DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

CHAPTER 03
DESIGN OF BEAMS USING ULTIMATE STRENGTH DESIGN (USD) METHOD

3-1 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

The discussion is started with a singly reinforced rectangular beam (or “singly” for short) where the
reinforcements are tension rebars only. Ultimate Strength Design or USD method is a limit analysis concept.
Theoretically, the stress of concrete will reach its maximum usable strain of 0.003 also referred to as the crushing
strain as shown in the concrete stress-strain diagram in the figure below (Fig. 3.1).
fc

Figure 3.1 fc’

Concrete 0.85fc’
Stress-Strain
Diagram

c
cu = 0.003
The section is now considered to have reached its ultimate moment capacity. This is in accordance with the NSCP
2015 (Art. 422.2.2.1). If the beam section rotates and the strains are linearly varying, the concrete stresses will
follow the shape of the concrete stress-strain diagram as illustrated below in Figure 3.2.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.2 Concrete Stress Block Converted from Parabolic to Rectangular
Dealing with a curved concrete stress block is complicated. Thus, an empirical transformation was adopted in the
design code to convert the parabolic stress block into a rectangular stress block (Fig. 3.2). This simplifies the limit
analysis since the volume of the rectangular stress block which represents the concrete resultant compression
force is easily determined. Likewise, the location of this compression resultant force is determined in a straight
forward manner.
Figure 3-3.C
In order to be equivalent, the volumes of the parabolic stress block and rectangular stress block must be equal.
Also, the location of the resultant of the parabolic fand
c the rectangular stress blocks must be the same.

Experiments have shown that the equivalent rectangular

f’ stress block with the same volume and the same location
of the resultant has a depth equal to “a” with ac uniform stress of 0.85f c’. The relationship between a and c is
0.85fc’
defined by the formula (NSCP Eqn. 422.2.2.4.1)

c
cu = 0.003
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a = β1 c (1)

Note that c is the distance from the ultimate neutral axis to the extreme compression fiber.

Empirically, the value of 1 has been established by the NSCP as follows:

1
1 is from NSCP Table 422.2.2.4.3

0.85 β1 = 0.85 for fc’ < 28 MPa

β1 = 0.85 – (0.05/7) (fc’ –28) for fc’ > 28 MPa

0.65

fc’ (MPa) β1 ≥ 0.65

28 55

For the steel reinforcement, the stress strain diagram is idealized as perfectly elastic and perfectly plastic lines as
shown in Figure 3-3. The elastic range terminates at stress f y and the corresponding strain equal to y. The slope
of the line within the elastic range is defined as the modulus of elasticity as described by Hooke’s law.

fs

Yield Strength, Y.S. = fy

c
y
Figure 3.3 Idealized Steel Stress-Strain Diagram

The slope of the inclined line is Es, the steel elastic modulus. Therefore, the yield strain of steel is simply equal
given by the formula below

y =

The modulus of elasticity of steel Es is taken as 200 GPa or 200,000 MPa.

There are two types of reinforcing bars: Grade 40 and Grade 60. The corresponding yield strains y for Grade 40
and Grade 60 steel are 276/200,000 = 0.00138 and 414/200,000 = 0.00207, correspondingly.

From Figure 3.2.a, equilibrium requires that summation of forces must be zero. With no external axial force and
only a bending moment acting on the section, the force resultants C c and Ts must be equal.

∑F = 0  Cc = Ts

Cc is the compression force and is equal to the volume of the rectangular stress block. Thus, C c is equal to the
uniform stress 0.85fc’ multiplied by the area of the rectangular stress block which is “a” times “b”.

At the ultimate stage, the tension reinforcement is required to yield. Hence, the tension force resultant is T s = Asfy.
The equilibrium equation now is expressed below as follows
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0.85 fc’ a b = As fy

The nominal moment capacity of the section M n is determined by the second equilibrium equation, summation
moment = 0. Mn is equal to the force couple which is C c or Ts multiplied by the lever arm. With the rectangular
stress block shown in Fig. 3.2.a, the lever arm is easily computed as

Lever arm = d – a/2.

This now gives the nominal moment capacity from the equilibrium equation as

∑M = 0 Mn = (Cc or Ts) (d – a/2)

According to the NSCP (Table 421.2.2), the usable portion of the nominal moment capacity is only 90% or a
reduction factor  = 0.90. This is applicable to tension controlled classification where the tensile strain of the
rebar exceeds 0.005.

Also, USD requires that

Mn ≥ Mu where Mu is the factored moment or moment from the factored loads.

Flexural members are required to be ductile. These members are designed to undergo ductile failure when their
ultimate capacities are reached. Ductile failure is preferred over brittle failure because failure for the former is
slow in developing and more than adequate tell-tale signs manifest before the section collapses. In contrast, brittle
failure is sudden with little or no warning leading to disastrous consequences.
M
Over-reinforced section
1 Balanced section
Under-reinforced section


Figure 3.4 Comparison among ultimate moment capacities of beams
with different amounts of tensile reinforcements

The relationships between the moment ultimate capacity and rotation for beams with varying amounts of
reinforcements are shown in Figure 3.4. If the amount of tension reinforcement is reduced, the moment capacity
will decrease. However, the section can undergo increased rotation. Fig 3.4 shows the moment capacities and
rotations of beams with different amounts of reinforcements, i.e. for a beam that is under-reinforced, a balanced
beam and over-reinforced beam.

In an over-reinforced beam, the concrete extreme compression fiber will reach its crushing strain before the
tension reinforcement yields. In contrast, in an under-reinforced beam, the tension reinforcement will yield first
before the concrete crushes. A balanced condition is defined as a beam section where the concrete crushing of its
extreme compression fiber occurs simultaneously with the yielding of the tension reinforcement.

For the under-reinforced beam, the moment capacity will be lower but the beam can undergo very large rotation
before failure. The tensile reinforcements will have considerable elongations or tensile strains at ultimate stage.
Therefore, before an under-reinforced beam fails, very large cracks will manifest first accompanied by large
deflections before the section reaches its ultimate capacity. Thus, this ductile type of failure will exhibit more than
adequate warnings before failing and this is the objective of the Code.

