7.15a - Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding

Summary of Annotations
Page 3
#1 Highlight (Shabbir)
Soldering differs from welding in that it is done at considerably lower temperatures so that the parent metals do not melt and fuse together
In soldering, the fusible alloy (usually non-ferrous) forms a metallic bond with the parent metals and, on cooling, creates a solid joint
Soldering is a process of joining metals by flowing a low melting
point alloy termed solder, between the surfaces that are to be
joined
Soldering is only possible if clean metal and clean molten solder are brought into effective contact
Soldering is essentially an alloying process in which certain elements in the solder combine with the metals of the joint
A flux material removes oxide from the metal faces and facilitates the flow and adhesion of the solder
Flux is essential requirement for soft soldering
A soldering iron consists essentially of a copper “bit” secured to
a holder, to which is fitted a heat-resistant handle
Normally for general workshop, bits of 4 ounce are used in soldering and adequate for most purposes, but very small bits may needed for ultra-light solderin
in very confined positions
The bit is the heat reservoir of the tool, and it must be large enough to heat the job adequately
Never try to do sizeable job with a small iron
The bits, which are renewable, are heated in
a fire or the flame of a brazing lamp
Page 4
The light type electric solder may weight only a few ounces and have a pointed cylindrical bit of 1/8 inch or 3/16 inch diameter, with a heater element rated
20 watts for use on a 6-volt supply other heaters are suitable for use on normal main-supply voltages (200-250 volts).
The larger type electric solders are effective instruments for general soldering, work, with substantial bits and heaters rated at up to 250 watts
These irons (large type electric solders) are, as a rule, only available for use on normal main supply
MOX (type of solder) was originally introduced for ‘outside' use where neither electric power nor other heating medium is available
The copper bit incorporates a circular cavity in which is placed a "MOX" (Magnesium and Aluminium oxide) tablet’
MOX is lit by a special match, and in burning it raises the temperatures of the bit to soldering heat
MOX type irons (solders) are now rarely used
Before an iron can be used for soldering, the contact surfaces must be given a coating of tin or solder this process is called “tinning” the iron
Page 5
The ideal working temperature for the iron is just high enough to melt the solder easily
* Overheating causing chalkiness in solder and is responsible for unsatisfactory joints.
* overheating is also encourages the formation of oxide on the bit, thus necessitating repeated cleaning and re-tinning
Systematic use of the heater switch enables an electric iron to be kept at optimum temperature
When heating a common iron, always direct the flame of the brazing lamp at the base of the bit, not at the point
Too much flux tends to lower the temperature of the iron and also promotes corrosion of the bit
Tip/element of solder are very hot (about 400°C) and will give you a nasty burn.
Solder contains lead, which is a poisonous metal.
Ordinary soft solder is a fusible alloy consisting chiefly of tin and lead
Solder is used to join two or more metals at temperatures below their melting point
Ordinary table salt has to be heated to 1,488°F before it melts
Antimony, Bismuth, cadmium or silver are added to change the melting point or physical properties of the alloy
The action of molten solder on a metal like copper may be compared to the action of water on salt
the soldering process involves a metal solvent action between the solder and the metal being joined
A solder joint is chemical in nature rather than purely physical
The bond formed in soldering is partly by chemical action and partly by physical bond
Page 6
The properties of a solder joint are different from those of the original solder
The solder is converted to a new and different alloy through the solvent action
the metals joined physically using bolts, wires out by other means are not even in direct contact due to an insulating film of oxide on the surfaces of the
metals
Temperature change does not affect the solder alloy

* Tinman's solder is a solder composed of 50% lead, 48% tin, and 2% antimony
* Tinman's solder is supplied in stick form
* Tinman’s solder liquefies at 227°C and sets solid at 185°C
* Tinman's solder is used for fine work and higher grade general work
* Electrician's solder is composed of 40% lead and 60% tin
* Electrician's solder is supplied
in the form of resin-cored wire to eliminate any danger of corrosive fluxes being used with it
* Melting and solidifying points of Electrician's solder are approximate to those of tinman’s solder
* Lead/Silver solder is an alloy of lead (97.5%) and silver (2.5%)
* lead/silver solder melts at
304°C and solidifies at 183°C
* lead/silver solder retains its strength to a considerable higher temperature than will lead/tin solder (both Tinman's and Electrician's solder)
Page 7
* Hard Soldering is done at temperatures in excess of 500°C

