Chapter Vii Writing PDF

Malagarriga G., Edith TESTING SKILLS AND COMPONENTS: A Practical Guide for EFL Teacher Trainees.
CHAPTER VII
TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR WRITING
PRODUCTIVE SKILL
It is well known that the best way to assess people’s writing ability is to get them to write. But it
is also a truth that this writing ability is achieved through experience and practice. As the
process of developing this skill is throughout punctual stages, its assessment is going to be
directly articulated with each of these.
During the early stages of learning, written exercises will generally be used simply to reinforce
the learning of specific grammatical aspects or lexical items. It is going to be later when writing
will be treated as an end in itself, which is as a complex skill involving a number of diverse
elements like:
Mechanics: spelling, punctuation and capitalization
Vocabulary
Grammar
Appropriate Content
Word Selection
Rhetorical Matters: organization, cohesion and unity
Style
Malagarriga G., Edith TESTING SKILLS AND COMPONENTS: A Practical Guide for EFL Teacher Trainees. 128
These elements can be tested separately or integrated. This means that different techniques
must be used for either case. The diverse types of texts, such as forms, letters, messages,
notes, notices, recipes, reports, instructions, essays, compositions, etc. also require specific
techniques.
This chapter will provide information about the techniques for evaluating writing in its various
stages: pre-writing, guided-writing and free writing. A detailed explanation of the process of
preparation, administration and scoring of the Dictation as a guided writing technique will be
presented.
Finally, the three traditional approaches to rate learners’ writing will be discussed. These
scoring procedures are: holistic, analytic and objectified.
The following techniques are going to be discussed throughout this chapter:
PRE-WRITING TECHNIQUES LEVEL
Sentence Combining Production
Sentence Expansion Production
Sentence Reduction Production
OBJECTIVE TECNIQUES LEVEL
Multiple-Choice Error Identification Recognition
Multiple-Choice Completion Recognition
Multiple-Choice Correction Recognition
Unrelated Sentences Recognition
Scrambled Sentences Recognition
GUIDED-WRITINGTECHNIQUES LEVEL
Changing a Passage Production
Building from a Paragraph Outline Production

Dictation Production
FREE WRITING TECHNIQUES LEVEL
Paragraphs Production
Compositions Production
Personal and Business Letters Production
Essays Production
TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING WRITING.

This part of the chapter presents a detailed description of each of the techniques used for testing
writing followed by examples illustrating those techniques. A special emphasis has been given
to the preparation of the instructions and for this reason every example is preceded by one or
two ways of presenting the directions.
PRE-WRITING TECHNIQUES.
These are techniques which are going to be used with students who have already learned the
alphabet and know how to write. They are considered pre-writing techniques because they
restrict the performance of the students to a very specific and controlled kind of answer.
SENTENCE COMBINING.
As the name suggests the purpose here is to put together two or more sentences. So the
combination will be accomplished by the use of logical connectors that indicate addition,
contrast, and result or by the use of subordinators of time, condition, and cause or even by the
use of relative pronouns. There are other items that imply a conjunction of sentences like
putting one sentence inside the other. Here the task will be to make the necessary internal
changes in grammar in order to mix those sentences. Look at these examples:
LOGICAL CONNECTORS:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Combine these ideas using one of the following connectors for each case: however,
in addition, thus, in spite of, likewise, therefore, nevertheless
Examples:
7.1. Mr Coleman is very forgetful. His wife takes care of the details.
Suggested answer: Mr. Coleman is very forgetful; his wife therefore takes care of the details.
7.2. Cindy misses her family. She is quite depressed.
Suggested answer: Cindy misses her family. In addition, she is quite depressed.
7.3. People are much less superstitious nowadays than they used to be. They sometimes
give way to illogical fears.
Suggested answer: People are much less superstitious nowadays than they used to be.
However, they sometimes give way to illogical fears.
SUBORDINATORS:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Combine these ideas using one of the following subordinators for each case: since,
before, if, until, while, even if.
Examples:
7.4. He wishes to succeed. He has to develop something useful.
Suggested answers: If he wishes to succeed, he has to develop something useful.

Since he wishes to succeed, he has to develop something useful.
7.5. You have already bought your ticket. You will still need to wait in line.
Suggested answer: Even if you have already bought your ticket, you will still need to wait in line.
7.6. I had time to reply. He thrust an invitation-card into my hands.
Suggested answer: Before I had time to reply, he thrust an invitation-card into my hands.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Join the following pairs of sentences using the relative pronouns (who, whom, whose,
or which) where necessary. Feel free to make to make any grammatical changes.
Examples:
7.7. A friend of mine will be coming tomorrow. I received a letter from him.
Suggested answer: I received a letter from a friend of mine who is coming tomorrow.
7.8. The man had to pay a fine. His car was parked on the wrong side of the road.
Suggested answer: The man whose car was parked on the wrong side of the road had to pay a
fine.
ONE SENTENCE INSIDE THE OTHER:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Combine these sentences using the subordinators or conjunctions provided for each
item. Make the necessary grammatical changes.
Examples:
7.9 My sister plays the piano. My brother plays the piano.