3-1.1 Maximum Steel Ratio,  max

In order to ensure that the flexural member will be ductile, the amount of the tension reinforcement is controlled.
The NSCP ensures that the flexural member will be under-reinforced by prescribing a minimum strain of 0.004
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for the tensile reinforcements (Art. 409.3.3.1). It must be noted that under-reinforced beam sections will have
larger strains in the tensile rebars.

The practical application in design is to control the steel ratio of the tension reinforcements. The derivation for the
maximum steel ratio limit to ensure an under-reinforced design is shown below.

Strains Stresses Forces

b cu = 0.003
0.85fc’
c a a/2
Cc = 0.85fc’ab
d

ts = 0.004
Ts = Asfy
fy
Figure 3.5 Singly Reinforced Beam Section Under Positive Bending: Strains, Stresses and Forces.

The beam section above (Fig. 3.5) is a singly reinforced rectangular beam (or “singly” for short) subjected to a
positive moment. Compression stresses are at the top and tensile stresses are at the bottom. From the strain
diagram and recognizing the similar triangles,

From the equilibrium equation Ts = Cc

As fy = 0.85 fc’ab (2)

Dividing both sides of the equation with bdfy

Introducing the notation

(3)

and recognizing that a = 1c as per NSCP, the above equation now becomes

(4)

Recognizing that this corresponds to the maximum amount of steel that corresponds to a tensile strain, t = 0.004,
then the above equation is the maximum steel ratio that satisfies the NSCP 409.3.3.1 requirement.
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In general, the steel ratios of beams are way below max thus the strains far exceed 0.005. Hence, the tensile rebars
are classified as tension controlled and the applicable reduction factor is  = 0.90.

3-1.2 Minimum Steel Ratio,  min

Also, the code has a minimum steel ratio with the same objective of making the beam section ductile. If steel
reinforcements are too few, then the effect of the steel reinforcements is no longer felt as if the section is pure
concrete only. Concrete being a brittle material, will lead to brittle failure if the amount of tension reinforcement
is negligible. Therefore, there is a need to provide a minimum amount of steel reinforcements. This is specified in
NSCP 409.6.1.2 where

Minimum .

The equation above can be rearranged such that

which is now the expression for the minimum steel ratio.

However, the NSCP stipulates further that this steel ratio should not be lower than 1.4/f y. Hence, the minimum
steel ratio is

(5)

3-1.3 Analysis of a Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beam

The equations and rules from the NSCP on minimum and maximum amount of steel can be organized into a
structured procedure to analyze a given beam section and determine the moment capacity. In such an analysis
problem, the beam dimensions (b and d) are given together with the amount of reinforcements, A s. Likewise, the
material concrete and steel properties f c’ and fy are given.

The analysis procedure is outlined below:

Step 1) Determine max and min. from Equation (4) and (5)

Step 2) Determine the actual steel ratio act from Equation (2)

Step 3) Compare the actual steel ratio act with max and min.

Step 3a) If act > max then use  = max.

In this situation, the existing reinforcements exceed the NSCP maximum limit. Thus, only the amount of
reinforcements corresponding to the prescribed limit is valid.

Step 3b) If act < min then use  = act

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In this situation, the existing reinforcements also are below the NSCP minimum limit. However, the NSCP has a

provision (Art. 409.6.1.3) that states that the minimum steel requirement can be waived if an additional of the

required reinforcement is provided. Conversely, for an existing beam section with reinforcements below the

NSCP limit, then only the reciprocal of the actual reinforcements will be counted. It must be emphasized that

this provision of the NSCP is not to be applied to beams that are to resist seismic forces.

Step 3c) If max > act > min then use  = act.

This is the case where the NSCP steel reinforcement limits are complied with and thus no reduction in the actual
reinforcements is made. It must be noted that violations in the NSCP limits translate into a reduction of the
amount of reinforcements that will be considered valid.

The amount of reinforcement based on the valid steel ratio is now determined as

Step 4) As = *bd using the valid  in Step 3.

Step 5) Solve for “a” to determine the lever arm in Fig. 3.5. The expression for “a” is taken from Eqn. (2).

“a” is needed to determine the lever arm (d - ).

Step 6) Determine the moment capacity

Mn = 

Where: Mn Ultimate Moment Capacity

 Reduction Factor for Moment = 0.90 (NSCP Table 421.2.2)

Mn Nominal Moment Capacity

The ultimate capacity is what is available to resist the factored forces. Factored forces are the service loads
multiplied with their corresponding load factors (refer to Chapter 1).

Example 3.1

A simply supported beam shown is to support a total dead load of 35 kN/m. Determine the live load that the beam
can resist in accordance with the requirements of the NSCP. Use f c’ = 35 MPa and Grade 60 rebars. The
reinforcements shown are 5-36mm bars.

250 mm

A C 350 mm
B

80 mm
6.3m 1.7m 70 mm
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Solution:

Step 1) To solve for max, first 1 must be determined.

0.024638

Therefore,

Step 2) To solve for the steel ratio, the effective depth “d” and A s must first be computed.

Step 3) Since the actual steel ratio exceeded the maximum limit, therefore valid steel ratio is

Step 4) Next, “a” is determined.

Step 5) The ultimate moment capacity can now be solved.

kN-m

The next step is to analyze the beam in order to get the maximum positive moment. Different approaches are
available but a simple straightforward procedure is used here.
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a) Determine the reaction at the left support “A”.

RA = w*

b) From the shear diagram below, note that the slope of the shear diagram is equal to “w”. This is used
to locate “x” the point of “zero shear” which is also the “point of maximum moment”.

VA

w
D C
A B

c) The difference between the moment from Point A to Point D is represented by the area of the shear
diagram from Point A to Point D. Point A is a hinge support and the moment there is zero. Hence the
area of the triangle between A and D is the maximum positive moment.

Max. Mpos =

Note that in the equation above, VA = wx from summation of forces equal zero.
Hence, x = VA/w
w
V=0 x = VA / w

x
VA

d) Now, this maximum moment is equated with the ultimate moment capacity of the beam.

