Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Static and fatigue behavior of pultruded FRP multi-bolted joints with basalt T
FRP and hybrid steel-FRP bolts
Diana S.E. Abdelkerima, Xin Wanga,b, , Haitham A. Ibrahimc, Zhishen Wua,b
⁎

a
Key Laboratory of C & PC Structures Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
b
National and Local Unified Engineering Research Center for Basalt Fiber Production and Application Technology, International Institute for Urban Systems Engineering,
Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
c
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Sohag University, 82534 Sohag, Egypt

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This study investigates the effect of bolt types on the static and fatigue performance of basalt fiber-reinforced
Basalt fiber-reinforced polymer (BFRP) polymer (BFRP) multi-bolted double-lap connections. Three types of bolts are used: stainless-steel (SS), BFRP,
Bolted connections and hybrid steel-FRP (HSFRP) bolts. Firstly, static tensile tests using steel single-bolted double-lap connections
Fatigue are conducted to determine the mechanical properties and failure modes of the proposed bolts. Secondly, static
Hybrid bolts
and fatigue tests using BFRP double-lap connections with six bolts of either SS, BFRP, or HSFRP were conducted.
Static load
Finally, post-fatigue static tests were conducted to evaluate the deterioration of the composite joints caused by
fatigue loading. Load-displacement curves, failure modes, fatigue life, S-N curves, and stiffness degradation are
used to evaluate the effect of the bolt type on the behavior of the BFRP joints. Results indicated that SS bolts can
be replaced entirely with BFRP bolts without affecting the static and fatigue performance of the joints. In ad-
dition, compared to the brittle failure of both the SS and BFRP bolts, the proposed HSFRP bolts exhibited ductile
behavior which could be the key to achieving ductile composite structures. Moreover, the HSFRP bolts dra-
matically prolonged the fatigue life of the composite joints compared to the joints with SS and BFRP bolts.

1. Introduction structures, the chemical industry, and in harsh environmental condi-

Existing structures built from conventional materials, such as
timber, masonry, concrete, and steel, suffer from a number of problems,
such as corrosion, degradation, and other aging-related problems.
These problems not only affect the serviceability and maintenance costs
of the structures, but also result in a large number of potential safety
issues that could result in accidents. There is, therefore, a necessity for
alternative materials to overcome these problems. Fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) is considered a promising construction material to re-
place and overcome the problems of the aforementioned materials due
to their non-corrosive nature, high strength, and lightweight. Initially,
the applications of FRP composites were limited to the military and
aerospace industries. More recently, FRP has been introduced into the
civil engineering industry for the strengthening and repairing of ex-
isting structures, and as reinforcement bars for new structures [1–6].
Apart from the widely used FRP sheets and bars in strengthening and
repairing processes, FRP pultruded profiles, which can be used in
constructing pure composite structures, have attracted the attention of
civil engineers. Pultruded FRP profiles have been widely used in marine
tions where durability is the primary concern with metallic structures
[7].
Connections, the most important and critical parts for any structure,
control the serviceability and strength of composite structures. Bonded,
bolted, and hybrid bonded-bolted connections are the most common
joint systems used in FRP pultruded composite structures. Bolted con-
nections are the most frequently used connection type because of their
advantages, such as being de-constructable and less affected by en-
vironmental conditions [7–10]. Common failure modes of FRP bolted
connections, which have been reported in the available literature
[7–11], are bearing failure, shear-out failure, net tension failure, clea-
vage failure, bolt failure, and punching failure (i.e., bolt pulling through
laminate). Design engineers strive to avoid the occurrence of cata-
strophic and brittle failure modes, such as net-tension and pull-out
failure modes. On the other hand, bearing failure, which is character-
ized by elongation of the bolt hole in the load direction, is preferable
because it occurs slowly and provides sufficient warning before final
failure [12,13]. From existing literature, it is seen that numerous
parameters affect the static and fatigue performance of FRP bolted

⁎
Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of C & PC Structures Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
E-mail address: xinwang@hotmail.com (X. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2019.03.085
Received 31 October 2018; Received in revised form 20 February 2019; Accepted 25 March 2019
Available online 01 April 2019
0263-8223/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al. Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of mold cross section.

Location of
the Location of the
unidirectional bidirectional
fibers layers

Table 1
Mechanical properties of basalt fibers and resin.
Type Tensile strength (MPa) Efrp (GPa) Elongation (%) Shear strength (MPa) Fiber volume fraction

Basalt fiber 2500 90 2.8 53%

Resin 53 2.9 10

400 rate, and joint type [16,19].

Recently, there has been an increasing effort from researchers to
25 promote the structural applications of composite structures by devel-
oping new connection methods and evaluating short- and long-term
100 100
7 behavior of composite joints under both normal and extreme condi-
F F tions. For instance, Bai and Yang [27] developed innovative composite
connector to facilitate forming pure composite space trusses. Genedy
et al. [28] suggested incorporating nanoparticles (multi-walled carbon
nanotubes) to enhance the shear behavior of GFRP bolted connections
by improving the mechanical properties of the epoxy. In order to
overcome the access limitations in composite tubular hollow sections,
Wu et al. [21] investigated the possibility of using blind bolts instead of
conventional bolts. Experimental static and fatigue tests were con-
ducted to compare the effect of using blind bolts. Apart from FRP joint
behavior under normal conditions, Wu et al. [29] tested single-bolted
joints with both conventional and blind bolts at different temperatures,
ranging from room temperature to 220 °C, to better understand the
(a) behavior of FRP bolted connections under high temperatures. Anwar
[30] conducted experimental parametric study to investigate short-term
and time-dependent performance of joints under normal and elevated
F temperatures up to 60 °C. Recently, Fang et al. [31] reviewed and dis-
cussed the suitability of the pultruded composite structures to be used
as main load-carrying systems in large-scale civil engineering applica-
F tions under harsh environments.
Most of the experimentally tested joint specimens were fabricated
using glass/carbon FRP plates and steel bolts [14,16,21,22]. With the
increased demand in the fiber market for more economic and en-
56 vironmentally friendly composites, new fibers have been emerged.
Basalt fiber has attracted significant attention lately because of its high
physical and chemical properties. In addition, basalt fibers are en-
47