both……and……
Suggested answer: Both my sister and my brother play the piano.
7.10. Pat raises money for the symphony. She ushers at all their concerts.
not only …… but also……
Suggested answer: Not only does Pat raises money for the symphony, but she also ushers at all
of their concerts.
SENTENCE EXPANSION.
The purpose of this technique is to enlarge a sentence by adding adjectives, adverbs, phrases
and even clauses. Usually the examiner shows where he wants the students to make the
additions. Look at these examples:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Expand the following sentences in the spaces where the parentheses are placed. In
order to do that use adjectives, adverbs, phrases and clauses.
Examples:
7.11. My ( ) trouble is that I’m one of those hopelessly impractical and ( ) lazy people.
Suggested answer: My main trouble is that I’m one of those hopelessly impractical and incurably
lazy people.
7.12. The trains ( ) are packed.
Suggested answer: The trains which leave or arrive every few minutes are packed.
SENTENCE REDUCTION.
The purpose of this technique is to shorten a sentence. In order to help the students do the
required task, the part of the sentence to be reduced is highlighted and a cue for the reduction is
usually provided. Examine the following examples:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Reduce the highlighted part of these sentences using the cue word given in each
item.
Examples:
7.13. The train that offers the cheapest fare is going to stop in the next station. (with)
Suggested answer: The train with the cheapest fare is going to stop in the next station.
7.14. The person, who lives in the next apartment, is going to rent a room to a foreign
student. (a phrase)
Suggested answer: The next-door neighbour is going to rent a room to a foreign student.
OBJECTIVE TECHNIQUES.
In writing there is a specialized area like mechanics which includes spelling, punctuation and
capitalization that may be tested in an objective way. Unity and organization can also be
assessed in this particular form. Even when the best strategy for testing writing is to make the
students produce some kind of a written text, this constitutes a good alternative. Here you are
going to find only some instances of the many different items that have been designed for these
purposes.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE ERROR IDENTIFICATION.

As the name suggests, the purpose of these items is to make the students recognize errors
without asking them to produce the right answer. Look at these examples:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 In each of the following groups of words, one word is spelled incorrectly. Identify
the word which is misspelled and mark that option.
Example:
7.15. A. business B. neccessary  C. command D. beginning

INSTRUCTIONS.
 In each of the following groups of sentences one of them has been punctuated
incorrectly. Identify the sentence which is wrong and mark that option.
Example:
7.16. A. Every kid should have access to a computer; furthermore, access to the Internet
should be free.
B. The police found fingerprints, which they used to identify the thief.
C. I don’t let my children watch TV shows, that are violent. 
D. Fuel oil, natural gas, and electricity are popular sources of energy for heating homes.
INSTRUCTIONS.
 In each of the following groups of words, one of them has problems with
capitalization. Identify the incorrect word and mark the option.
Example:
7.17. A. Pacific Ocean B. January C. Winter  D. Labor Day
MULTIPLE-CHOICE COMPLETION.
The examinee is required to select the best way of completing a sentence in terms of grammar,
diction, tone and sense. So this kind of item provides an excellent opportunity to measure a
wide range of problems related to the proper use of written English. Look at this example:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Complete the following sentences with the most acceptable option for formal written
English. Mark the correct option.
Example:
7.18. Please accept my apologies for any ________________________.

A. problem that I have raised
B. inconvenience which this delay may have caused you 
C. pain that this hold have produced
D. difficulty which this time-out must have generated
MULTIPLE-CHOICE CORRECTION.
The examinee is required to judge whether or not an underlined portion of a sentence is
acceptable in that context. If the sentence is acceptable as it stands, the student selects choice
(A), which is always identical to the underlined section of the sentence. Examine this example:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Read the following sentences in order to decide whether the underlined portion is
acceptable in that context. If you agree as it stands mark choice (A) if not choose the
best option and mark that alternative.
Example:
7.19. According to the authors, the surest way of determining a family’s ethnic origin is to look
into its kitchen.
A. According to 
B. Based on
C. Suitable for
D. In line with
UNRELATED SENTENCES.
This technique consists of finding a good unified paragraph and then add a sentence that is
unrelated. The students will have to find the sentence that does not fit. Here is an example:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Read the paragraph below in order to find the sentence that is not related to it. Mark
the number that represents that sentence.
Example:
7.20
(1) Both film and theatre are effective means of dramatic expression, but
each has different qualities that make it a popular art form. (2) In a film, the
audience can experience close-up photography and actual changes in time
and location. (3) People can see small changes in facial expression, new
and different geography, and real events in nature. (4) Although plays do not
offer the same, they do encourage a close involvement between the
audience and actors. (5) Science-fiction writers have created thousands of
alien words for us in novels, TV programs, and movies. (6) Actors sense the
audience’s reaction and then alter their voices and actions accordingly. (7)
This quality of intimacy makes seeing a play an exciting experience and as a
result causes many people to prefer the theatre to the cinema. (Taken from
Averbach, B. and Snyder, B., 1983)
SCRAMBLED SENTENCES.
This is a good technique to test organization and it consists of finding a well-organized paragraph
with clear transition words. Then those sentences are going to be scrambled and the students’
job will be to put the sentences back into their original order. Look at this example:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Read the following scrambled paragraph in order to organize it by putting the