7.2938wu = 301.22 kN-m

wu = 41.298 kN/m

e) The load above with a subscript “u” represents the factored load. Since the load is vertical, then the
only applicable load combination from the NSCP (Eqn. 203-2) is 1.2D + 1.6L. This load combination
leads to the expression for the live load.

wu = 1.2wD + 1.6wL

kN/m

3-1.4 Design of a Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beam

The design of beams to resist the factored moment is made up of two parts: 1) determining the required section
size defined by bd2 which is similar to the section modulus, and 2) determining the amount of reinforcements. In
the design, the concrete and reinforcing bar material properties (f c’ and fy) are already specified beforehand.
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One procedure of determining the required bd2 involves choosing a steel ratio, . The steel ratio limits max and
min serve as guide in selecting . Usually,  is selected to be near the value of min for two reasons. Firstly, a high
steel ratio leads to congestion of the rebars especially at the joints where the beams and the column rebars meet.
Secondly, the price of steel in this country is expensive since this is imported. Thus, the steel ratio is minimized
for an economical design. However, lower steel ratios result to slightly bigger beam sections.

The derivation of the formulas for section size bd2 is shown below.

From the equilibrium equation F=0, Asfy = 0.85fc’ab we get a =

The NSCP requires that Mn > Mu. This leads to the expression Mn = Mu/

The other equilibrium equation is applied (M=0)

Mn = T* = Asfy = Asfy

The right-hand-side of the equation is multiplied with and (1/d) is multiplied inside the parenthesis. Also, Mn

is replaced with Mu/ the to get

The steel ratio was defined before as and this is substituted in the equation above.

Let = (6)

and substitute to the equation above which simplifies to = which then leads to the equation

(7)

The second part of the design involving the amount of reinforcements has working equations derived below (This
procedure was picked up from an old ACI Design Handbook in the 1980’s).

Starting from the earlier derived equation

The terms fybd2 in the right-hand-side of the equation is transferred to the left-hand-side to get
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= =

The above is a quadratic equation for To simplify the above quadratic equation, the following terms are
introduced.

Let (8) and (9)

This simplifies the quadratic equation to .

Now, the amount of reinforcing steel is derived in terms of the steel ratio.

(10)

For beam design, the bar size or diameter (db) is a given and the number of bars is to be determined.

(11)

In some situations, the bar spacing is to be determined instead of the number of bars. The simplified expression
for the spacing is shown below.

(12)

Now, the design procedure can be formulated as follows:

The usual given data are Mu, fc’ and fy.

Part A: Beam Section

Step 1) Determine max and min. from Equation (4) and (5)

Step 2) Choose 

Obviously, the chosen  has to be between min and max. However, it is recommended to use a  nearer and just
above min for two reasons: 1) to minimize the cost since steel is expensive in this country, and 2) to minimize
steel congestion which might be a problem at the joints where the reinforcements of the columns and the beams
(in two orthogonal directions) meet.

Step 3) Choose a “d/b” ratio. “d” is to be maximized in order to optimize the design. The usual range for
“d/b” ratio is from 2 to 3. Let Rdb represent the chosen “d/b” ratio.

Step 4) Determine R from Eqn. 5 using the chosen  in Step 2.

Step 5) Determine the required bd2 in Eqn. 6. Let us represent this value as S = Req’d bd2.

Step 6) Determine the beam width and round off to a nice round number (multiple of 50mm).

d = b*Rdb
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Step 7) Determine the required effective depth using the chosen “b” in Step 6.

Step 8) Determine the beam height and round off to a nice round number (multiple of 50mm).

Req’d h = Req’d d + (Concrete cover + dbs + db/2)

The concrete cover requirements are in NSCP 420.6.1. “dbs” and “db” are the bar diameters for the stirrups and
main bars, respectively. The equation above for “h” is valid for main bars arranged in a single layer as shown
below.

h d

db/2
dbs
Concrete cover
Stirrups Main bars

Step 9) Determine the actual effective depth based on the chosen “h” in Step 8.

dactual = h - (Concrete cover + dbs + db/2)

Part B: Steel Reinforcements

Step a) Determine “X” using Eqn. 7. Use the actual “b” in Step 6 and actual “d” in Step 9.

Step b) Determine “m” using Eqn. (9).

Step c) Determine the req’d  using Eqn. (10).

Step d) Determine the number of bars using Eqn. (11).

Concrete cover is provided primarily for corrosion protection of the rebars. In some cases, the cover will “split” if
this is too thin. These covers for reinforced concrete beams are taken from NSCP 420.6.1 and are listed below.

Concrete Exposure Reinforcement Specified Cover, mm

Cast against and permanently in
All 75
contact with ground
Exposed to weather or in contact 20 mm and bigger 50
with ground 16 mm and smaller 40
Not exposed to weather or in
All 40
contact with ground
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Example 3.2

The prismatic beam below is to carry superimposed loads of P u=126 kN and wu=26.8 kN/m. Assume that the
beam weight is already included. Design the beam using 25mm top bars and 20mm bottom bars. Use fc’=30
MPa and Grade 60 rebars. Use d/b = 2.0 and a steel ratio equal to 1.5*min in determining the beam size. Also, use
a concrete cover of 50mm and stirrup size of 12mm.
2.3Pu

Pu
wu

C
A
B
4.5m 3.7m 1.2m

Solution:

There are three (3) critical areas where moments are maximum, namely: negative moment at “A”, maximum
positive moment within Span AB, and negative cantilever moment at B. Since the beam is to be designed as
prismatic (constant cross-section), therefore the beam section design will be based on the maximum of these 3
moments.
Mpos
Note that 2.3Pu = 289.8 kN. A B C

170.50 kN-m MB

MA
Moment Diagram
415.68 kN-m

473.09 kN-m

566.98 kN-m

The left reaction RA is determined to check where the “point of zero shear” is located.

289.00 kN

The positive shear at the concentrated load is R A – wu*4.5 = 168.40 kN. This is lesser than the concentrated load
of 289.8 kN and thus the shear diagram will cross at the location of this concentrated load. This is also the
location of the maximum positive moment. The shear diagram is used to determine this positive moment in Span
AB quickly.
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462.15 kN-m

The maximum moment is at “A” and this is equal to 566.98 kN-m.