vironmentally friendly, have good alkaline and acid resistance, and

resist high and low temperatures up to 800°C and −200°C, re-
26
90

(b)
Fig. 2. Specimens preparation: (a) tensile tests, and (b) shear tests (units: mm).
connections. These parameters are classified into four groups: (1)
Geometrical factors, such as thickness, width, side distance, edge dis-
tance, and hole diameter [12,14–16]; (2) Material factors, such as
matrix type, fiber type, surface treatment, volume fraction, and fillers
content [15,17–19]; (3) Fastener factors, such as fastener type [20,21],
fastener size and number [8,11,14,20–22], washer size [11], hole
clearance [23–25], and applied torque [13]; and (4) Design factors,
such as hole patterns [11,14,19,26], load directions [12,14,16], loading
spectively. Basalt fibers also have higher strength than glass fibers,
lower density than steel, and are significantly cheaper than carbon.
Basalt fiber, therefore, is a promising and desirable candidate as a
composite material [32–36].
The use of thousands of bolts in civil engineering structures, and
even more in aerospace composite structures (approximately three
million bolts are used in the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-800 aircraft),
increases the overall weight of the structure [37]. In addition, using two
materials with different potential conductivity (i.e., FRP plates and
metal fasteners such as steel or aluminum) results in galvanic corrosion.
Therefore, development of novel bolts is needed to overcome the hea-
vyweight and corrosion problems of pure metal bolts. To the best of the
authors’ knowledge, limited studies have been conducted to solve these
problems by investigating the effect of using new types of lightweight
and durable bolts on the performance of FRP connections; for instance,
Erki [38] tested GFRP single-bolted double-lap joints connected by steel
and GFRP threaded rods under static tensile load. Results have in-
dicated that using GFRP threaded rods decreased the joint load capacity

325
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al. Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Table 2 elastic modulus [see Fig. 2(a)]. Five samples, which were cut along the
Mechanical properties of pultruded BFRP plates. pultrusion direction, were tested under static tensile load. The width,
Specimens No. Tensile Elastic Poisson’s ratio Shear Shear length, and thickness of each sample were 25 mm, 400 mm, and 7 mm,
strength modulus strength modulus respectively. A number of trial specimens were tested to determine the
(MPa) (GPa) (MPa) (GPa) appropriate anchorage length that ensures the occurrence of no slip-
page during the test. In addition, as shown in Fig. 2(b), three samples
1 1034 61.4 0.251 30.7 8.6
2 959.5 59.4 0.208 27.7 6.2
were prepared and tested according to ASTM D7078 [40] to determine
3 1098.5 61.8 0.251 28.2 6.6 the shear strength and shear modulus of the BFRP plates. The obtained
4 932 68.3 0.281 mechanical properties of the pultruded BFRP plates are presented in
5 974 59 0.277 Table 2.
Average 1000 62 0.254 28.9 7.2 Three types of 12 mm bolts were used in this study, as shown in
COV (%) 6.6 5.4 10.2 4.5 14 Fig. 3: SS, BFRP, and HSFRP bolts. The BFRP bolts were fabricated by
cutting pultruded BFRP bars into small pieces, and the bolts shank and
the threaded part were then sculptured. For the fabrication of the
by approximately 50%. In addition, it changed the failure mode of the
HSFRP bolts, a small diameter of stainless steel bar was used as a core
connections from the GFRP plates to the GFRP rods (brittle rod shear
during the pultrusion process of the BFRP bars (i.e., inner core made of
failure). Therefore, further studies are required to develop reliable and
stainless steel and surrounded by BFRP). For that purpose, 6 mm dia-
efficient bolts, and to investigate their effects on the static and fatigue
meter stainless steel bars were used and coated with BFRP until
performance of pultruded FRP connections.
reaching a 12 mm outer diameter. The yield strength and elastic mod-
In this study, two new types of bolts (BFRP and hybrid steel-basalt
ulus of the used stainless steel were 450 MPa and 200 GPa, respectively.
FRP (HSFRP) bolts) are proposed to enhance the behavior of the pul-
truded FRP connection. Firstly, the shear strengths and failure modes of
the proposed bolts are investigated and compared to conventional 2.2. Specimen descriptions
stainless-steel (SS) bolts. Static and fatigue tests were then conducted to
evaluate the performance of multi-bolted double-lap BFRP joints con- As this study proposes for the first time the use of the HSFRP bolts, it
nected by SS, BFRP, and HSFRP bolts. is necessary to understand the characteristics of this type of bolt in
comparison with the conventional steel or BFRP bolts before in-
vestigating their effect on the static and fatigue performance of the
2. Experimental program BFRP multi-bolted connections. Therefore, two different specimen
configurations are prepared: the first to compare the shear strength and
2.1. Materials failure mode of the three bolts, and the second to investigate the effect
of the bolt type on the performance of the BFRP multi-bolted connec-
The pultruded BFRP plates were produced by GMV Company tions.
(Nanjing, China). The pultruded BFRP plate is orthotropic and com- Fig. 4 shows the schematic diagram and experimental set up for the
prises resin, unidirectional (0°) basalt roving to provide strength in the single-bolted double-lap shear connection used to investigate the be-
longitudinal direction, and three layers of bidirectional fiber sheets to havior of the bolts. As presented in Table 3, nine specimens (three for
improve the strength of the plates in the transverse direction. An each type of bolt) are prepared and tested under axial tensile load. The
alignment machine with a customized mold was used to align the specimens were prepared by drilling a single 12.6 mm hole in the steel
unidirectional roving and the bidirectional fiber sheets together before plates, as shown in Fig. 4. Steel plates were used to ensure that the
being impregnated in resin. Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the specimens failed due to the bolt shear failure. Accordingly, the failure
mold used and the arrangement of the three bidirectional layers and the mode and shear strength of the BFRP and HSFRP bolts can be de-
unidirectional fibers that were used to prepare the pultruded BFRP termined and compared with those of the SS bolts.
plate. The first sheet layer was placed on the top surface, the second one Based on the recorded load measurements during the tests, the shear
on the bottom surface, and the third one in the middle. The basalt strength of the bolts was calculated using the following equations:
roving and the three layers of the sheets were bonded with Sanyu L-500
resin. The fiber volume fraction of the used pultruded BFRP plates, and Pavg =
Pmax
the mechanical properties of both the basalt fibers and Sanyu L-500 3 (1)
resin, are presented in Table 1 (data provided by the manufacturer).
Tensile tests of the BFRP pultruded plates were conducted according Pavg
=
to the guidelines of ASTM D3039 [39] to obtain the tensile strength and
s. s
2 A (2)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3. Types of bolts: (a) stainless steel, (b) BFRP, and (c) HSFRP bolts.

326
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al. Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Fig. 4. Single-bolted double-lap shear connection used to investigate shear strength and failure mode of bolts: (a) schematic details, and (b) actual test.