sentences back into their coherent original way. Write your answer in the space
provided.
Example:
7.21
(1) I believe that even though people look and feel healthy, fashion insists
that they be even thinner and more well- proportioned than they already are.
(2) Thus, I conclude that it is not at all surprising that Americans spend
millions of dollars each year on these remedies to achieve their goal. (3) In
my opinion, most Americans are weight conscious. (4) Furthermore, if they
are not, then there are endless remedies such as fat diets, diet pills, and
health spas to help them lose the extra weight. (5) Consequently, they are
very concerned with the size and shape of their bodies. (Taken from Averbach,
B. and Snyder, B., 1983)
Right Order: 3, 5, 1, 4, 2.
GUIDED-WRITING TECHNIQUES.
As stated in the preceding chapter, these techniques provide a kind of guidance or help for the
student to follow. The fact that they offer specific instructions does not limit the creativity of the
students.
CHANGING A PASSAGE.
This technique consists of giving a paragraph that is going to be changed as directed in the
instructions. Usually these guided-composition items have the students make a specific
grammatical change. For instance some of these are: from passive to active voice, from first
person to third person singular, from singular to plural, from present to past tense, etc. Examine
the following example:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Read the following paragraph and then change it into the future tense. Rewrite the
paragraph in the space provided.
Example:
7.22. Given text Student’s answer
Pat and Sam are elderly Pat and Sam will be elderly
people who live on a very people who will live on a
small pension. They don’t very small pension. They
have to worry about will not have to worry about
medical expenses because medical expenses because
they can go to a they will be able to go to a
government clinic. They government clinic. They
have to pay for their rent, will have to pay for their
food, clothing, and other rent, food, clothing, and
necessities from their other necessities from their
pension money. They pension money. They will
never buy anything that never buy anything that they
they don’t absolutely won’t absolutely need.
need.
The same text could be used for other changes such as: plural to singular, simple present to
present continuous, simple present to simple past, etc.
BUILDING FROM A PARAGRAPH OUTLINE.

As the name suggests the tester is going to provide a framework with the main points that will
have to be covered by the students in their guided-writing test. There are several ways in which
this skeleton or guide may be presented.
CONTENT GUIDE.
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Examine this paragraph outline very carefully. Then write a paragraph using all the
information there provided.
Example:
7.23
I / house / make / brick / wood./ There is / front / porch / big / yard / house./ Front / yard / have /
green / lawn / back / yard / have / pretty / flowers./ Living room / library / dinning room / kitchen /
downstairs./ Bedrooms / bath / upstairs./ Living room / favorite./ It / fireplace / tables / chairs /
sofa./ Also / bookcase / radio / record player.
Probable student’s answer:

My house is made of brick and wood. There is a large front porch and a big yard around the
house. The front yard has a nice green lawn, and the back yard has many pretty flowers. The
living room, the library, the dinning room, and the kitchen are downstairs. There are three
bedrooms and a bath upstairs. The living room is my favorite place. It has a fireplace, several
tables and chairs, and a sofa. There are also a bookcase and a radio with a record player.
GUIDE OF IDEAS.
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Write a one hundred-word paragraph, beginning with this topic sentence:” New
York, the incredible city where people live on the ground and work in the sky.” Consider
the following ideas but not limit your creativity to them.
Example:
7.24
 People live on the ground _______________ (state reasons and give examples).
 People work in the sky __________________ (state reasons and give examples).
 There are people from every country in the world ______ (name some).
 The transportation depends mainly on __________ (refer to them).
 New York moves vertically as well as horizontally________ (justify this).
 New York is the richest and the poorest ________ (give reasons)
 New York is the most modern and the most old fashioned ______(give reasons)
 Bright, noisy, spectacular, and impersonal_________ (conclude).
QUESTION GUIDE.
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Write a seventy five-word paragraph describing your best friend. Base your
guided-writing test on the answers to the questions below:
Example:
7.25
 What is his name?
 Where does he live?
 Where did you met? How long have you two met?
 Is he married? If so, does he have any kids?
 What does he do for a living?
 Does he have any hobbies or past times? Do you two share the same likes?
 What are his plans for the future?
PARALLEL WRITING.
This technique consists on giving the students a short reading extract and then required to write
a similar paragraph. This new paragraph is going to be based on the given information plus
some punctual extra instructions. Look at the following examples:
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Read the following extract and then rewrite it as if this woman is a good friend of
yours and you are actually telling someone what she does. Begin: I have a very good
friend of mine who…
Example:
7.26
I’m almost too tired to write this letter. Why? Because I work three jobs. I’m
a wife, a mother, and a supervisor at a chocolate factory. No, I don’t work at
the factory for luxuries. I work because it takes more than one salary to keep
food on the table, clothes on our backs, and a roof over our heads. After
eight hours of handling other people’s problems, I come home to work the
cooking, the cleaning, and the money-saving jobs like sewing. Where’s my
family in all this? Well, my husband is working as hard as I am. The kids, a
boy 14 and a girl 12, don’t have time to help during the week. They’re always
busy with homework or school activities…
7.27
INSTRUCTIONS.
 Rewrite this extract as if someone else is criticizing this woman. Begin: You know
there is a woman who… Feel free to make additions like comments or ideas to support
your criticisms.
DICTATION.
In its simplest form, dictation as a testing strategy, refers to a person reading some text aloud so
that the listener(s) can write down what is being said by the teacher, who will later check the
student’s text against the original and penalize the errors that have been made.
Sometimes it is difficult to judge, whether a mistake in a dictation has been made because of the
student’s inability to:
 spell a word
 catch what has been said
 remember a word by the time he writes it
 understand the general context
This difficulty is due to the integration of the skills involved in such tests that include listening
comprehension, the auditory memory span, spelling, the recognition of sounds segments, and a
familiarity with grammatical and lexical patterns of the language. In order to be fair when grading
a dictation, the examiner will have to decide in advance, whather he is going to penalize each skill
differently or if each error is going to be penalized in exactly the same way.
There are three steps that should be taken into consideration when using a dictation:
PREPARING A DICTATION TEST.

