured and the power weighed.

• Instrument: Flexible rubber/plastic bowl, stiff bladed spatula.

• Procedure for hand-mixing:

 Take a measured quantity of water in the rubber bowl and sift a weighed quantity
of powder into it.

 It is allowed to settle for 30 seconds to minimize air entrapment.

 The mix is stirred vigorously. Periodically wipe the inside of the bowl with a
spatula to ensure wetting of the powder and breaking up of lumps. Continue until
a smooth, creamy mix is obtained. Spatulation should be completed in 45-60
seconds.

 Vibrate the mix (using a mechanical vibration or by repeated tapping against a

bench) and pour it into the impression, taking care not to entrap air.

• Precautions:

 The mixing equipment must be meticulously clean. There should be no

particles of set plaster from a previous mix sticking to the bowl or spatula.
If these present, additional nuclei of crystallization happens and cause
faster setting.

 No air must be trapped in the mixed mass. It cause loss of surface detail
and weakens the cast.

• Mechanical mixing under vacuum gives stronger and denser casts. However, the
equipment is expensive.