Part A: Design of Beam Section

Step 1)

Step 2) Chosen  = 1.5*0.0033816 = 0.0050725

Step 3) Rdb = 2.0

Step 4) 2.0135 MPa

Step 5) Req’d bd2 = 312.87x106 mm3

Step 6) Req’d b = 427.66 mm

Round-off to nearest 50mm, choose b = 450 mm.

Step 7) Req’d d = 833.83 mm

Step 8) Req’d h = = 908.33 mm

Round-off to nearest 100mm, choose h = 900 mm.

Step 9) Actual d = = 825.5 mm

Part B: Steel Reinforcements. The reinforcements in the 3 locations where the moments are critical are
determined below.

Design for Top Bars at A:

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Step a) 0.0049622

Step b) 16.235

Step c) 0.0051801

Step d) 3.92 bars, say 4 bars.

Design for Top Bars at B:

Step a) 0.0014922

Step b) 16.235

Step c) 0.0015107

This ratio is below the minimum of 0.0033816. Therefore, the amount of reinforcement shall be increased by an
additional 1/3 as long as the minimum is not exceeded.

0.0020143 < 0.0033816

Step d) 1.52 bars, say 2 bars.

The minimum number of rebars is 2 in order that there will be bars at the corners for the stirrups.

Design for Bottom Bars at Span AB:

Step a) The effective depth for the bottom bars will be slightly different because of the difference in bar
sizes. d = 900 – (50 + 12 + 20/2) = 828 mm.

0.0040204

Step b) 16.235

Step c) 0.0041609 > 0.0033816

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Step d) 4.93 bars, say 5 bars.

3-2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

Consider a doubly reinforced section (or “doubly” for short) under positive moment shown in Fig. 3.6.
Strains Stresses Forces
b a/2
cu = 0.003
0.85fc’
A’s d’ cs a fsc d’ Cs
c Cc = 0.85fc’ab
d-d’
d

As t Ts = Asfy

fy
Figure 3.6 Doubly Reinforced Beam Section Under Positive Bending: Strains, Stresses and Forces.

The tension reinforcement is required to yield by the NSCP. Thus, the tensile force is always

Ts = Asfy.

The concrete compression force is

Cc = 0.85fc’*(ab – A’s).

Take note that the concrete area is actually a rectangle with holes and the holes representing the area occupied by
the compression bars, A’s.

The steel compression force Cs = A’s*fsc where fsc is the stress of the compression steel. This compression steel
stress is based on Hooke’s Law.

fsc = Es sc ≤ fy

From the strain diagram in Fig. 3.6,

sc =

Therefore,

fsc = * 200000 = ≤ fy

The concrete rectangular block with holes is difficult to handle. Therefore, the analysis is simplified by combining
the two compression forces, Cc and Csc.

Cc + Csc = 0.85fc’*(ab – A’s) + A’s*fsc = 0. 85fc’ab + A’s(fsc - 0. 85fc’)

The above two forces now have areas that are regular polygons. The locations of these force resultants are easily
determined.
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Cc = 0. 85fc’*ab
Csc = A’s*(fsc - 0. 85fc’)

Referring to Fig. 3.6, the moment capacity of the section is determined by summing moments of the two
compression forces about the tension force, T s.

Mn = Cc* + Cs*(d – d’)

Doubly reinforced rectangular beams are resorted to if the beam size is limited but the moment to be resisted is
too high that a singly reinforced rectangular beam design is not enough.

Ordinarily, rectangular beams have top and bottom reinforcements and the corner bars are where the stirrups are
tied to. However, the analysis and design approach is done using the concept of a singly reinforced section (or
“singly” for short) as a first recourse. The moment capacity using the concept of a singly reinforced section when
the section is actually doubly reinforced (or “doubly” for short) will be a little bit smaller than the latter. Note that
for these two instances, the tension force T s does not change and is still equal to A sfy. The only difference between
“singly” and “doubly” is the lever arm between T s and the compression resultant of the forces C c + Cs will be
slightly higher due to the presence of C s. Hence, treating a “doubly” section as a “singly” section is actually a
conservative simplification.

3-2.1 Maximum Steel Requirements

To ensure that the beam section will be ductile, the NSCP requirement for a minimum tensile strain of 0.004 still
has to be complied with.

b
Strains Forces for M1 Forces for M2
cu = 0.003
0.85fc’
A’s d’ cs a a/2 d’
c Cs

d M2
M1 d-d’

As
t=0.004

T =A f Ts2=As2fy
s1 s1 y
Figure 3.7 Doubly Reinforced Beam Section Dtrains and Forces.

From Fig. 3.7 above where the strain of the tension steel is set at 0.004, the following equations can be
formulated.

F=0  Ts = Cc + Cs
Asfy = 0.85fc’ab + A’s*( fsc – 0.85fc’)

Dividing both sides of the equation with “bd*f y” and substituting the expressions a = 1c, c/d = 3/7, = As/bd
and ’= As’/bd, the above equation is simplified.

3-2.2 Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

The analysis procedure for a doubly reinforced beam is outlined below. For this analysis problem, all relevant data
needed to determine the moment capacity are given. This include the beam dimensions (b, d, d’, A s and A’s) and
material properties (fc’ and fy).
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Step 1) Determine 1 and max from Eqn. 3.

Step 2) Determine  = and compare with max .

If  < max then analyze the section as a singly reinforced rectangular beam and follow the procedure for “singly”.
The compression bars are conservatively neglected in the analysis since the tension force (T = A s fy) does not
change and only the lever arm is slightly changed in determining the moment capacity.

However, if  > max then analyze as “doubly” (doubly reinforced rectangular beam) and follow the steps
discussed below.

Step 3) Determine ’ =

As in previous codes, it is assumed at this point that the compression bars yield and the equilibrium equation
corresponding to a strain of 0.004 for the tension bars become

Step 4) Compare  - ’ with max and determine the effective As.

If  - ’ > max, then consider only the amount of tension steel satisfying the code requirements.

As = (max + ’)*bd.

Otherwise, the original As is fully effective.