1. Choose a story, article or paragraph that is not too difficult for your students. You can use
materials that has been used in class.
2. Select a text that is unified or able to stand alone. In case that this is not possible, the
examiner may select a part of a longer passage and add one or two introductory
sentences.
3. The length will depend on the type of test. That is, if it is a part of a larger test, you can
use a 75 to 100 word dictation. In case that it will be used by itself, you can employ a
passage about 125 to 200 words long.
4. Avoid passages with too much quoted material or with a lot of names, dates or numbers,
unless you are interested in testing these aspects.
5. Decide where the pauses should come and place a slash (/) at each point you plan to
pause. Usually the structure of the sentence serve as guide. As a general guideline,
seven to eight words between pauses will work well. Long sentences can be divided into
clauses and phrases.
6. Prepare specific and clear instructions telling the students that the passage will be read
three times, first at moderate speed, then much more slowly, then again at moderate
speed.
7. Decide on the scoring procedure you are going to use.
ADMINISTERING THE DICTATION TEST.
1. Give the students very punctual instructions in an oral way so that you make sure that
everyone knows the procedure. For instance you can tell the students the following:
 The first time you hear the passage, do not attempt to record the words.
You will not be able to keep up. Simply listen and focus on understanding
the meaning of what is said. You might also make a mental note of where
sentences begin and end so you can punctuate them correctly when you
write down the passage.
 The second time you hear the passage, it will be read slowly, making the
established pauses. Now write down the passage as it is read. As you go
along, note potential problem areas for punctuation and spelling, but do not
get hung up on correcting them at this point.
 The third time you hear the passage, it will be read aloud at a moderate
pace. After the third reading, you will be given time to review your work.
2. Write out on the blackboard any unusual name or expression that you think could possibly
confuse the students.
3. Do not repeat any words or phrases during any of the readings.
4. Be sure to make your pauses long enough so that the students have time to write down
what he has heard.
5. Remind the students the scoring procedure to be used.
SCORING THE DICTATION TEST.

The easiest way to score a dictation is to deduct one point for each error. Some examiners claim
that it is fairer to take off more points for serious errors and fewer points off for less serious ones.
It is recommended not to penalize more than once, for instance, the misspelling of the same
word.
A practical way to assign a numerical score to a dictation is to give a fixed number of points to it.
Then add up the number of errors the student made in that dictation and finally subtract that
amount from de fixed number of points. This can be illustrated as follow:
Fixed number of points 100
Number of errors the student made 65
Subtraction 100 – 65 35
Student’s final score in the dictation 35 points
Now examine this situation. The dictation is a part of a larger test and consequently you can only
assign 50 points to that part. The majority of the students made more than 50 errors, this means
that almost everybody is going to fail the test. In this case, the examiner can divide the number
of errors by 2 and subtract from 50. This operation would control the results of probably a too
difficult passage for the dictation.
The following passage is an example of a dictation with the pauses.
INSTRUCTIONS.
 This is a dictation in which a passage is going to be read three times. The first time
is for you to listen very carefully in order to get an idea of the whole. The second time
is for you to copy what you hear. The last time is for you to check and write down the
parts you missed during the dictation.
Example:
7.28. My Favorite Sister
I am the oldest. / I am the first child, grandchild, cousin, and niece. / This puts
me in the position of / also being the first to go to school, / graduate, get a job,
and attend college. / I was always in the limelight as a child, / and I won’t say I
didn’t love it. / But then my sister Laurie was born; / she was knew and I was
“old stuff”.” / I was in the middle of / my “terrible twos” that April, / and Laurie
was very sick / right after she was born. / Her doctors didn’t think / she would
live through her first week. / Mom and Dad were always worrying / and trying
to take care of her, / and I was totally bewildered / because I wasn’t the center
of attention anymore.
A variation to the classical dictation is what is called “dictogloss” and it requires the students to
only take notes of the key words used as they listen and then later reconstruct the text so that it
has the same meaning as the original text although perhaps not exactly the same form. The main
aim is that the students understand and then re-convey the meaning of the passage,
concentrating on the communicative aspect rather than producing a grammatically perfect text.
FREE WRITING TECHNIQUES.