* Hard soldering includes the processes of Brazing and Silver Soldering
* Soft Soldering is done at temperatures within the range of 180°C to 330°C
* Soft soldering creates joints of lower strength (but less expense) than those achieved by hard soldering methods
The hard soldering processes are, normally, beyond the remit of the aircraft servicing technician
Brazing uses a Copper/Zinc (Brass) alloy as the filler metal (spelter) between the parent metals of the joint
The melting point of the brazing alloys can be as high as 880°C
Brazing is a process of joining in which, during, or after heating,

the molten filler metal is drawn into, or retained in, the space between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined, by capillary attraction
It is necessary to employ the use of a flux material to assist the fusion of the filler with the parent metals and to prevent oxidation of the joint
The flux mostly used for brazing processes is borax, which is
based on Sodium Borate powder, mixed with water, to a thin
paste
Silver Soldering entails the use of a Copper/Zinc/Silver or Nickel/Silver alloy as the joining metal
Silver soldering can be done at temperatures of between 650°C to 700°C
Brass, copper, monel metal and stainless steel are typical metals on which silver soldering processes can be used
* Soft Soldering involves the use of a Lead/Tin alloy (with traces of Bismuth and Antimony added when required) as the filler metal
* soft soldering alloy melts at temperatures between approximately 180°C to 330°C, depending on the composition of the alloy
Due to lower temperature requirement of the soft soldering process, the use of indirect heat is allowed.
Page 8
Copper has become the metal most preferred for use as the soldering ‘bit’
Typically, the 25 watt electric soldering iron is widely used for making joints in electric circuitry
The advent of electrically heated (and thermostatically controlled) soldering irons has overcome the re-heating problem, associated with directly heated iron
In earlier times, the heat was provided by the application of an implement with a wooden handle and a smooth, flat, base or ‘bit’ (originally made of iron).
Page 9
Larger, 40 watt (or as large as 125 watt) irons, with proportionately larger bits, may be used when it is required to create overlapping joints (lap joints) of
sheet metals
An appropriate flux is applied to the cleaned surfaces, to prevent oxidation at the joint and to assist in the flow and fusion of the solder.
The heated bit of the soldering iron must, next, be ‘tinned’
Each surface of the prepared joint must also be carefully tinned so that a thin film of solder covers the total area of the joint surfaces
Care must be taken when applying solder to the joint surfaces to ensure that it is as thin and as smooth as possible
the joint is actually stronger than the solder itself
Even when making electrical connections, using soft solder, a type of lap joint must be made, since an end-to-end joint in wire would be impracticable
Page 10
Metal surfaces become more reactive to oxygen when they are heated
Page 11
Fluxes for soft soldering are often classified into two groups:
1) Active group: which are corrosive or acid fluxes
2) Passive group: which are non-corrosive fluxes
Fluxes may take the form of a liquid, paste or solid
Active (corrosive) fluxes are used where conditions require a rapidly working and highly active flux
Active fluxes can cause burns to flesh and clothing.
Flux residues of acid fluxes remain active after soldering and will cause corrosion unless removed by thorough cleansing (first in a weak solution of caustic
soda and then in water)
Live Oil is a passive flux used for soldering pewter items

Tallow is a passive flux used by plumbers, for the jointing of lead sheet and pipes
Natural resin is a passive flux dissolved in suitable organic solvents.

* Natural resin is the closest approximation to a non-corrosive flux
* Natural resin is particularly suitable for use in the electrical industry
Similar to resin, Tallow is only slightly active when heated to the temperature of the soldering process
Phosphoric Acid is an active flux used primarily on stainless steels
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl) is an active flux commonly called ‘killed spirits’.