Table 3 two specimens were prepared and tested under static and fatigue tensile
Shear strength test results. load until failure. Each connection comprised one BFRP main plate and
Specimens Type Dia. (mm) Pmax a (kN) Pavg a (kN) b
(MPa)
two outer cover BFRP plates connected through six bolts (two columns
s .s
and three rows) of either SS, BFRP, or HSFRP bolts. The dimensional
SS-1 SS 12 93.9 92.2 407.5 parameters were selected to satisfy the recommendations of the EUR-
SS-2 91.2 OCOMP code [41] and existing studies [14,15,21,26], which stipulate
SS-3 91.4
that: (1) the edge distance shall not be less than three times the hole
BFRP-1 BFRP 12 26.9 26.3 116.2 diameter, (2) the side distance shall not be less than two times the hole
BFRP-2 21.1 diameter, (3) the pitch distance shall not be less than three times the
BFRP-3 30.9
hole diameter, and (4) the hole clearance is equal to 5% of the bolt
HSFRP-1 HSFRP 12 36.9 37 163.5 diameter. A thickness of 7.0 mm was selected for all the BFRP plates.
HSFRP-2 35.9
The edge and the pitch distances were 5d and 4d (where d is the dia-
HSFRP-3 38.1
meter of the bolt hole = 12.6 mm), respectively. Finally, all joints had
Note: a is the load for double shear bolts and b
is the shear strength for single the same total length of 942 mm, as shown in Fig. 5.
shear bolts. It should be noted that a finger tight, which was used to consider the
effect of the creep and fatigue loading, was applied to all bolts. Finger-
where Pmax is the failure load for the bolt, Pavg is the average failure load tight conditions represent the actual application of bolted connections
for the three specimens, A is the cross-sectional area of the bolts, s. s is in practice, where the beneficial effects of the pre-set torque could be
the single shear strength for one bolt, and the value 2 is used to convert lost during the service life of composite structures [41].
from double shear strength to single shear strength of the bolts.
Fig. 5 shows the configuration of the pultruded BFRP multi-bolted 2.3. Experimental setup
double-lap joints prepared for the static and fatigue tests. Three speci-
mens of each joint were prepared for each bolt type. A total of thirty- The static and fatigue tests were performed using a l000 kN servo-
7