The fact that these techniques are labelled as “free” does not mean that the students are allowed
to write about anything that comes into their minds. The term “free” refers to the flexibility in
terms of subject treatment, creativity and originability.
In order to make sure that you are applying a valid writing test, you need to be certain that every
student is performing the same kind of task. So you have to provide some detailed guidelines
that will guarantee a written production that reflects what has been taught. In this section, I am
going to deal with only few of the many techniques that have been developed for this purpose.
PARAGRAPHS.
Writing a paragraph constitutes a very good option, as a part of a long test, where some other
skills and components are being tested. Here there are some different ways of presenting this
kind of items:
Examples:
7.29. Write a one-paragraph story using the sentence below as a the first one. The length
should be about 100 words; do not include the sentence given in the total number of
words.
First Sentence: For the first time since our arrival we realized that the villagers were
unfriendly and suspicious.
7.30. Write a one-paragraph story using the sentence below as the last one. The length should
be about 100 words; do not include the sentence given in the total number of words.
Last Sentence: I had forgotten that banks usually shut off so early.
7.31. Write a one-paragraph story using the sentences given below as first and last ones. The
length should be about 100 words; do not include the sentences given in the total number
of words.
First and Last Sentences:

(a) ‘But I haven’t any money,’ I said to the waiter.
(b) I spent half the night washing the dishes.
COMPOSITIONS.
According to Heaton 1979, the writing of a composition is a task which involves the student in
manipulating words in grammatically correct sentences and in linking those sentences to form a
piece of continuous writing which successfully communicates the writer’s thoughts and ideas on a
certain topic.
In the preparation of a test of this kind, the teacher trainee should consider these suggestions:
 Normally two or more short compositions will prove to be more reliable than one long one.
 The writing tasks should be within the reach of all since the purpose is to determine the
student’s ability to express himself in clear, effective , and grammatical prose.
 Clear, specific, and unambiguous directions must be provided for each writing task.
These directions should include a prompt, a situation, a picture, a poster, a chart or a table
that will control the content. The length could be determined by the number of words
required. Some test makers like to include some extra guidelines or reminders such as:
do not forget to provide some examples or make sure that you are using the proper
grammatical structures or be specific in describing ….
 Allow no alternatives; otherwise it is going to be difficult to compare performances or to
ensure that all students have undertaken equivalent tasks.
Look at the directions of the following items:
Examples:
7.32. Write a two hundred-word composition about a vivid dream you have had recently.
Describe it, including your personal interpretation and what it has to do with your current
life events.
7.33. Write a one hundred and fifty-word composition about the most interesting person you
have talked with today. Include the physical as well as the mental characteristics that will
reinforce your point.
7.34. Recall your most embarrassing moment and the write a two hundred-word composition
describing how your worst enemy would feel if he witnessed the moment.
7.35. Imagine that the editor in chief of foreign magazine has asked you to write an article of
approximately two hundred and fifty words about the information in the table below.
Include conclusions and explain reasons for the differences.
TRAVELLING
Venezuela Spain
By plane 60% 15%
By train - 30 %
By car 25% 25 %
By bus 15 % 30 %
PERSONAL AND BUSINESS LETTERS.