* Zinc chloride flux is used
on general sheet-metal work

* Zinc chloride flux may be obtained commercially under its trade name of ‘Baker’s Soldering Fluid’
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) is an active flux commonly called sal ammoniac

* Ammonium chloride flux is used in block form for cleaning the face of the soldering bit before tinning
* Ammonium chloride flux is used in powdered form, with Zinc Chloride, for tinning cast iron.
Hydrochloric Acid (HCI) is an active flux used in the raw state for pickling the surfaces of the metal and rendering them clean.
* As a flux, Hydrochloric Acid is extremely active.
* Hydrochloric Acid is suitable for soldering zinc and galvanised mild steel
Passive (Non-Corrosive) fluxes are divided into three types:

1) natural resin
2) tallow
3) live oil
Page 12
The method of removal of flux will be
determined by the type of flux used, but will entail the use of one, or a combination of, the following:
* A solution of caustic soda

* A solution of sulphuric acid
* A supply of warm water
* Physical abrasion
The inspection of soldered joints is done mainly by visual means, though, in some applications, tensile testing is recommended.
Page 13
because of the Aluminium's high specific heat and thermal conductivity, a greater heat input is required for soldering aluminium
A soldering temperature of 2800C to 3700C is required for soldering aluminium, and may be obtained using a hand iron, gas torch, furnace or induction coil
As aluminium expands more than most materials, light jigging,

which will allow the parts to expand and contract, should be used when necessary
A joint clearance of 0.05 mm to 0.1 mm
(0.002 inch to 0.004 inch) will allow the solder to fit the gap by
capillary action, and give maximum strength
Pungent fumes are given off by the flux, and soldering should be carried out in a well-ventilated working area.
Page 14
Welding may be defined as the permanent joining, by fusion, of two pieces of material (usually metals), by the progressive melting and subsequent solidifica
of the materials at the site of the joint.
Welds require the application of sufficient heat energy to melt the metals involved in the joint and the high temperatures are achieved by various methods.
The temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame is approximately 3150°C
For welding, only an oxygen and acetylene mixture will provide a sufficiently highly heat input needed for the welding process.
The cutting of steel sections and plate material may be done by means of a flame torch
The oxy-acetylene method can be used for welding ferrous or non-ferrous metals
when welding non-ferrous metals, it is necessary that an additional material (a flux) be used, usually with a filler metal, to assist in the fusion process
The purpose of the flux is to prevent oxidation of the joint site so that the molten metals can fuse together more easily and, thus,
eliminate brittleness in the joint.
manual metal arc welding process uses an electric arc as the heat source.
The temperature of the arc is approximately 4000°C to 4500°C.
The arc is established between a flux-coated filler metal rod and the workpiece
Page 15
A method used to join comparatively thin sheets of metal, spot welding is a form of resistance welding.
The pointed electrodes used in spot welding are made from copper alloy and are usually watercooled.
* Tungsten arc gas-shielded (tags) process also uses an electric arc as the heat source, but
here a tungsten non-consumable electrode is used to form the
arc with the workpiece.

* An inert shielding gas (argon) is
required to protect both the weld pool and the tungsten electrode from the oxygen and moisture in the atmosphere.
tungsten arc gas shielded process is sometimes called argon arc welding and, also, Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding.
A filler rod is usually required to give reinforcement to the weld.
* Metal arc gas-shielded (mags) is a semi-automatic welding process.

* the heat source is also
an electric arc, but the electrode is a bare wire, which is consumable and is supplied, from a reel, to the welding gun, by a wire feed unit.
* A shielding gas is employed; in place of a flux material, to protect the weld pool.
* The type of shielding gas used, will vary with the application.
* Some of the gases and gas
mixtures used are:
- Argon
- Carbon dioxide
- Argon/carbon dioxide
- Argon/oxygen
- Argon/nitrogen
- Helium
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding: where the shielding is provided by a shroud of inert gas
Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding: where the shielding is provided by a shroud of active, or non-inert, gas or mixture of gases.
Page 16
Brazing is essentially similar to soldering
it gives a much
stronger joint than soldering.
The principal differences between soldering and brazing are the use of harder filler materials in brazing and heating to higher temperatures in brazing.
Copper alloyed with other elements like zinc, silver cadmium,

