Mechanical Design 1.2

128 B.
Sauer
pushed to the fore. As an example of a proof of strength after the nominal stress concept the wave
calculation is for [ DIN743a ] Be considered next. Be on components not rated voltages but local
stresses such. B. calculated with the method of finite elements, the detection with local (or Kerbgrund-)
voltages are. Notes on the evaluation and treatment are for. B. [ FKM02 ] Given.
waves
Waves are to be considered in this chapter as an illustrative example. Basically, the following
calculations apply, depending on the load case for other components quite accordingly. In waves (or
other components) following possible damage must be avoided by corresponding design:
1. Permanent deformations:
Bending a shaft must be avoided in any case to ensure the function.
2. Violence break:
The violent rupture must also be avoided at all costs.
3. fatigue fracture (also called fatigue or vibration fracture): Through dynamic ie cyclic or vibration
stresses like fatigue fractures can be caused to be avoided by calculation and appropriate dimen-
tioning.
the maximum stresses occurring (peaks) and the static material characteristic values are used as a basis,
even when an impact on the component does have a high dynamic range for the calculation of the cases
1 and 2!
The third case is detached from 1 and 2 treated as completely different laws and strength values
apply.
Waves - Calculation against damage at maximum load

The aforementioned forced rupture is not calculated in most cases, as even a permanent deformation is
to be avoided, and these materials at least in ductile tool occurs even at lower load and nominal
voltage. For waves almost exclusively Ductile materials are used. Be comparatively brittle materials are
used, the calculation up to the breaking limit with consideration of the local voltage. For the detection of
the maximum (static than imaginary) voltage corresponding to the security is [ DIN743a ]:
1
S= √( (3.86)
) 2 ( ) 2
σ zdmax τ tmax
σ zdFK + σ bmaxσ BFK
+ τ TFK
For pure bending or pure twist the formula accordingly simplified. The values above the break lines are
the maximum rated voltages existing on the component. These are according to Tab. 3.5 calculated:
3 Fundamentals of strength calculation 129
Tab. 3.5 Determination of the maximum voltages as rated voltages
of stress acting power Cross-sectional area and section modulus

Train / pressure
( )
σ zdmax = F zdmax A A=π d2- d2 1
4
( d4- d4 )
bend σ b max = M bmaxW b 1
Wb= π
32 d
( d4- d4 )
torsion τ max = M tmaxW t 1
Wt= π
16 d
with waves Ø d, hollow shaft inside diameter d 1
In the denominators of the fractions of Eq. ( 3.86 ) Is in each case the so-called Component flow limit at train /
compression, bending or torsion. The component flow limit is calculated from the standard values of the yield
strength, the size factor, a static support speed and a factor increase in yield strength:
σ zd, BFK = K 1( d e ff) · K 2F · γ F · σ S ( d B) (3.87)
√
τ TFK = K 1( d e ff) · K 2F · γ F · σ S ( d B) / 3 (3.88)
With:
σ s ( d B) Yield for the reference diameter d B after [ DIN743d ]

K 1( d e ff) Technological size factor for [ DIN743b ]
γF state increase factor of the flow limit by multi-axis voltage and local
solidification by [ DIN743b ] Tab. 3.6
K 2F static support effect for [ DIN743b ] Tab. 3.7
In summary, the calculation process for determining the static safety can be described:
1. Determination of the maximum rated voltages train / compression, bending u. Torsion.

2. Determination of the yield point component by means of static support speed and increase factor of the yield strength and yield
strength of the material for train / compression, bending and torsion.
3. Insertion of the variables in Eq. ( 3.86 ) To determine the safety. For components with a hard edge
layer it must be expected that the material is just below the hard layer in the component already at a
lower stress begins to flow as the material of the surface layer!
Waves - Calculation against damage by dynamic stress