Even though these are considered by some writers as parts of compositions, we are going to deal
with this topic separately. There are many kinds of letters; however the main distinction is made
between personal and business letters. Look at the following examples:
Examples:
7.36. Write a personal letter of between 80 and 100 words on the following subject: You have
just returned home after a pleasant visit to a friend in the country and you want to thank
him for his hospitality and tell him about what you enjoyed most while there.
7.37. Write a letter to unpleasant person whom you believe has spread rumours about you
which are untrue. The length should be between 75 and 100 words.
7.38. You bought some tickets from an airline company to travel by air but now you find that you
will be unable to do so. Write a 80 to 100 word letter inquiring whether the tickets may be
returned.
7.39. Write a letter to an English factory cancelling an order which you made for some products.
Your reason for doing so is that your business has not been doing very well lately. The
length should be between 80 and 100 words.
ESSAYS.
Heaton 1979, claims that essay writing involves far more than the production of grammatically
correct sentences; it demands creativity and originality, since it is generally intended not only to
inform but also to entertain. Other authors consider the essay as a piece of formal writing giving
someone’s ideas about politics, society, religion, literature, etc. Look at these examples:
Examples:
7.40. Write a descriptive essay using the paragraph below as the first one. The length should
be between 300 and 350 words; do not include the paragraph given in the total number of
words.
First Paragraph: I liked the house from the moment I saw it. After months of searching, I
was delighted to find such a gay little cottage. Climbing rose-bushes had completely
covered the front and there was a beautiful, well-kept garden all around.
7.41. Write a narrative essay using the paragraph below as the last one. The length should be
between 350 and 400 words; do not include the paragraph given in the total number of
words.
Last Paragraph: I was so glad when I heard a key in the front door. Looking after the baby
had been very hard work, much harder than I had expected.
7.42. Write an argumentative essay between 450 and 500 words where you argue in favour of
the following statement: ‘Every man is the architect of his own future.’
7.43. Consider one or both of the statements below with reference to racial discrimination then
write an essay between 550 and 600 words.
“The future is……black.” (James Baldwin)
“We will learn to live together like brothers or we will perish together like fools.” ( Martin
Luther King)
SCORING PROCEDURES.
When it comes to assessing students’ actual production of written texts in a second or foreign
language, three approaches have traditionally been used to score learners’ writing ability. These
are holistic, objective and analytic scoring.
HOLISTIC SCORING.
The idea in holistic scoring is that a single scale can be used to describe different levels of writing
performance. Bailey 1998, claims that raters using holistic scales are trained not to think about
individual components of the writing skill or to count the number of errors that students make. In
holistic scoring, the reader reacts to the student’s composition as a whole, that is a single score
is awarded to the writing. Examine the scale below:
SCORE LEVEL DESCRIPTORS

Clearly demonstrates competence in writing on

both the rhetorical and syntactic levels, though it
may have occasional errors.
A paper in this category…
is well organized and well developed
effectively addresses the writing task
6 uses appropriate details to support a thesis or
illustrate ideas
shows unity, coherence, and progression
displays consistent facility in the use of language
demonstrates syntactic variety and appropriate
word choice
Demonstrates competence in writing on both the

rhetorical and syntactic levels, though it will have
occasional errors.
is generally well organized and well developed,
though it may have fewer details than does a 6 paper
5 may address some parts of the task more
effectively than others
shows unity, coherence, and progression
demonstrates some syntactic variety and range of
vocabulary
displays facility in language, though it may have
more errors than does a 6 paper
SCORE LEVEL DESCRIPTORS
Demonstrates minimal competence in writing on

both the rhetorical and syntactic levels.
I adequately organized
4 addresses the writing topic adequately but may
slight parts of the task
uses some details to support a thesis or illustrate
ideas
demonstrates adequate but undistinguished or
inconsistent facility with syntax and usage
may contain some serious errors that occasionally
obscure meaning
Demonstrates some developing competence in
writing, but it remains flawed on either the
rhetorical or syntactic level, or both.
A paper in this category may reveal one or more of
the following weaknesses…

3 inadequate organization or development
failure to support or illustrate generalizations with
appropriate or sufficient detail
an accumulation of errors in sentence structure
and/or usage
a noticeably inappropriate choice of words or word
forms
Suggests incompetence in writing.
A paper in this category is seriously flawed by one or
more of the following weaknesses…
failure to organize or develop
2 little or no detail, or irrelevant specifics
serious and frequent errors in usage or sentence
structure
serious problems with focus
Demonstrates incompetence in writing.
A paper in this category will contain serious and
persistent writing errors, may be illogical or
incoherent, or may reveal the writer’s inability to
comprehend the question. A paper that is severely
1 underdeveloped also falls into this category.
Papers that reject the assignment or fail to address

the question on any way must be given to the Table
Leader. Papers that exhibit absolutely no response
at all must be given to the Table Leader.
Level Descriptors for the Test of Written English (TWE) . Taken from Bailey 1998.
OBJECTIVE SCORING.
As the name suggests, this approach relies on quantified methods of evaluating students’ writing.
The procedure consists on assigning a weight score to each error. The teacher trainer classifies
them as errors in: morphology, spelling, mechanics, verb tenses, vocabulary, unity, coherence,
etc. This classification will depend on the objective of the writing test and the level of the testees.
For example, suppose you are grading a three hundred-word composition where each error in
verb tenses will be (2 points); coherence (2 points); vocabulary choice (2 points); spelling (1 point)
and so on. Then the examiner will go through the composition underlining and counting every
mistake. Once he has the total amount of errors, he is going to subtract it from the total number
of words and that will be the student’s score in the composition. Then in order to obtain a score
that agrees to the 20 point scale, you apply a rule of 3. Look at this illustration:
Total # of words: 300 words

Sum of errors: 75 errors
Subtraction: 225 correctness score
In order to typify this correctness score, we apply the rule of 3 in the following way:
300  20 225  20 = 15 points