phosphorus may be used as fillers for brazing copper and steel.
Filler alloys of aluminium copper silicon are suitable for aluminium brazing
Silver alloys (silver–copper, or silver–copper–zinc) are suitable for brazing high nickel alloys.
Borax is very widely used as flux in brazing.
Filler alloys are generally available in the form of rod, wire and strip and in some instances in granular form the form selected depending on the brazing met
used
The principle of seam welding is similar to that of spot welding (namely resistance to the flow of electricity).
The main difference in seam welding and spot welding is that instead of the pointed electrodes, seam welding uses discs or wheels, which are moved along
length of the weld
Page 17
Cleaning (of the surface to be brazed) may be done by sand, shot or alumina (Al2O3) blasting or brushing with wire brush
Aluminium and its alloys may also be cleaned for brazing by pickling process (10% Sulphuric acid).
Capillary attraction is the major factor in making a brazed joint
The best brazing results are obtained where the joint gap of 0.002 – 0.004 inch is used
The methods of applying heat in brazing can be classified into four categories:- induction, resistance, furnace and torch
in Induction heating , Water-cooled coil is placed around the part to braze and high frequency current is passed through the coil.
This induces eddy currents to flow in the part producing heat.
Resistance heating is used where localized heat is required.

Two electrodes are connected to a low voltage, high current supply.
The passage of current causes the electrodes to glow and heat the part.
Flux residue will cause corrosion when exposed to atmospheric conditions and its complete removal is essential.
Torch heating is done using brazing torches

Where a borax type flux is used, prolonged boiling in water or a short pickling (10% sulphuric acid) followed by thorough washing in water will be necessary
remove flux
Fluoride type fluxes can be removed by washing
in water and wire brushing
furnace-brazing method comprises a furnace maintained at correct temperature
Page 18
Bonding, by the use of adhesives, is the third method of achieving permanent joints between surfaces
The surface texture of a particular adherend, the type of joint required, and the manner in which loads are applied to the joint will dictate the type of adhesiv
to be used, and the method to be employed, in effecting the joint
Synthetic resins (and some elastomers) are mainly used as adhesives in the bonding of aircraft structures and associated components
Page 19
ALTHOUGH MANY OF THE ADHESIVES IN CURRENT USE ARE SUPPLIED IN FILM FORM, SOME ARE LIQUIDS OR PASTES, FROM WHICH, TOXIC
AND FLAMMABLE VAPOURS ARE EMITTED, PRIOR TO CURING
MANY OF THE NECESSARY, SURFACE PREPARATION SOLVENTS, ALSO GIVE OFF TOXIC/FLAMMABLE VAPOURS
* Flexible adhesives are used where some flexing or slight relative movement, of the joint is required, and where high load-carrying properties are not
paramount.
* Flexible adhesives are, generally, based on flexible plastics or elastomers
* Structural adhesives: used in applications where high loads must be carried without excessive creep and which are relatively rigid without being excessive
hard or brittle.
* Structural adhesives are based on resins (commonly of the epoxy or of the polyester types).
Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type,