is for the detection of resistance to fatigue, consider the example of [ DIN743a ], A similar approach as in
static security given:
1. Determine the amplitudes of the existing (nominal) voltages as a result of the external load for train /
compression, bending and torsion σ zda, σ ba, τ ta ,
130 B. Sauer
Tab. 3.6 Increase factor of yield strength γ F (At rotational notches α σ or β σ inspired by [ DIN743b ]) Of stress
α σ or β σ γF
Train / pressure or bending to 1.5 1.00
1.5 to 2.0 1.05
2.0 to 3.0 1.10
over 3.0 1.15
torsion any 1.00
Tab. 3.7 Static vertical effect K 2F for materials with and without hard surface layer similar to [ DIN743a ] of stress
K 2F
Solid shaft hollow shaft
without hard with hard without hard with hard

surface layer surface layer surface layer surface layer
Train / pressure 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
bend 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0
torsion 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0
2. Determining the tolerable at the component amplitudes for train / compression, bending and torsion σ zdADK, σ badk, τ tADK
,
3. Insertion of the variables in the formula to determine the safety:
1
S= √(
) ( )
σ zda
2
τ ta
2 (3.89)
σ zdADK + σ ba σ badk
+ τ tADK
The determination of the nominal voltages is very simple. The determination of the ertragba- ren component
amplitudes which is also known as structural strength, requires several computing steps.
The design strength is telt from the strength of the smooth polished sample rod ermit-. The material
strength value, referred to in the component as a component strength value is reduced by a lot of factors
that are expressed by such factors. It must be determined following values in sequence:
1. Size Factor K 1 ( d e ff) . referred to the influence of component size, including during quenching,
technological size effect, to take into account the actual component size.
2. notch effect number as shown in the previous section, (experimentally or arithmetically from the form number,
based voltage gradient and support digit).
3. Geometric size influence K (2 d) ( Drop of the fatigue strength with increasing
Component dimensions).
4. Surface Influence K F σ
5. Surface hardening K V
6. Calculation of the overall impact factor for train / compression and torsion:
)
1
Kσ=( βσ -1 · (3.90)
K (2 d) + 1 K F σ KV
)
1
Kτ=( βτ -1 · (3.91)
K (2 d) + 1 K F τ KV
7. Calculation of the component design strength (= fatigue strength) for train / pressure, bending and torsion supply:
σ zdWK = σ zdw · K 1( d e ff) (3.92)

Kσ
σ BWK = σ bW · K 1( d e ff) (3.93)

Kσ
τ CDW = τ tw · K 1( d e ff) (3.94)

Kτ
8. consideration of the medium-voltage influence on the design strength:
σ zdWK
ψ zd σ K = (3.95)
2 · K 1( d e ff) · R m ( d B) - σ zdWK
σ BWK
ψbσK= (3.96)
2 · K 1( d e ff) · R m ( d B) - σ BWK
τ CDW
ψτK= (3.97)
2 · K 1( d e ff) · R m ( d B) - τ CDW
9. Determination of the comparison means voltages:
σ mv = √ (σ zdm + σ bm) 2 + 3 · τ 2 tm
(3.98)
τ mv = σ mv√ 3 (3.99)
10. The impact factor of the medium voltage sensitivity to 8. tung case different to be considered
depending on the load scenario, see [ DIN743a ]. Here is to an example the case be assumed that
the mean stress σ mv and τ mv remain constant when changing the operation load as it is shown in the
figure (Fig. 3:50 .) In this case, the tolerable component amplitudes:
σ zdADK = σ zdWK - ψ zd σ K · σ mv (3.100)

132 B. Sauer
Fig. 3:50 Constant voltage

means at changing to
dynamic stress
σ badk = σ BWK - ψ b σ K · σ mv (3.101)
τ tADK = τ CDW - ψ τ K · τ tmv (3.102)
With the listing of the steps, the basic calculation procedure will be shown. In [ DIN743a ] Be made more
conditional statements, so for practical calculations, the [ DIN743a ] Is to be used.
The tracking of a dynamically loaded shaft from fatigue fracture müs- sen for all cross-sectional
transitions of the shaft calculations are performed. Due to the different stress concentration and along
the shaft generally different nominal voltages a restriction on the critical cross-sections can be made
under certain circumstances.
In the appendix, a calculation example is similar [ DIN743a ] Shown illustrating the calculation gear.
The recognized there stresses are hardly any development in practice and were chosen to the
calculation process comprehensively len darzustel-. Also located in the appendix to derive the safety
formulas, as described in [ DIN743a ] Apply.
weldments
For welding engineering calculations mainly Voltage concepts comparable to apply. This is due to the
fact that the description of the notch geometry is at a weld in principle possible, but large variations in
practice is subject. Exist in a task field no specific rules or standards, often in general mechanical
engineering substitute the [ DIN15018 ], Which dates from the crane construction, applied. It should be
noted that in the various regulations, the strength values are not always indicated in a Smith chart
showing the allowable stress amplitude is read at an adjacent medium voltage. Including
representations which exist allowable upper voltages are shown as limits.
3.4.1.2 notch stress concept