225  X 300
ANALYTICAL SCORING.
This scoring procedure requires a separate score for each aspect of the scale. Then a
candidate’s total mark is the sum of the weighted scores. It is important to mention that the fact
that the examiner has to assign several scores to each student will tend to make the scoring more
reliable. Examine the following scale for an analytical scoring:
SCORE ASPECT
GRAMMAR:
6 Few (if any) noticeable errors of grammar or word order.
5 Some errors of grammar or word order which do not, however,

interfere with comprehension.
4 Errors of grammar or word order fairly frequent; occasional re-

reading necessary for full comprehension.
3 Errors of grammar or word order frequent; efforts of interpretation

sometimes required on reader’s part.
2 Errors of grammar or word order very frequent; reader often has to

rely on own interpretation.
1 Errors of grammar or word order so severe as to make

comprehension virtually impossible.
SCORE ASPECT
VOCABULARY:
6 Use of vocabulary and idiom rarely (if at all) distinguishable from

that of educated native writer.
5 Occasionally uses inappropriate terms or relies on circumlocutions;

expression of ideas hardly impaired.
4 Uses wrong or inappropriate words fairly frequently; expression of

ideas may be limited because of inadequate vocabulary.
3 Limited vocabulary and frequent errors clearly hinder expression of

ideas.
2 Vocabulary so limited and so frequently misused that reader must

often rely on own interpretation.
1 Vocabulary limitations so extreme as to make comprehension

virtually impossible.
MECHANICS:
6 Few (if any) noticeable lapses in punctuation or spelling.
5 Occasional lapses in punctuation or spelling which do not,

however, interfere with comprehension.
4 Errors in punctuation or spelling fairly frequent; occasional re-

reading necessary for full comprehension.
3 Frequent errors in spelling or punctuation; lead sometimes to

obscurity.
2 Errors in spelling or punctuation so frequent that reader must often

rely on own interpretation.
1 Errors in spelling or punctuation so severe as to make

comprehension virtually impossible.
FLUENCY (style and ease of communication)
6 Choice of structures and vocabulary consistently appropriate; like
that of educated native speaker.
5 Occasional lack of consistency in choice of structures and

vocabulary which does not, however, impair overall ease of
communication
SCORE ASPECT
4 ‘Patchy’, with some structures or vocabulary items noticeably

inappropriate to general style.
3 Structures or vocabulary items sometimes not only inappropriate

but also misused; little sense of ease of communication.
2 Communication often impaired by completely inappropriate or

misused structures or vocabulary items.
1 A ‘hotch-potch’ of half-learned misused structures and vocabulary

items rendering communication almost impossible.
FORM (organization)
6 Highly organized; clear progression of ideas well linked; like

educated native speaker.
5 Material well organized; links could occasionally be clearer but

communication not impaired.
4 Some lack of organization; re-reading required for clarification of

ideas.
3 Little or no attempt at connectivity, though reader can deduce

some organization.
2 Individual ideas may be clear, but very difficult to deduce

connection between them.
1 Lack of organization so severe that communication is seriously

impaired.
Scale devised by John Anderson. Taken from Hughes 2004.
ACTIVITIES FOR PRACTICE.