which has a reasonably even balance of resin and elastomer.
This results in a flexible, yet fairly strong, adhesive.
Thermoplastic materials are those which soften on heating and harden when cooled but will, again soften and harden as often as the heat/cool cycle is
repeated
Thermoplastic adhesives consist of thermoplastic materials (which may be either acrylic-, cellulose-, epoxy-, rubber- or vinyl-based), in solution with a volat
solvent.
* Thermoplastic adhesives may be applied to the surface of adherends in the form of:
1) Direct application adhesives
2) Contact (or impact) adhesives.
Direct application adhesives, are spread over the area of both
surfaces of the joint before the joint is closed and the solvent
continues to evaporate
direct application of adhesive can create problems if the joint area is large, as all of the solvent may not evaporate and a weak joint will result
Contact adhesives are also applied to both surfaces to be joined but, with these adhesives, the solvent is allowed to evaporate until the adhesive feels ‘tack
the surfaces are, then,
brought into contact and a complete joint is achieved.
Page 20
Thermosetting materials (thermosets), once set, cannot be reformed by the application of heat and they create permanent heat-resisting bonds
Thermosetting adhesives consist of epoxy- and phenolic-based materials in addition to polyesters, polyurethanes, and silicones
Thermosets require a ‘curing’ process (which is achieved by the application of heat), to cause them to harden.
Thermosetting adhesives are the types most widely used in the aerospace industry.
the adhesive in the joint can be heated by the chemical (exothermic) reaction of a hardening agent, which is added to the adhesive, prior to the joint being
made
Delamination and de-bonding of aircraft honeycomb panels and control surfaces may be detected by percussion (ring) testing or coin tapping
‘peel’ tests are done on adhesives which are used to attach de-icing or anti-icing elements to the leading edges of propellers or flying control surfaces.

7.15a - Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding

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7.15a - Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding

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Summary of Annotations

Soldering is a process of joining metals by flowing a low melting

point alloy termed solder, between the surfaces that are to be

Flux is essential requirement for soft soldering

A soldering iron consists essentially of a copper “bit” secured to

a holder, to which is fitted a heat-resistant handle

#10 Highlight (Shabbir)

#11 Highlight (Shabbir)

Never try to do sizeable job with a small iron

#12 Highlight (Shabbir)

The bits, which are renewable, are heated in

a fire or the flame of a brazing lamp

MOX type irons (solders) are now rarely used

Solder contains lead, which is a poisonous metal.

#10 Highlight (Shabbir)

Ordinary table salt has to be heated to 1,488°F before it melts

#11 Highlight (Shabbir)

#13 Highlight (Shabbir)

#14 Highlight (Shabbir)

A solder joint is chemical in nature rather than purely physical

#15 Highlight (Shabbir)

Temperature change does not affect the solder alloy

* Tinman's solder is supplied in stick form

* Tinman’s solder liquefies at 227°C and sets solid at 185°C

* Electrician's solder is composed of 40% lead and 60% tin

* Electrician's solder is supplied

* Lead/Silver solder is an alloy of lead (97.5%) and silver (2.5%)

* lead/silver solder melts at

304°C and solidifies at 183°C

* Hard Soldering is done at temperatures in excess of 500°C

* Soft Soldering is done at temperatures within the range of 180°C to 330°C

The melting point of the brazing alloys can be as high as 880°C

Brazing is a process of joining in which, during, or after heating,

The flux mostly used for brazing processes is borax, which is

based on Sodium Borate powder, mixed with water, to a thin

#10 Highlight (Shabbir)

Silver soldering can be done at temperatures of between 650°C to 700°C

#11 Highlight (Shabbir)

#12 Highlight (Shabbir)

#13 Highlight (Shabbir)

The heated bit of the soldering iron must, next, be ‘tinned’

the joint is actually stronger than the solder itself

1) Active group: which are corrosive or acid fluxes

2) Passive group: which are non-corrosive fluxes

Fluxes may take the form of a liquid, paste or solid

Active fluxes can cause burns to flesh and clothing.

Live Oil is a passive flux used for soldering pewter items

Natural resin is a passive flux dissolved in suitable organic solvents.

#10 Highlight (Shabbir)

Phosphoric Acid is an active flux used primarily on stainless steels

#11 Highlight (Shabbir)

Zinc Chloride (ZnCl) is an active flux commonly called ‘killed spirits’.

on general sheet-metal work

#12 Highlight (Shabbir)

Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) is an active flux commonly called sal ammoniac

#13 Highlight (Shabbir)

Passive (Non-Corrosive) fluxes are divided into three types:

The method of removal of flux will be

* A solution of caustic soda

As aluminium expands more than most materials, light jigging,

A joint clearance of 0.05 mm to 0.1 mm

capillary action, and give maximum strength

The temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame is approximately 3150°C