Is in a notched part, the tension acting in the notch base determined by calculation, and are further the
most important factors, the calculated on the
act voltage increasing, pitched, so a comparison with a materials can be made characteristic value
which has been determined on a smooth unnotched, surface-polished test bar. The tensions
determined with consideration of all other influences gen correspond to physically really acting stresses
and represent a high degree of approximation of this. Unlike Voltage concepts of material strength
value is, for example, corrected only by the size factor, it is determined no component strength value.
The determination of notch base voltages can be done with modern calculation programs using the
finite element method (FEM) and the Boundary Element Method (BEM) while the notch stresses remain
below the yield point. System non-linear effects of the material to be considered - at higher stresses can
in FEM. Alternatively, linear FEM can - calculations are used, the calculated stresses are supplemented
with experience has assisted correction values take into account the supporting effect and other effects.
3.4.1.3 Security numbers

Due to various uncertainties, it is all Festigkeitsberechnun- gen usual to consider a security number.
This should into account variations in material inaccuracies in the load, and deviations from the
calculation model takes into and contribute to safe operation of the component. Are very good
knowledge and experience available, the security number can be up to 1.0 downgrades set. If it is a
redesign or new application, so should greater security numbers, e. B. S > be chosen 1.5. For
calculations against the static material characteristics values of S = 1.0 ... 1.5 usual. gen for calculations
to dynamic material properties are collateral S = ( 1.3) ... 1.5 ... 2.5 usual. In establishing a safety value,
many factors must be taken into into account so that there can be no general recommendation! For
example, also take into account what extent the potential damage of the component can have. There is
a risk to humans, it is usually carried out comprehensive pay with greater security than if the damage
only has economic consequences. In some applications, the required security is determined by the
classification societies.
3.4.2 Calculation example
On the following pages a shaft calculation examples is similar [ DIN743a ] Shown. The example involves
loads that do not occur in this form in practice this clearly. The example shows the complete calculation
method. The of destination of the individual variables is done conveniently in the order in which are
listed in the table sizes.
134 B. Sauer
136 B. Sauer
3.5 attachment
3.5.1 Material data
The specification of material properties is made more difficult because in the current standards received
a greater extent on the respective semi-states and thus a detailed differentiation is made. The
properties of a material depend to a great extent on where treatment condition such. B. rolled, cast,
forged, cold-formed, tempered, etc., the material is applied. Furthermore, the size dependence that
such is coming. As expressed in wall-thickness-dependent material values for cast workpieces added.
Therefore, it is almost impossible for a determined by its chemical composition tool material a universal
strength indication to make.
The reader is advised to comment on the material selection and determination of a material with the
relevant standards and the advice of the semi-finished products to complete.
138 B. Sauer
Following are just exemplified some typical tool materials for the above reasons. the relevant
standards are pull zoom in for more materials and data (Tab. 3.8 . 3.9 . 3.10 . 3.11 . 3.12 . 3.13 . 3.14 . 3.15 . 3.16
. 3.17 . 3.18 . 3.19 . 3.20 . 3.21 .
3.22 . 3.23 . 3.24 . 3.25 and 3.26 ).
Tab. 3.8 Key to the following tables Abbreviation