In the succeeding steps, the stress in the compression bars has to be determined. However, the stress will depend
on whether the bar will yield in which case the stress will be equal to the yield stress or the bar will not yield and
the stress will be determined by the formula from Hooke’s Law  = E.

It is easier to assume that the compression bars yield (f sc=fy) which can easily be confirmed later.

In this case, the equilibrium equation for summation of forces equals zero becomes

C c = Ts - C s
0.85*fc’*ab = Asfy – A’s*(fy – 0.85fc’). (13)

Solving for “a” and consequently “c”, we get

Step 5) Assume that the compression bar yields.

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Step 6) Solve for fsc using Hooke’s Law and confirm that this exceed fy.

> fy

The above formula is taken from the strain diagram of the beam section shown below (Fig. 3-8).

cu = 0.003

A’s d’ d’ sc
c
sc =
d

As fsc = csEcs =
ts

Figure 3-8
(14)
If the assumption that the compression rebars have yielded is confirmed (i.e. f sc > fy), then the moment capacity
can now be derived.
Step 7a) Moment capacity if compression bar yields

Mn = 0.90*[(0.85*fc’*ab)(d – a/2) + A’s(fy – 0.85fc’)(d – d’)]

Step 7b) If the compression bars do not yield (i.e. f sc in Step 6 is less than f y), the expression for the
equilibrium equation becomes more complicated.

Ts = Cc + Cs
Asfy = 0.85fc’(ab) + A’s(fsc – 0.85fc’)

Using the expressions in Eqn. (1) and Eqn. (14) and substituting in the above equation leads to

Asfy = 0.85fc’(1c*ab) + A’s( – 0.85fc’)

Multiplying both sides of the equation with “c” yields to a quadratic equation for “c”. After grouping the
coefficients of “c2”, “c” and the constant, the quadratic equation simplifies into

(0.85fc’1b)c2 – (Asfy - 600A’s – 0.85fc’A’s )c – 600A’sd’ = 0

Step 7b-1) The coefficients of the quadratic equation above are determined to solve for “c”.

A = 0.85fc’1b
B = Asfy – 600A’s + 0.85fc’A’s
C = 600A’sd’

and c =
 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

Step 7b-2) Note that only the positive root of the quadratic equation is relevant. The stress in the
compression steel can now be evaluated using Eqn. (14)

also a = 1c

Step 7b-3) and the moment capacity is now given as

Mn = 0.90*[(0.85*fc’*ab)(d – a/2) + A’s(fsc – 0.85fc’)(d – d’)].

wu A’s d’
Example 3.3
Stirrups
d

As
7.5m

The beam shown above has a height of 600mm and a width of 300mm. Determine the maximum safe live load
that the beam can carry. The dead load is the beam weight plus a superimposed load of 15 kN/m. The stirrup size
is 12mm, the top bars are 2-20mm and the bottom bars are 5-28mm. The clear distance between layers of bottom
bars is the bar size, 28mm. Use fc’ = 30 MPa, Grade 60 reinforcements and concrete cover of 50mm.

Solution:

The capacity in an analysis problem can be determined independently since all the needed information is
provided.

A’s = 2*(/4)(20)2 = 628.32 mm2

As = 5*(/4)(28)2 = 3078.8 mm2

The effective depth “d” is measured from the top of the beam section to the centroid of the bottom bars.

d=h–y

= 28+28
= 56 28
= 501.6 mm
62+28/2 y
50+12
= 76
The procedure now can be followed: = 62

Step `1) 1 = 0.85 - = 0.83571

max = = 0.022061
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Step `2) = = 0.02046

Since  < max, therefore the section will be analyzed as a singly reinforced rectangular beam and the procedure
outlined in Sec. 3-1.3 before will be followed but starting from Step (5) in that procedure.

= = 166.62 mm

Mn =  = 0.9*3078.8*414* *10-6 = 479.84 kN-m

Example 3.4

Using the beam in Example 3.3, determine the moment capacity if the bottom bars are 5-32mm.

Solution:

Step `1) max = 0.022061 (same as in Example 3.3)

The effective depth will change slightly since the vertical clear distance between rebar layers will be equal to the
rebar size of 32mm.

d=h–y 5-32mm bars

= 32+32
32
= 64
= 496.4 mm
62+32/2 y
50+12
= 78
= 62
As = 5* = 4021.24 mm2

Step `2) = = 0.027003

In this case,  > max and therefore the section will be analyzed as a double reinforced section.

Step 3) Determine ’ =

A’s = = 628.32 mm2 (Same as in Example 3.3)

’ = = 0.004219

Step 4) Compare  - ’ with max to determine the effective As.

 - ’ = 0.027003 – 0.004219 = 0.022784 > max = 0.022061
 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

Since the maximum steel limit is exceeded, the effective tension steel area is reduced accordingly.

As = (max + ’)*bd = (0.022061 + 0.004219)*(300*496.4) = 3913.61 mm2

Step 5) Assume that the compression bar yields.

= = 179.89 mm

= = 215.25 mm

Step 6) Solve for fsc using Hooke’s Law

Now, the stress in the compression bars is determined and compared to f y to confirm the above assumption.

d’ = 50 + 12 + 20/2 = 72 mm

= = 399.30 MPa < fy = 414 MPa.

The above results indicate that the compression bars do not yield. Thus, Step 7b is followed.

Step 7b-1) Solve for the coefficients of the quadratic equation.

A = 0.85fc’1b = 0.85*30*0.83571*300 = 6393.21 N/mm

B = Asfy – 600A’s + 0.85fc’A’s = 3913.61*414 – 600*628.32 + 0.85*30*628.32
= 1,259,266 N
C = 600A’sd’ = 600*628.32*72 = 27,143,361 mm3

and c = = = 216.57 mm

Step 7b-2) Determine the stress in the compression bars

= = 400.53 MPa

Step 7b-3) Determine the ultimate moment capacity

a = 1c = 0.83571*216.57 = 180.99 mm

Mn = 0.90*[(0.85*fc’*a*b)(d – a/2) + A’s(fsc – 0.85fc’)(d – d’)].
Mn = 0.90*[(0.85*30*180.99*300)(496.4 – 180.99/2)
+ 628.32(400.53 – 0.85*30)(496.4 – 72)]*10-6 = 595.82 kN-m

3-2.3 Design of Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

In a design problem, the material properties (f c’ and fy) are specified by the designer. The design factored moment
is determined from the analysis of the structure subjected to factored loads specified by the NSCP.
 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

Furthermore, a beam will only be designed as “doubly” when subject to beam size constraints (usually regarding
the available beam depth). Thus, in this situation, the beam size (b and d or h) is dictated. The beam cross-
sectional size is then checked if this can resist the moment from factored loads as a “singly” reinforced which is
the first choice. Only if the dictated size is inadequate to be designed as “singly” that the section will be designed
as “doubly”.