5d 4d 4d 5d
120
4d

d=12.6

942
Note: all dimensions are in mm
Fig. 5. BFRP multi-bolted double-lap joints for static and fatigue tests.

327
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al.
Fig. 6. Experimental setup for typical specimen under static and fatigue tests.
hydraulic fatigue test machine. In the static tests, the tensile load was
applied using displacement-controlled protocol at a constant rate of
0.5 mm/min until failure. Fig. 6 shows the experimental setup for a
typical specimen under static or fatigue tests. The grip length was se-
lected as 100 mm on each side for both the static and fatigue tests to
prevent any slippage between the clamps and the specimen. As shown
in Fig. 6, the relative displacement between the main plate and the
cover plate was measured by a linear variable differential transducer
(LVDT).
For the fatigue tests, specimens were subjected to tension-tension
cyclic loading at a loading frequency of 10 Hz with a constant fatigue
(a)
Fig. 7. Bolt failure modes: (a) SS, (b) BFRP, and (c) HSFRP.
Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337
ratio of 0.1 (i.e., Pmin Pmax = 0.1). For each type of bolt, the connections
were subjected to three fatigue load ratios: 0.3, 0.5, and 0.8 of the static
failure load. For specimens that reached two million cycles without
failure, the fatigue test was stopped automatically, and the specimens
were then loaded monotonically until failure at a loading rate of
0.5 mm/min to evaluate the post-fatigue behavior of the BFRP multi
bolted connections.
3. Experimental results
3.1. Steel single-bolted double-lap connections under static tension load
The aim of this section is to describe the behavior of the proposed
bolts (i.e., BFRP and HSFRP) in steel single-bolted double-lap shear
connections under the effect of axial tensile loads. The failure modes
and the load-displacement curves are discussed in detail.
3.1.1. Failure modes
Fig. 7(a)–(c) show the failure modes of the SS, BFRP, and HSFRP
bolts. As shown in Fig. 7(a), SS bolts exhibited the familiar failure for
steel bolts under shear loads, where the failure occurred in two failure
planes because of the use of double-lap connections. Unlike the SS bolts,
the BFRP bolts failed initially by damage in the fibers and resin, fol-
lowed by breakage of the bolts at one plane [see Fig. 7(b)]. In contrast
to the SS and BFRP bolts, the HSFRP bolts exhibited a different failure
mode. It can be seen from Fig. 7(c) that the failure is different for both
the outer BFRP and the inner steel core. The BFRP outer part failed and
fractured into two parts. However, the steel inner core experienced
bending failure mode. In addition, with the increase in the displace-
ment, slippage between the two parts (i.e., BFRP and steel core) was
observed, which could indicate the existence of bonding problems in
the fabrication of the HSFRP bolts.
3.1.2. Load-displacement curves
Fig. 8 shows the recorded load-displacement curves for the nine
specimens. For the SS bolted connections, the load-displacement curve
consists of two parts. The first is linear with high initial stiffness until
reaching approximately 65 kN, followed by nonlinear behavior till
reaching the failure point. Beyond the failure point, the SS bolts lose all
of its shear strength because of the two-planes failure. As shown in
Fig. 8(b), the BFRP bolts exhibited approximately linear behavior until
reaching their ultimate load. Beyond this point, the connection started
to lose its loading capacity. The difference in the failure load of the
three BFRP bolts can be attributed to the existence of some geometrical
errors in the bolts as a result of the sculpture process. The HSFRP bolts
exhibited similar trends to the BFRP bolts until reaching the ultimate
load point. However, a remarkable difference can be observed beyond
this point where, unlike the pure SS and BFRP bolts, the HSFRP bolts
(b) (c)
328
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al.
Fig. 8. Bolt load-displacement curves: (a) SS, (b) BFRP, and (c) HSFRP.
did not completely lose their shear strength. As shown in Fig. 8(c), after
reaching the failure point, a sudden drop in the load occurred, which
resulted from the failure of the outer part (i.e., the BFRP part). A sta-
bility plateau in the load-displacement curve can then be observed. The
plateau corresponds to the bending failure of the inner part (i.e., the
stainless steel core).
Table 3 presents the results of the shear strength tests. The average
shear strength for the SS bolts is 407.5 MPa, which is 3.5 times that of
the BFRP bolts (i.e., 116.2 MPa). This significant difference between the
SS and BFRP bolts is attributed to the relatively weak shear resistance of
329
Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337
the FRP composite bars which, in this study, were used to manufacture
the BFRP bolts [42]. In addition, these results are in good agreement
with the findings in [38] where the strength of the composite joints,
that failed because of the failure of the FRP rod, was less than 50% of
the counterpart joints with a steel rod. On the other hand, using an
inner stainless steel core for the HSFRP bolts increased their shear
strength by approximately 40.7% compared to that of the pure BFRP
bolts.
3.2. BFRP multi-bolted double-lap connections under static tension load
3.2.1. Failure modes
In all of the tested specimens, the failure occurred in the main plate.
Therefore, the cover plates were removed after the test in order to in-
vestigate the failure. Fig. 9(a)–(c) show the observed damage and
failure modes of the SS bolted connections (SBC), BFRP bolted con-
nections (BBC), and HSFRP bolted connections (HBC). Typically, the
dominant failure mode was shear-out failure in the main BFRP plate,
regardless of the bolt type.
During the test, the authors attempted to observe the formation and
propagation of the cracks at the end of the main plate. The failure of the
BFRP main plate started with hearing a quiet sound at load lower than
the failure load. At that point, there was no sign of any damage to the
end of the main plates. In addition, the sound was always associated
with a change in the load-displacement curve, as will be discussed in
the next section. This sound could be attributed to the beginning of the
bearing failure of the plate [43]. With increasing load, a miniscule crack
was always observed through the thickness of the main plate. In some
specimens, this crack was observed under only one column of bolts.
Following the formation of this crack, a very loud voice was heard,
accompanied by the occurrence of the shear-out failure of the main
plate. It should be noted that the shear-out failure sometimes occurred
under one column of bolts rather than the two columns. This can be
attributed to the existence of some misalignment of the specimens
during the test (i.e., the specimens were not perfectly vertical). In some
specimens, the crack through the plate thickness became wider, leading
to splitting failure, as shown in Fig. 9(c). In addition, the shear-out
failure was occasionally accompanied by delamination in the main
plate at the location of the middle bidirectional layer [see Fig. 9(d)].
Regarding the damage of the bolts, there was no failure observed in
the bolts of the SBC specimens (i.e., SS bolts). For the BBC specimens,
slight bending and damage to the fibers were observed in the BFRP
bolts, as shown in Fig. 9(e). On the other hand, for the bolts of the HBC
specimens (i.e., HSFRP bolts), some cracks were formed in the BFRP
outer part of the bolts. Furthermore, clear debonding and separation
between the steel inner core and the outer BFRP part could be observed,
as shown in Fig. 9(f).
3.2.2. Load-displacement curves
The load-displacement curves for the three replicates of the SBC,
BBC, and HBC specimens are shown in Fig. 10(a)–(c), respectively. It
can be observed from these figures that, at the beginning of the load-
displacement curves, there is an increase in the displacement with no
apparent increase in the applied load. This behavior is attributed to the
relative slippage between the BFRP main and cover plates caused by the
clearance between the bolts and the holes. Afterward, the slope of the
load-displacement curve increased because of the full contact of the
bolts with the holes until reaching the ultimate load, where a drop
occurred because of the shear-out failure of the main plate.
As shown in Fig. 10(a) and (b), the SBC and BBC specimens ex-
hibited linear behavior until reaching their failure load. However, the
BBC specimens exhibited a change in the slope of the load-displacement
curve at approximately 50% of the failure load [Fig. 10(b)]. This
change could be attributed to the initiation of the bearing failure, as this
change was always accompanied by hearing a sound. On the other
hand, two of the HBC specimens (HBC-1 and HBC-3) exhibited
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al.
Fig. 9. Failure modes of pultruded BFRP multi-bolted connections: (a) shear-out failure of SBC, (b) shear-out failure of BBC, (c) shear-out and splitting failure of HBC,
(d) shear-out and delamination failure mode, (e) damage of BFRP bolts, and (f) damage of HSFR.
nonlinear behavior after reaching 60 kN, as shown in Fig. 10(c). It was
observed during the test that this nonlinear behavior starts immediately
after the damage initiation of the HSFRP bolts. That is, the occurrence
of the damage in the HSFRP bolts (cracks and bending) delayed the
failure of the main plate. Accordingly, HBC-1 and HBC-3 specimens
achieved higher displacement before encountering the failure of the
main plates. Based on these results, HSFRP bolts can be used, if de-
signed appropriately, as a fuse element to provide the FRP composite
joints with ductility and to delay their failure by sustaining an accep-
table level of damage, which in turn will reduce the intensity of the
shear-out failure.
Table 4 presents the failure loads of all specimens tested in this
study. Fig. 11(a) and (b) compare the typical load-displacement curves
and the average failure loads of the SBC, BBC, and HBC specimens,
respectively. As can be seen from Fig. 11(a), replacing the SS bolts with
HSFRP or BFRP bolts did not affect the stiffness of the BFRP multi-
bolted joints. Specifically, the HBC specimen exhibited the same stiff-
ness as that of the SBC specimen up to 60% of its failure load. In ad-
dition, it is evident from Fig. 11(b) and Table 4 that the SBC, BBC, and
HBC bolted joints have approximately comparable average failure load.
It can be concluded from the above results and discussions on the
failure modes, failure load, and load-displacement curves of the SBC,
BBC, and HBC joints that the SS bolts of the composite joints can be
entirely replaced by the BFRP or the HSFRP bolts without affecting the
330
Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337
performance of the joints. In addition, the results suggest that, if the
composite joints are designed to fail by bolts [44], using the proposed
HSFRP bolts can overcome the brittle failure of these joints by utilizing
their stability plateau at failure (i.e., the composite joints will fail in a
ductile manner). Therefore, further studies are recommended to in-
vestigate this possibility, specifically, for application in aircraft struc-
tures where ductile failure is of great value from a safety point of view.
3.3. BFRP multi-bolted double-lap connections under fatigue tension load
3.3.1. Failure modes
Similar to the specimens tested under static loading, the cover plates
of the specimens subjected to fatigue were removed to clearly visualize
the failure mode. Fig. 12 shows the failure of the SBC, BBC, and HBC
specimens in the fatigue tests. Regardless of the bolt type, all the failed
specimens exhibited shear-out failure mode when subjected to fatigue
loading. Compared to the specimens in the static tests, the fatigue
failure was more severe, as shown in Figs. 9 and 12. The SBC and BBC
specimens, which were each subjected to fatigue load ratios of 0.5 and
0.8, exhibited shear out failure mode during the test. On the other hand,
the SBC and BBC specimens, with a load ratio of 0.3, reached 2 million
cycles without experiencing any failure. It should be noted that the tests
were stopped after reaching two million cycles, and the specimens were
then tested under increased monotonic loading until failure, as will be
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al. Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Fig. 11. Comparison of (a) typical load-displacement curves, and (b) average
failure load of SBC, BBC, and HBC joints.

discussed later. For the HBC joints, specimens with a load ratio of 0.8
exhibited similar failure mode to those of the SBC and BBC specimens
(i.e., shear-out). On the other hand, the HBC specimens with a load
ratio of 0.3 and 0.5 reached two million cycles without failure.