In this section you will find activities for each of the testing techniques introduced in this chapter.
Notice that no specific student level is established in every exercise since the particular
technique determines the level and kind of students. Those cases requiring additional directions
will be considered as they are assigned.
PRE-WRITING TECHNIQUES.
A. SENTENCE COMBINING.
1. Prepare three sentence-combining items which require the use of logical connectors.
2. Prepare three sentence-combining items which require the use of subordinators.
3. Prepare four sentence-combining items which require the use of relative pronouns.
4. Prepare two sentence-combining items using the type ‘one sentence inside the other’.
B. SENTENCE EXPANSION.
Choose four sentences suitable for expansion purposes and indicate where the additions should
be placed. Provide the suggested answers.
C. SENTENCE REDUCTION.
Find four sentences suitable for reduction purposes, underline the part of the sentences to be
replaced and provide the suggested answers.
OBJECTIVE TECHNIQUES.
A. MULTIPLE-CHOICE ERROR IDENTIFICATION.
1. Design four multiple-choice error identification items to test spelling.
2. Prepare six multiple-choice error identification items to test capitalization and punctuation.
B. MULTIPLE-CHOICE COMPLETION.
Prepare two multiple-choice completion items to assess the ability to write appropriate
statements for formal written English.
C. MULTIPLE-CHOICE CORRECTION.
Prepare two multiple-choice correction items to test the ability to write acceptable statements for
formal written English.
D. UNRELATED SENTENCES.
Find a good unified paragraph and then add an unrelated sentence for your students to identify.
E. SCRAMBLED SENTENCES.
Find a paragraph with clear transition words and then scramble the sentences in order to test
your students ability to organize it in a coherent way.
GUIDED TECHNIQUES.
A. CHANGING A PASSAGE.
Choose a paragraph and then write the instructions that clearly states the change to be made.
Provide the student’s answer.
B. BUILDING FROM A PARAGRAPH OUTLINE.
1. Find a paragraph and prepare what could be the outline (content guide) with all the key words
your students will need to produce a paragraph similar to the initial one.
2. Prepare a set of ideas to guide the production of a paragraph then write the proper
instructions and a topic sentence to be used as a starting point.
3. Prepare a set of questions that will serve as a guide to the production of a paragraph.
Include the instructions.
C. PARALLEL WRITING.
Find a paragraph for the students to read in order to produce a similar one. Write the
instructions that clearly states the purpose of this item.
D. DICTATION.
1. Examine the following dictation in order to identify any problems. List and explain them.
The capital of Colorado / is the modern / industrial city of Denver. It is called / the “Mile
High City,” / because it is / located on a plain / one mile above sea level / near the eastern
slopes / of the mountains. On a clear day, / the lofty peaks of / the Colorado Rockies are
visible / in all their grandeur, / including Pikes Peak / (14,108 feet) / and Longs Peak /
(14,255 feet).
2. Prepare the passage below to be used as a dictation.
Many people around the world are dissatisfied with their living conditions. They suffer from
poverty, discrimination, lack of education, lack of job opportunities, lack of freedom, etc. One
way to try to solve these problems is to move to another country. This doesn’t necessarily mean
that their problems will be solved. In fact, they will encounter many new problems upon arriving
in a new country, such as having to learn a new language, getting used to new customs, etc.
Nevertheless, people continue to emigrate.
FREE WRITING TECHNIQUES.
A. PARAGRAPHS.
1. Write the specific instructions for your students to write a paragraph. Provide the first
sentence.
2. Write the specific instructions for your students to write a paragraphs. Provide the last
sentence.
B. COMPOSITIONS.
1. Find a picture sequence that tells a story. Write the specific instructions for a narrative based
on the pictures.
2. Find a chart, table or diagram with information to your students to interpret and write a
composition. Include the instructions to the students.
3. Provide a very specific situation to serve as a guideline for your students to write a
composition.
C. PERSONAL AND BUSINESS LETTERS.
1. Write specific instructions for your students to write a personal letter.
2. Provide very specific directions for your students to write a business letter.
D. ESSAYS.
1. Write clear instructions for your students to write an argumentative essay.
2. Write specific directions for your students to write a narrative essay.
CHALLENGE.
Design an item that shows your inventiveness and creativity. Specify the level and kind of
students.

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Malagarriga G., Edith TESTING SKILLS AND COMPONENTS: A Practical Guide for EFL Teacher Trainees.

TESTING TECHNIQUES FOR WRITING

Mechanics: spelling, punctuation and capitalization

Rhetorical Matters: organization, cohesion and unity

PRE-WRITING TECHNIQUES LEVEL

Sentence Combining Production

Sentence Expansion Production

Sentence Reduction Production

OBJECTIVE TECNIQUES LEVEL

Multiple-Choice Error Identification Recognition

Multiple-Choice Completion Recognition

Multiple-Choice Correction Recognition

Unrelated Sentences Recognition

Scrambled Sentences Recognition

Changing a Passage Production

Building from a Paragraph Outline Production

FREE WRITING TECHNIQUES LEVEL

Personal and Business Letters Production

TECHNIQUES FOR TESTING WRITING.

7.2. Cindy misses her family. She is quite depressed.

7.4. He wishes to succeed. He has to develop something useful.

Suggested answers: If he wishes to succeed, he has to develop something useful.

7.6. I had time to reply. He thrust an invitation-card into my hands.

ONE SENTENCE INSIDE THE OTHER:

7.9 My sister plays the piano. My brother plays the piano.

7.12. The trains ( ) are packed.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE ERROR IDENTIFICATION.

7.15. A. business B. neccessary  C. command D. beginning

7.17. A. Pacific Ocean B. January C. Winter  D. Labor Day

7.18. Please accept my apologies for any ________________________.

 Read the following scrambled paragraph in order to organize it by putting the

BUILDING FROM A PARAGRAPH OUTLINE.

Probable student’s answer:

 The transportation depends mainly on __________ (refer to them).

 New York moves vertically as well as horizontally________ (justify this).

 Bright, noisy, spectacular, and impersonal_________ (conclude).

 What is his name?

 Where does he live?

 Is he married? If so, does he have any kids?

 What does he do for a living?

 What are his plans for the future?

PREPARING A DICTATION TEST.

ADMINISTERING THE DICTATION TEST.

SCORING THE DICTATION TEST.

Fixed number of points 100

Number of errors the student made 65

Student’s final score in the dictation 35 points

The following passage is an example of a dictation with the pauses.

FREE WRITING TECHNIQUES.

First and Last Sentences:

Look at the directions of the following items:

By plane 60% 15%

PERSONAL AND BUSINESS LETTERS.

SCORE LEVEL DESCRIPTORS

Clearly demonstrates competence in writing on

Demonstrates competence in writing on both the

SCORE LEVEL DESCRIPTORS

Demonstrates minimal competence in writing on

the following weaknesses…

Papers that reject the assignment or fail to address

Total # of words: 300 words

300  20 225  20 = 15 points

6 Few (if any) noticeable errors of grammar or word order.