To determine if the given beam section can be designed as “singly”, the maximum permissible amount of tension
steel max is determined to get Rmax using Equation 6.

From Equation 7, the moment capacity corresponding to maximum steel limit for singly reinforced beam is shown
below.

This value of Mmax is compared with the design factored moment M u. If Mmax is greater than Mu, then the section
dimensions b and d are enough to design the beam as “singly” and the design procedure for “singly” is followed
to determine the required reinforcements A s.

Otherwise, when Mu > Mmax the beam will have to be designed as “doubly” in order to cope with the excess

moment . To do this, the nominal moment capacities will be divided into two as illustrated below.

0.85fc’
Cc A’s d’
Cs

d-d’ d
d
d- M1 + M2

As1 Ts1 = As1fy As2 Ts2 = As2fy

Figure 3-9
In Figure 3-9 above, the couple M1 in the section shown at the left represents the nominal moment capacity
corresponding to maximum steel Mmax and the steel ratio max. Thus,

As1 = maxbd and Ts1 = As1*fy.

Equilibrium required that T1 = Cc = 0.85fc’*ab. This gives a = and the nominal moment capacity.

Mmax = M1 = Ts1*(d -
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The section at the right in Figure 3-9 shows the required nominal moment capacity M 2 which accounts for the
remaining required nominal capacity to resist total required nominal capacity, M u/
.

M2 = - Mmax

With the known lever arm of d-d’, the amount of additional tension steel is determined.

Ts2 = and from Figure 3-9, As2 =

Equilibrium requires that Cs = Ts2. The force in the compression bar is expressed as

Cs = A’s * fsc where fsc is the stress in the compression bar.

The stress fsc is equal to fy if these bars reach the yield point. Otherwise, the stress will be within the elastic range
and determined using Hooke’s Law, f sc = Essc. Using similar triangles of the strain diagram in Figure 3-10, the
expression for stress
is (with Es=200,000 MPa). ecu=0.003
d’
A’s c
fsc = 600 ≤ fy
sc

where c = a/1

When the stress fsc is established, the compression

reinforcements A’s can be determined easily. As

As2fy = A’s*(fsc – 0.85f’c)

Figure 3-10 Strains

The amount of compression reinforcements is determined last. This will depend on the stress of the compression
rebars which in turn is dependent on the location of these bars. If the compression rebars are near the beam
surface (small d’), these bars will likely yield. If they yield, the stress will be f sc = fy. Otherwise, the stress is
determined using Hooke’s Law.

The procedure for designing doubly reinforced rectangular beams can now be summarized. The given data are the
section properties (b, d, d’), material properties (f c’, fy), and the design moment (Mu). The design objective is to
determine the reinforcement amounts (As and As’).

Procedure:

Step 1) Solve for 1 and max

 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

Step 2) Solve for and =

Step 3) Compare Mu and

Case a) Mu <  Design as “singly” and determine As.

Case b) Mu >  Design as “irregular” and proceed with following steps.

Step 4) Determine As1 As1 = maxbd

Step 5) Determine the required nominal moment M2.

M2 = - M1 where M1 = Mmax

Step 6) Determine the required amount of tension reinforcements A s.

As2 = which gives the tension reinforcement As = As1 + As2

Step 7) Determine the stress of the compression rebars.

a=

c = a/1

but this is not to exceed fy.

Step 8) Determine A’s

The procedure to design a doubly reinforced beam is illustrated in the solution of the problem below.

Example 3.5

The cantilever beam shown is to carry the loads P and w. The concentrated load P consists of P DL=55 kN and
PLL=34 kN. The uniform load w consists of wDL=19 kN/m (including beam weight) and wLL=11 kN/m. The
prescribed beam size is b=300mm, d=430mm and d’=70mm. The materials properties are f c’=25 MPa for concrete
and Grade 40 rebars. The span length of the beam is 2.2m. Design the reinforcements of the beam.

w P
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Solution:

Step 1) Determine 1 and max

1 = 0.85 for fc’ = 25 MPa < 28 MPa

max = = 0.028047

Step 2) Determine Rmax using fy=276 MPa and fc’=25 MPa

Rmax = 0.028047*276* = 6.3311 MPa

Step 3) Determine Mmax from Eqn. 16 using b=300mm and d=430mm.

Mmax = 6.3311*300*4302*10-6 = 316.07 kN-m

Step 4) Determine the design moment Mu and compare with Mmax.

wu = 1.2*19 + 1.6*11 = 40.4 kN/m

Pu = 1.2*55 + 1.6*34 = 120.4 kN

Mu = = = 362.65 kN-m > Mmax

Therefore, the section has to be designed as “doubly”.

Step 5) Determine As1 from Eqn. (15).

As1 = 0.028047*300*430 = 3618.1 mm2

Step 6) Determine the required additional nominal moment capacity, M 2.

M2 = 316.07 = 86.875 kN-m

Step 7) Determine As2 and the total As from Eqn. 17.

As2 = = 874.35 mm2 and

As = 3618.1 + 874.35 = 4492.5 mm2

Step 8) Determine the stress in the compression steel, fsc by doing the following steps:

a= = = 156.64 mm

c = a/1 = 156.64/0.85 = 184.29 mm

= = 372.09 MPa > fy = 276 MPa

 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

Therefore, fsc = 276 MPa

Step 9) Determine the required area of compression rebars, A’ s

= = 687.83 mm2

3-3 Beams with Irregular Sections

Flexural members come in different shapes and some flexural members are not rectangular in cross section. Some
of these are shown in Figure 3-10 below where the tension reinforcements are at the bottom to resist positive
moment.