3.3.2. Fatigue life and S-N curves

Table 5 presents the number of loading cycles until failure (i.e.,
fatigue life) for each specimen of the SBC, BBC, and HBC joints. Re-
Fig. 10. Load-displacement curves: (a) SBC, (b) BBC, and (c) HBC specimens. gardless of bolt type, specimens subjected to a load ratio of 0.3 reached
two million cycles without failure. At load ratios of 0.8 and 0.5, using
Table 4 BFRP bolts instead of SS bolts reduced the fatigue life of the joints. For
Experimental results of SBC, BBC, and HBC specimens subjected to static instance, BBC specimens exhibited an average fatigue life of 956 and
loading. 58,001 cycles compared to 4059 and 87,940 cycles for the SBC speci-
mens at load ratios of 0.8 and 0.5, respectively. On the other hand,
Specimens Connection details Pf Pavg
using the HSFRP bolts enhanced the fatigue life of the HBC joints. For
D Dh N Type example, at a load ratio of 0.8, the average fatigue life of the HBC
specimens is 17% higher than that of the SBC specimens. The most
SBC-1 12 12.6 6 SS 85.83 80 remarkable enhancement in the fatigue life was at a load ratio of 0.5, as
SBC-2 77.08
SBC-3 77.09
the HBC specimens could reach two million cycles without failure. At
the same load ratio, the SBC and BBC specimens achieved average fa-
BBC-1 12 12.6 6 BFRP 83.42 85.21
tigue life of 87,940 and 58,001 cycles, respectively [see Table 5]. The
BBC-2 93.94
BBC-3 78.26 higher fatigue life of the HBC specimens could be attributed to the
damage of the HSFRP bolts. The fatigue failure process always occurred
HBC-1 12 12.6 6 Hybrid 72.26 77.41
HBC-2 86.63 in three sequential stages: crack initiation, crack propagation, and
HBC-3 73.35 failure stage. With an increase in the cyclic loading, cracks propagated
rapidly at locations of bolts with higher load (i.e., critical bolts).
Note: D is the bolt diameter in mm; Dh is the hole diameter in mm; N is the However, with the damage of the HSFRP bolts, a redistribution of the
number of bolts; Pf is the failure load in kN; and Pavg is the average failure load bolt loads could occur, which leads to delay the crack propagation rate
in kN. because of the reduction in the load transferred by these critical bolts.

331
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al. Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Fig. 12. Failure modes of specimens under fatigue load: (a) SBC, (b) BBC, and (c) HBC.

Table 5 provided with a trend line for each type of joint. It is noteworthy that
Experimental results of SBC, BBC, and HBC specimens subjected to fatigue the trend lines are drawn using only the results of the failed specimens,
loading. and then extrapolated up to 2 million cycles. It can be seen from
Specimens Load ratio Pmax a Pmin b Nc Navg.d Fig. 13(a) that the relationship between the applied fatigue load ratio
and the fatigue life (on a logarithmic scale) for the SBC, BBC, and HBC
SBC-0.3 0.3 24 2.4 > 2,000,000 > 2,000,000 is approximately linear. Accordingly, by knowing the level of the fa-
SBC-0.3 0.3 24 2.4 > 2,000,000 tigue load ratio, the fatigue life of the composite joints can be predicted.
SBC-0.5-1 0.5 40 4 43,888 87,940
To facilitate the prediction of the fatigue life of the SBC, BBC, and HBC
SBC-0.5-2 0.5 40 4 71,456
SBC-0.5-3 0.5 40 4 148,475 joints, the relationship between fatigue life and the fatigue load ratio or
SBC-0.8-1 0.8 64 6.4 8205 4059 maximum applied fatigue load is established by curve-fitting the ex-
SBC-0.8-2 0.8 64 6.4 2582 perimental results of this study. The fitted equations for the fatigue life
SBC-0.8-3 0.8 64 6.4 1389
of multi-bolted composite joints follow a log-linear relation, as shown
BBC-0.3 0.3 25 2.5 > 2,000,000 > 2,000,000
BBC-0.3 0.3 25 2.5 > 2,000,000 in Equations (3) and (4), where S, P, and N represent the fatigue load
BBC-0.5-1 0.5 42 4.2 31,217 58,001 ratio, maximum applied fatigue load, and the number of cycles, re-
BBC-0.5-2 0.5 42 4.2 84,062 spectively. The fitting parameters and the coefficient of determination
BBC-0.5-3 0.5 42 4.2 58,722 (R2 ) of these equations are presented in Table 6.
BBC-0.8-1 0.8 68 6.8 392 956
BBC-0.8-2 0.8 68 6.8 1677 S= a1 log(N ) + b1 (3)
BBC-0.8-3 0.8 68 6.8 799
HBC-0.3 0.3 23 2.3 > 2,000,000 > 2,000,000
P= a2 log(N ) + b2 (4)
HBC-0.3 0.3 23 2.3 > 2,000,000
HBC-0.5-1 0.5 38 3.8 > 2,000,000 > 2,000,000
As can be seen in Fig. 13(a) and (b), the trend lines of the SBC and
HBC-0.5-2 0.5 38 3.8 > 2,000,000
HBC-0.8-1 0.8 61 6.1 2142 4757 BBC specimens are approximately comparable up to a fatigue life of two
HBC-0.8-2 0.8 61 6.1 5654 million cycles, which means that steel bolts can be replaced entirely
HBC-0.8-3 0.8 61 6.1 6475 with BFRP bolts without significantly affecting the fatigue life of the
composite joints. On the other hand, the fatigue life of the HBC speci-
Note: a Pmax is maximum fatigue load in kN; b Pmin is minimum fatigue load in
mens outperformed both the SBC and BBC specimens at almost all fa-
kN; c N is fatigue life (number of cycles until failure); and d Navg. is average
tigue load ratios. It should be noted that the static loading capacity of
fatigue life in cycles.
the HBC specimens is less than those of the SBC and BBC specimens by
3.2% and 9.1%, respectively. Therefore, to eliminate the effect of this
Accordingly, a larger number of cycles is required to achieve a level of
load difference, the relationship between the applied fatigue load and
accumulated damage enough to cause shear-out failure of the BFRP
the fatigue life is plotted in Fig. 13(b). Although HBC specimens showed
main plate.
slightly lower static failure load compared to both the SBC and BBC
Fig. 13(a) and (b) show the fatigue load ratio and fatigue load
specimens, the HBC specimens exhibited enhanced fatigue life under
versus the fatigue life, respectively, for the SBC, BBC, and HBC speci-
the same applied load. However, replacing the SS bolts with HSFRP
mens. The fatigue load ratio is calculated as the applied maximum load
bolts depends on the expected fatigue life of the structure with a se-
(Pmax ) divided by the average static failure load for each type of joint
parating line at N = 100 cycles. For example, for N lower than 100
(i.e., SBC, BBC, and HBC). Fig. 13(a) represents the well know S-N curve
cycles, the SBC connections showed a higher fatigue life than the con-
for the SBC, BBC, and HBC joints. In addition, Fig. 13(a) and (b) are
nections with HSFRP bolts. That can be attributed to the higher static

332
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al. Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Fig. 13. S-N curves of SBC, BBC, and HBC specimens.

Table 6 applications of the composite structures. Therefore, the stiffness of the

S-N and F-N curves fitting parameters. specimens that failed in the fatigue tests is monitored through their
a1 b1 a2 b2
fatigue life. In addition, specimens, whose fatigue life exceeded two
R2
million cycles, are subjected to an increased static load until failure to
SBC 0.04 1.0252 3.216 82.014 0.85 evaluate their post-fatigue performance after exceeding such a large
BBC 0.044 1.0249 3.754 87.326 0.89 number of loading cycles.
HBC 0.024 0.999 1.839 77.36 0.74

3.4.1. Stiffness degradation

load of the SBC connections. Therefore, in this range, it is recommended
to use BFRP bolts instead of HSFRP bolts. For N > 100 cycles, bolted
connections with HSFRP bolts showed remarkable improvements in the
fatigue life. Therefore, it is recommended for this range (i.e., N > 100)
to use HSFRP bolts instead of SS bolts.
3.4. Fatigue loading effect on performance of BFRP Multi-Bolted
connections
The severity of the composite joints, when subjected to fatigue
loading, lies in the increasingly progressive and permanent deteriora-
tion in the internal structure of the composite material. Therefore,
monitoring the degradation of the stiffness, the loading capacity, and
the load-displacement relationship of the composite joints, when sub-
jected to cyclic loading, is of great significance for structural
Fig. 14 shows the recorded typical load-displacement curve for the
specimens during the fatigue tests. The data was recorded at a fre-
quency of 100 Hz (i.e., 10 readings for each loading cycle). As shown in
Fig. 14, the stiffness at each cycle is defined as the ratio between the
maximum and minimum fatigue load difference (i.e., Pmax Pmin ) to the
difference of the corresponding displacements (i.e., Dmax Dmin ).
Fig. 15 depicts the relationship between the stiffness and the normal-
ized fatigue life for the SBC, BBC, and HBC specimens under different
load ratios. The normalized fatigue life represents the number of
loading cycles divided by the fatigue life (number of cycles until failure)
of the specimen.
It can be seen from Fig. 15 that the stiffness of both the SBC and
HBC specimens is slightly decreased over their fatigue life, which means
that they are able to maintain their stiffness and suffer minimal damage
in the case of cyclic loading. The sudden drop in the curve results from
the brittle shear-out failure of the specimens. On the other hand, the

333
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al. Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Fig. 14. Typical cyclic load-displacement curve for composite joints.

BBC specimens exhibited a similar trend, with a slightly higher de-

gradation rate compared to both the SBC and HBC joints.
It can be seen from the same figure that the BBC specimens with
load ratios of 0.8 and 0.5 had lower stiffness than both the SBC and HBC
specimens. Similarly, the HBC specimens had lower stiffness than those
of the SBC specimens. This behavior indicates that the stiffness of the
bolts directly affects the stiffness of the joints, even though the failure of
the joints is controlled by the properties of the plates. This can be at-
tributed to the deformation of the bolts when subjected to cyclic
loading (i.e., weaker bolts experience higher deformations than stiffer
bolts). According to Fig. 15(a) and (b), using bolts with higher stiffness
will increase the stiffness of the composite joints, which, in turn, will
enhance the stiffness of the composite structures.

3.4.2. Post-fatigue static tests

Fig. 15. Stiffness of SBC, BBC, and HBC composite joints at (a) 0.5 and (b) 0.8
fatigue load ratios.
Post-fatigue static tests were conducted for the SBC, BBC, and HBC
specimens that exceeded the two million cycles without failure. It is
noted that there was a problem in collecting the data of the SBC spe-
cimens. Therefore, only the results of the BBC and HBC specimens are
discussed.
Fig. 16 shows the load-displacement curves for the one BBC and
three HBC specimens tested after surviving two million cycles (i.e.,
post-fatigue specimens) compared to the results of the original tested
specimens. From this figure, the load displacement curves of the BBC
and HBC specimens with the previous fatigue loading exhibited a si-
milar trend to those of the specimens under only static tests. However,
the post-fatigue specimens exhibited higher initial stiffness and started
to gain load at lower displacement. The latter can be attributed to the
vanishing of the relative slippage between the BFRP main plate and
cover plates after being exposed to previous loading cycles. Accord-
ingly, both the plates and bolts became in full contact before