Double Tee Channel

T-Beams
Box
Figure 3.10 Various Irregular Beam Cross Sections
A rectangular concrete section is not efficient since about 2/3 of the cross section is in the tension zone and does
not contribute in the capacity of the section. Hence the concrete in the tension zone is not only unutilized material
but also is additional weight on the structure. The objective of the other shapes is to reduce dramatically this
wasted concrete in the tension zone.

Based on the shapes shown in Figure 3-10, these are primarily for positive bending (compression at the top and
tension at the bottom of the section). More concrete material is at the top portion where the compression stresses
are located.

In the ultimate strength analysis, as long as the compression block is confined within the top flange, this
compression block will be rectangular in shape. Thus, the behavior and the consequent analysis/design approach
will be identical to that of a singly reinforced rectangular beam.

3-3.1 Effective Width “be” of T-Beams

A common irregular beam section encountered in design is that of T-beams for a floor system. These beams are
ideal for resisting positive moments with the slab acting as a compression flange. Obviously, the width of this slab
cannot be indefinite and the effective portion of the slab is that part in the vicinity of the beam.

Thus, the code (NSCP Art. 406.3.2) defines this effective width “be” for reinforced concrete T-beams as follows:
 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

In essence, for interior beams, the effective width “b e” should be the least of the three values below:

1. bw + L/4,
2. bw + 16ts, and
3. bw + sw or Average of the beam center to center spacing at both sides of the web.

ts be

bw bw bw
sw sw
c-c spcg c-c spcg
For exterior beams, the effective width “be” shall be taken as the least among the three values listed:

1. bw + L/12,
2. bw + 6ts, and
3. bw + sw/2 or bw/2 + c-c spcg/2 = (bw + c-c spcg)/2

be
ts

bw

sw

bw/2 c-c spcg

3-3.2 Analysis of Irregular Sections

Analyses of irregular sections shown in Figure 3.10 are common. For shapes with several webs, these webs can
be moved transversely and combined as a single web. However, the effective width of the concrete compression
flange should be determined beforehand.

For an analysis problem, the following data are given or determined: b w, be, h, d, ts, As including the material
properties fc’ and fy. The procedure is outlined and discussed below.

1. Determine effective width “be” based on the NSCP requirements as discussed in Sec. 3-3.1.
2. Assume “a” is equal to “ts”.

The tension and compression forces are then determined based on this assumption.

T = As fy (Note that T is fixed value based on the given data)

C = 0.85 fc’ a be = 0.85 fc’ ts be (Note that C is variable and dependent on the value of “a”)

Equilibrium requires that these two forces be equal, C = T but these two forces will have different values from the
two different formulas used. The two forces are then compared arising to two possible cases.
b
Case a) If C > T, then
e
“a” must be reduced in order that C =CT.
= 0.85f ’abe a < t s.
Therefore,
c

ts a

T = Asfy
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Figure 3-11 Irregular section with a<ts

In this situation, the compression region is rectangular (see Fig. 3-11). Hence, the analysis can proceed using the
process for singly reinforced rectangular beams.

Case b) If C < T, then “a” must be increased in order that C = T. Therefore, a > t s.

be
C = 0.85fc’Ac
ts a

T = Asfy
Figure 3-12 Irregular section with a>ts
This is now the situation where the compression region is no longer rectangular and is now considered as
“irregular” (see Fig. 3-12).

In analyzing irregular beams, the nominal moment capacity is divided into two: M f and Mw as shown in Fig. 3-
13.
be

ts Cf a Cw
d d - ts/2 Mf + d d - a/2
Mw
Tf Tw

Cf = 0.85fcb’ts(be – bw) Cw = 0.85f

bw c’tsbe
w
Tf = Asffy Tw = Aswfy
Mf = Cf*(d – ts/2) Mw = Tw*(d – a/2)
Figure 3-13 Moments Mf and Mw
The first couple Mf has a compression region within the top flange with an area of t s*(be – bw). The compression
resultant will be at the center of the flange or t s/2 from the top.

The second couple Mw has a compression region that extends into the web with an area of “a x b w”. The
compression resultant will be at the center of the darkened rectangular stress block or “a/2” from the top.

The expression for the forces and the nominal moments are listed in Fig. 3-13. These expressions are used to
complete the analysis of the beam with irregular section.

3. Solve for Cf = 0.85fc’ts(be – bw) and Mf = Cf*(d – ts/2)

4. Solve for Asf = Cf / fy
5. Solve for Asw = As – Asf
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From Fig 3-14, the compression region is rectangular

(a x bw) and is coupled with the tension reinforcement a Cw
Asw. This is similar to a singly reinforced rectangular d d - a/2
beam. As such, the formulas, rules and procedures for Mw
“singly” are applicable.
Tw
6. Solve for the steel ratio w
bw

Figure 3-14
7. After solving w, compare this with max. If this is less than max, then is no reduction in Asw. But if it is
greater than max, there is a need to reduce steel, so Asw is now equal to ρmaxbwd.

If ρw < ρmax => Okay! No need to reduce Asw

If ρw > ρmax => Asw = ρmaxbwd

8. In this equilibrium equation, where Tw is equal to Cw, equate these forces and solve for “a”.

Asw f y
a
0.85 f ' c bw

9. Once the value of “a” has been determined, the lever arm can now be determined as well. If the values of
Asw, fy, and d are already known, then the value of Mw is determined next.

 a
M w  A sw f y  d - 
 2

10. Combine the values of Mf and Mw then multiplied by the reduction factor, this is the ultimate moment
capacity.

Mu = ø(Mf + Mw)

The above analysis procedure is illustrated in the next example.

Example 3.6

A simply supported floor joist with a section shown has a span length of 4.3m. The total dead load carried by the
joist is 25 kN/m. The material properties are f c’ = 35 MPa and Grade 60 reinforcements made up of 4-20mm
bars. Determine the maximum live load (kN/m) that the joist can carry.