334
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al.
Fig. 16. Effect of cyclic loading on load-displacement curves: (a) HBC, and (b)
BBC joints.
conducting the post-fatigue static tests. Although subjecting the speci-
mens to previous loading cycles did not affect the failure mode as all the
specimens experienced the shear out failure mode, it significantly af-
fected the joint stiffness. Fig. 16(a) clearly shows that all the post-fa-
tigue HBC specimens have a higher stiffness compared to the conven-
tional static specimens, and the same can be seen in Fig. 16(b) for the
BBC specimens. The stiffness improvements could be the result of a
number of simultaneous contributions. Firstly, in a previous study by
Wu et al. [21], it was reported that bolted joints experienced sudden
increase in their stiffness after exceeding 85 to 90% of their fatigue life.
Similar behavior was noticed by Smith and Pascoe [45] where a sudden
increase in the bolted joint stiffness occurred after exceeding 700,000
cycles. This behavior was attributed to the stiffened bolt holes due to
the hole swelling and interface gaps filled by damaged fibers. Similar
behavior could occur in the current study where, after surviving two
million cycles, the bolts could be inscribed into the plate parts leading
to higher stiffness. Another reason is related to the characteristics of the
BFRP plates used. As mentioned above, three layers with transverse
fiber were used during the pultrusion process. Fig. 17(a) shows the
configuration of the bolts and the transverse fiber before conducting the
conventional static test where there is no contact between the bolts and
the fiber. On the other hand, after two million cycles, it can be seen that
the final position of the bolts could result in residual tension forces in
these transverse fibers, which act against the bolts when monotonically
loaded (i.e., the tensile stressed fibers have higher stiffness than un-
stressed ones) [see Fig. 17(b) and (c)]. Accordingly, this could result in
higher stiffness than in the conventionally tested specimens. Another
factor that could cause the enhancement in the stiffness in the post-
fatigue static tests is the change in the clearance between the bolts and
holes. For instance, McCarthy et al. [46] stated that changing the
clearance from 0 to 0.24 mm in single bolted joints resulted in a 10%
reduction in the joint stiffness and a higher reduction (up to 20%) was
reported in another study [47]. In addition, it was found in the study of
335
Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337
Lawlor et al. [24] that incorrect positioning of bolts (i.e., bolts are not
exactly in the center of the hole) can result in a reduction up to 25% and
15% in the initial failure load and stiffness, respectively. In the current
study, the bolts of the post-fatigue static test specimens are guaranteed
to have even clearance with approximate value of 0.0 mm. On the other
hand, the bolts of the conventional static test specimens were posi-
tioned manually. As a result, the post-fatigue static test specimens are
expected to have higher stiffness. Finally, the authors anticipate that
the enhancement in the stiffness could be a result of the combined effect
of the aforementioned factors. In addition, up to the authors knowl-
edge, results considering the post-fatigue behavior of composite joints
are reported here for the first time, and further studies will be required
to fully understand and evaluate the effect of fatigue loading on the
behavior of composite joints.
Regarding the strength degradation, Fig. 18 shows a comparison
between the average static failure load and the post-fatigue failure load
of the BBC and HBC connections. It can be seen that both the BBC and
HBC specimens achieved a comparable failure load to those tested
without being subjected to fatigue load. In other words, BBC and HBC
specimens have adequate resistance to the damage caused by cyclic
loading, as they survived two million loading cycles at 0.3 and 0.5
loading ratios, respectively, without a reduction in their strength ca-
pacity. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the 0.3 and 0.5 load ratios
can be considered as the preliminary recommendations for the en-
durance limits of the BBC and HBC joints, respectively.
4. Conclusions
An experimental study was conducted to investigate the effect of the
bolt type on the static and fatigue performance of BFRP multi-bolted
double-lap connections. Firstly, the shear strength and failure mode of
the proposed BFRP and HSFRP bolts were investigated and compared
with conventional SS bolts. Secondly, static and fatigue performance of
the SS, BFRP, and HSFRP multi-bolted connections were investigated.
Finally, the post-fatigue performance of the connections was evaluated
to determine the deterioration of the composite joints after surviving
two million cycles. Based on the results and discussion of this study, the
following conclusions were drawn:
1. The proposed HSFRP bolts outperformed both the SS and BFRP
bolts. The average shear strength of the HSFRP bolts was 40.7%
higher than that of the BFRP bolts. In addition, unlike the brittle
failure of the SS and BFRP bolts, the HSFRP bolts exhibited ductile
failure mode with a stability plateau in the post-peak loading stage.
2. Under static tensile loading, both the BBC and HBC connections
experienced failure mode and achieved average failure load and
stiffness comparable to that of the SBC connections.
3. At the same amplitude of fatigue loading, SS bolts could be replaced
entirely by BFRP bolts without affecting the fatigue life of the
composite connections. On the other hand, using the proposed
HSFRP bolts could enhance the fatigue life of the composite con-
nections.
4. SBC, BBC, and HBC specimens could maintain their stiffness through
almost all their fatigue life, and the more the stiffness of the used
bolts, the more will be the stiffness of the composite joints. In ad-
dition, as both the HBC and BBC connections maintained their ori-
ginal strength capacity after surviving two million cycles, 0.5 and
0.3 fatigue load ratios are recommended as preliminary endurance
limits for the HBC and BBC connections, respectively.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided
by the National Key Research and Development Program of China
(2017YFC0703000), the National Science Foundation of China
(51878149), and acknowledge Jiangsu GMV Co., Ltd. for providing FRP
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al. Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337

Fig. 17. Damage state of transverse fibers: (a) before conventional static test, (b) before post-fatigue static test, and (c) after failure.

Fig. 18. Effect of cyclic loading on load capacity of BBC and HBC joints.
composites.
Data availability
The raw and processed data required to reproduce these findings
cannot be shared at this time as the data forms part of an ongoing study.
References
[1] Ibrahim HA, Fahmy MF, Wu Z. Numerical study of steel-to-FRP reinforcement ratio
as a design-tool controlling the lateral response of SFRC beam-column joints. Eng
Struct 2018;172:253–74.
[2] Ibrahim HA, Fahmy MF, Wu Z. 3D Finite-element analysis for slab effect on the
seismic behavior of FRP reinforced concrete (FRC) frames. The 6th Asia-Pacific
Conference on FRP in Structures (APFIS2017). Singapore: The International
Institute for FRP in Construction (IIFC); 2017.
[3] Wang X, Shi J, Wu G, Yang L, Wu Z. Effectiveness of basalt FRP tendons for
strengthening of RC beams through the external prestressing technique. Eng Struct
2015;101:34–44.
[4] Wu Z, Wang X, Zhao X, Noori M. State-of-the-art review of FRP composites for
major construction with high performance and longevity. Int J Sustain Mater Struct
Syst 2014;1:201–31.
[5] Wang X, Sayed AM, Wu Z. Modeling of the flexural fatigue capacity of RC beams
strengthened with FRP sheets based on finite-element simulation. J Struct Eng
2014;141:04014189.
[6] Zoghi M. The international handbook of FRP composites in civil engineering. CRC
Press; 2013.
[7] Hizam R, Manalo A, Karunasena W. A review of FRP composite truss systems and its
connection. Proceedings of the 22nd Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of
Structures and Materials (ACMSM 22). Taylor & Francis (CRC Press); 2013. p.
85–90.
[8] Coelho AMG, Mottram JT. A review of the behaviour and analysis of bolted con-
nections and joints in pultruded fibre reinforced polymers. Mater Des
2015;74:86–107.
[9] Mosallam A. Design guide for FRP composite connections. Am Soc Civil Eng 2011.
[10] Bank L. Structural design with FRP materials. Composite for construction. John
Willey and Sons Ltd; 2006.
[11] Feo L, Marra G, Mosallam AS. Stress analysis of multi-bolted joints for FRP pul-
truded composite structures. Compos Struct 2012;94:3769–80.
[12] Wang Y. Bearing behavior of joints in pultruded composites. J Compos Mater
2002;36:2199–216.
[13] Cooper C, Turvey G. Effects of joint geometry and bolt torque on the structural
performance of single bolt tension joints in pultruded GRP sheet material. Compos
Struct 1995;32:217–26.
[14] Hassan N. Multi-bolted connections for fiber reinforced plastic structural members
(Ph.D. thesis). Cairo, Egypt: Ain-Shams Univ; 1995.
[15] Abd-El-Naby S, Hollaway L. The experimental behaviour of bolted joints in pul-
truded glass/polyester material. Part 2: Two-bolt joints. Composites
1993;24:539–46.
[16] Rosner CN. Single-bolted connections for orthotropic fibre-reinforced composite
structural members; 1992.
[17] Matsuzaki R, Shibata M, Todoroki A. Improving performance of GFRP/aluminum
single lap joints using bolted/co-cured hybrid method. Compos A Appl Sci Manuf

336
D.S.E. Abdelkerim, et al.
2008;39:154–63.
[18] Kolesnikov B, Herbeck L, Fink A. CFRP/titanium hybrid material for improving
composite bolted joints. Compos Struct 2008;83:368–80.
[19] Starikov R, Schön J. Quasi-static behaviour of composite joints with protruding-
head bolts. Compos Struct 2001;51:411–25.
[20] Luo FJ, Bai Y, Yang X, Lu Y. Bolted sleeve joints for connecting pultruded FRP
tubular components. J Compos Constr 2015;20:04015024.
[21] Wu C, Feng P, Bai Y. Comparative study on static and fatigue performances of
pultruded GFRP joints using ordinary and blind bolts. J Compos Constr
2014;19:04014065.
[22] Zafari B, Qureshi J, Mottram JT, Rusev R. Static and fatigue performance of resin
injected bolts for a slip and fatigue resistant connection in FRP bridge engineering.
Structures: Elsevier 2016:71–84.
[23] McCarthy CT, McCarthy MA, Lawlor V. Progressive damage analysis of multi-bolt
composite joints with variable bolt–hole clearances. Compos B Eng
2005;36:290–305.
[24] Lawlor VP, Mccarthy MA, Stanley W. An experimental study of bolt–hole clearance
effects in double-lap, multi-bolt composite joints. Compos Struct 2005;71:176–90.
[25] Stanley W, McCarthy M, Lawlor V. Measurement of load distribution in multibolt
composite joints, in presence of varying clearance. Plast, Rubber Compos
2002;31:412–8.
[26] Prabhakaran R, Razzaq Z, Devara S. Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) ap-
proach for bolted joints in pultruded composites. Compos B Eng 1996;27:351–60.
[27] Bai Y, Yang X. Novel joint for assembly of all-composite space truss structures:
conceptual design and preliminary study. J Compos Constr 2012;17:130–8.
[28] Genedy M, Chennareddy R, Soliman EM, Kandil UF, Taha MMR. Improving shear
strength of bolted joints in pultruded glass fiber reinforced polymer composites
using carbon nanotubes. J Reinf Plasti Compos 2017. 0731684417697827.
[29] Wu C, Bai Y, Toby Mottram J. Effect of elevated temperatures on the mechanical
performance of pultruded FRP joints with a single ordinary or blind bolt. J Compos
Constr 2015;20:04015045.
[30] Anwar J. Time-dependent behavior of pin-bearing bolted connections in pultruded
fiber reinforced polymer composites under normal and elevated temperatures.
Georgia Institute of Technology; 2017.
[31] Fang H, Bai Y, Liu W, Qi Y, Wang J. Connections and structural applications of fibre
337
Composite Structures 220 (2019) 324–337
reinforced polymer composites for civil infrastructure in aggressive environments.
Compos Part B: Eng 2018.
[32] Wang X, Jiang L, Shen H, Wu Z. Long-term performance of pultruded basalt fiber
reinforced polymer profiles under acidic conditions. J Mater Civ Eng
2018;30:04018096.
[33] Ding L, Liu X, Wang X, Huang H, Wu Z. Mechanical properties of pultruded basalt
fiber-reinforced polymer tube under axial tension and compression. Constr Build
Mater 2018;176:629–37.
[34] Wu G, Wang X, Wu Z, Dong Z, Xie Q. Degradation of basalt FRP bars in alkaline
environment. Sci Eng Compos Mater 2015;22:649–57.
[35] Fiore V, Scalici T, Di Bella G, Valenza A. A review on basalt fibre and its composites.
Compos B Eng 2015;74:74–94.
[36] Pearson M, Donchev T, Salazar J. Long-term behaviour of prestressed basalt fibre
reinforced polymer bars. Procedia Eng 2013;54:261–9.
[37] Phil E, Soutis C. Polymer composites in the aerospace industry. Elsevier; 2014.
[38] Erki M. Bolted glass-fibre-reinforced plastic joints. Can J Civ Eng 1995;22:736–44.
[39] ASTM. D3039/D 3039M-08. Standard test method for tensile properties of polymer
matrix composite materials. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International; 2008.
[40] ASTM. D7078. Standard test method for shear properties of composite materials by
V-notched rail shear method. ASTM; 2005.
[41] Clarke J. EUROCOMP design code and handbook: Structural design of polymer
composites. London: E & FN Spon; 1996.
[42] ACI-440.1R-06. Guide for the design and construction of concrete reinforced with
FRP bars (ACI 440.1 R-06). Detroit, Michigan: American Concrete Institute; 2006.
[43] Mara V. Development of connections for fibre reinforced bridge elements and an
analysis of sustainability. Chalmers University of Technology; 2015.
[44] Starikov R, Schön J. Experimental study on fatigue resistance of composite joints
with protruding-head bolts. Compos Struct 2002;55:1–11.
[45] Smith P, Pascoe K. Fatigue of bolted joints in (0/90) CFRP laminates. Compos Sci
Technol 1987;29:45–69.
[46] McCarthy M, Lawlor V, Stanley W, McCarthy C. Bolt-hole clearance effects and
strength criteria in single-bolt, single-lap, composite bolted joints. Compos Sci
Technol 2002;62:1415–31.
[47] Pierron F, Cerisier F, Grediac M. A numerical and experimental study of woven
composite pin-joints. J Compos Mater 2000;34:1028–54.