Solution: 120 80 120

Assume a=100mm 100

As = = 1256.6 mm2

T = As fy = 1256.6*414 = 520,248 N 425

C = 0.85 fc’ a be = 0.85*35*100*80= 238,000 N

Since C < T, therefore a > 100mm. The analysis will proceed with
75
the section considered as “irregular”.
 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

bw = 120 + 80 + 120 = 320 mm

Cf = 0.85fc’ts(be – bw) = 0.85*35*100*(80 – 320) = -714 kN
d = 100 + 425 = 525 mm
Mf = Cf*(d – ts/2) = (-714)*(525 – 100/2)*10-6 = -339.15 kN-m

Asf = Cf / fy = -714,000/414 = -1724.6 mm2

Asw = As – Asf = 1256.6 – (-1724.6) = 2981.3 mm2

The w can now be determined.

= 0.017746

The ρmax will have to be solved and compared with w.

 

ρmax = = 0.024638 >

Since w < ρmax, therefore the process can continue.

a= = 129.65 mm

Mw = = 567.97 kN-m

Mu = ø(Mf + Mw) = 0.90*(-339.15 + 567.97) = 205.94 kN-m

The maximum moment of the simply supported joist is Mu = which shall give

wu = = 89.103 kN/m

Now the live load can be solved.

wu = 1.2wD + 1.6wL

wL = = 36.939 kN/m

3-3.3 Design of Irregular Sections

The equations derived and used in the analysis for irregular sections can be rearranged and used in designing
these beams.

In a design problem, the section properties (be, bw, ts, d) are given together with the material properties (f c’, fy).
What remains to be determined are the reinforcements (A s and A’s) needed to resist the design moment (Mu).
be
1. The design is started by assuming a=ts. The compression force is then solved. C = 0.85fc’abe
a=ts
C = 0.85 fc’ a be = 0.85 fc’ ts be

T = Asfy
 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

2. The moment capacity is calculated.

Lever arm = d – ts/2

  t 
øM n  ø 0.85 f' c b e t s  d - s  ]
  2 
3. This moment capacity is then compared with the design moment, M u. This will bring about two possible
cases.

a. If Mu < øMn  a < ts (The capacity is too much. This means that “a” must be less than t s. In this
case, the design will follow the procedure for singly reinforced rectangular beam to solve for A s.)
be
C = 0.85fc’abe
ts a

T = Asfy
b. If Mu > øMn  a > ts (The capacity is is not enough. This means that “a” must be greater than t s.
In this case, the design will follow the procedure outlined in the succeeding steps below.)

be
C = 0.85fc’Ac
ts a

T = Asfy

be
4. Solve for Cf, Asf and Mf
ts Cf
C f  0.85 f ' c be  bw  t s
Cf d d - ts/2 Mf
Asf 
fy Asf
Tf
 t 
M f  C f d  s 
 2 bw
5. From the total required nominal capacity (Mu/), determine the required nominal moment capacity M w.

M 
M w   u  - M f
   a Cw
6. Use the design formulas for “singly” d d - a/2
to determine w Mw
Asw
Tw

bw

Figure 3-14
 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

fy
m
0.85 f ' c

Mw
Xw 
b w d2 fy

1 - 1 - 2mX w
Req' d  w 
m

7. A final check must be done to ensure ductility by comparing the required w and the limit max. When the
required w is greater than max, then the given web section is too small and therefore the web size should
be increased. This would mean that the beam has to be redesigned. Otherwise, there is no reduction in
beam size and the design process can continue and be completed.
a) Solve for 1

b) Solve for max =

Case a: If ρw > ρmax  Increase web size bw and/or d

Case b: If ρw < ρmax  Okay! Req’d Asw = ρwbwd

8. Finally, As = Asf + Asw

Example 3.7

Determine the amount of reinforcing bars (A s) needed for a typical simply supported interior stringer. The
simple span length is 7.5m and the stringer spacing is 3.6m. It carries a superimposed factored floor load of
25 kPa. The stringer has a web width of 250mm, total height of 500mm and effective depth of 430mm. The
slab thickness is 75mm. The concrete strength is 21 MPa and the rebars are Grade 40.

Solution:

The total factored load on the stringer including the beam weight is computed first.

Stringer load, wu = 25*3.6 + 1.2*(0.25*0.5*24) = 100.84 kN/m

The design moment is

Mu = 709.00 kN-m

The effective width is determined based on the NSCP requirements.

bw + 16t = 250 + 16*75 = 1450 mm

bw + L/4 = 250 + 7500/4 = 2125 mm
Stringer c-c spacing = 3600 mm

The effective width is the minimum of the values above. b e = 1450mm

To determine whether the beam is to be designed as “singly” or “irregular”, the threshold value for “a” is
assumed, i.e. equal to ts = 75 mm. Based on this assumption, the ultimate moment capacity is
 DESIGN OF BEAMS USING USD

  t s    75 
Mn = ø 0.85 f' c be t s  d -  = 0.90 * 0.85 * 21 * 1450 * 75 *  430 -  = 685.72 kN-m
  2    2 
< Mu (Therefore, design as “irregular”).

Quantify the contribution of the flange overhangs.

C f  0.85 f ' c  be  bw  t s  0.85 * 21 * (1450  250) * 75 / 10 3  1606.5kN

1606.5
Asf   5820.7mm 2
276
 75 
M f  1606.5 *  430   / 10  630.55kN  m
3

 2 
The nominal capacity Mw of the web is considered next.

M  709
M w   u  - M f   630.55  157.23kN  m
   0.9
Using the web design moment, the formulas for “singly” will then be applied.

Mw 157.23 * 10 6
Xw  2
  0.013693
b wd fy 250 * 430 2 * 276
1 - 1 - 2mX w 1 - 1 - 2 *15.462 * 0.013693
Req' d  w    0.015567
m 15.462

This is w is then compared to the limit max.

1 = 0.85

max = > w

Therefore, there will be no reduction in A sw since the steel ratio w is below the limit. The reinforcements A s
can now be finalized.

Req’d Asw = ρwbwd = 0.015567*250*430 = 1673.4 mm2

As = Asf + Asw = 5820.7 + 1673.4 = 7494.1 mm2