importance
wk Material characteristics
Rm tensile strenght
R p0.2 yield strength
Re Stretch limit
A elongation
σ bB flexural strength
e Train modulus
HV1 Surface hardening
HB Brinell hardness
d Sample diameter
KV Impact strength
C Carbon content
+ QT hardened and tempered
+ C cold-drawn
+N normalized
+ AT Solution heat
+ P precipitation hardened
Zst. O annealed
T62 zst. Solution treated and artificially aged
JR, JO Quality structural steel group
Tab. 3.9 Structural steels for [ DINEN10025 ] Wk
Wk old DIN 17100 C [%] R m [ N / mm 2] R e [ N / mm 2] A [%]
S235JR (d ≤ 16 mm) St37-2 0.21 340-470 235 26
S235JR (d ≤ 40 mm) St37-2 0.25 340-470 225 26
S355JO (d ≤ 16 mm) St52-3U - 510-680 355 22
E295 (d ≤ 16 mm) St50-2 - 470-610 295 20
E295 (d ≤ 40 mm) St50-2 - 470-610 285 20
E360 (d ≤ 16 mm) St70-2 - 670-830 360 11
E360 (d ≤ 40 mm) St70-2 - 670-830 355 11

Tab. 3.10 Treatable steels for [ DINEN10083 ]

+ QT R e [ N / + NO e [ N / mm 2]
mm 2] R m [ N / mm 2] A [%] R m [ N / mm 2] A [%]
C22R a 340 500-650 20 240 430 24
C60E a 580 850 - 1000 11 380 710 10
42CrMo4 900 1100 - 1300 10 - - -

30CrNiMo8 1050 1250 - 1450 9 - - -
a R and E determine the S content table values for component dimensions d ≤ 16 mm Wk
Tab. 3.11 Hardening steels for [ DINEN10084 ]

R m [ N / mm 2] R e [ N / mm 2] A [%] HB
C15E Min. 750 Min. 440 12 140
16MnCr5 Min. 900 Min. 635 9 140
20MoCrS4 Min. 900 Min. 785 7 -

17CrNi6-6 Min. 1100 156
18CrNiMo7-6 Min. 1100 159
Table values for component dimensions 16 mm ≤ d ≤ 40 mm Wk
Tab. 3.12 Typical values for strength under dynamic stress of [ DIN743c ] (Frequency calculation strongest part of shafts
and axles), with the calculated dynamic characteristic values, selection
R mb [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] σ z dW [ N / mm 2] σ bW [ N / mm 2] τ tw [ N / mm 2]
S235JR 360 235 140 180 105
S355JO 510 355 205 255 150
C10E 750 430 300 375 225
16MnCr5 900 630 360 450 270
20MnCr5 1100 730 440 550 330
42CrMo4 1100 900 440 550 330
30CrNiMo8 1250 1050 500 625 375
Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 16 mm WK
Tab. 3.13 Cutting steels for [ DINEN10087 ]

untreated + QT + C
HB R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] R m [ N / mm 2] A [%]
35S20 154-201 520-680 550 700-850 12
38SMn28 166-216 560-730 650 700-900 12
46S20 175-225 590-760 620 700-850 10
Table values for component dimensions 16 mm ≤ d ≤ 40 mm Wk

140 B. Sauer
Tab. 3.14 Steel wire for springs for [ DINEN10270 ] Wk

R m [ N / mm 2] for nominal dimension R m [ N / mm 2] for nominal measure R m [ N / mm 2] for nominal dimension Z [%]
1mm 7mm 10 mm
SL 1720 - 1970 1160 - 1340 1060 - 1230 40/35/30
FDC 1810 - 2010 1400 - 1550 1320 - 1470 45/35/30

VDSiCr 2080 - 2230 1710 - 1810 1670 - 1770 50/40/35
Tab. 3.15 Nitriding steels according to the earlier standard [DIN 17211]
R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%] HB HV1

31CrMo12 1000 - 1200 800 11 248 800
15CrMoV5 9 900 - 1100 750 10 248 800
34CrAlNi7 850 - 1050 650 12 248 950
Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 100 mm Wk
Tab. 3.16 Temperature steels for [ DINEN10269 ]
R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%] KV [J]
C35E (+ QT) 500-650 300 22 55
34 CrNiMo 6 (+ QT) 1040 - 1200 940 14 45
X5CrNiMo 17-12-2 (+ AT) 500-700 200 40 100
Tab. 3.17 Stainless steels for [ DINEN10088 ] Wk

R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%] KV [J]
X12Cr13 (+ QT550) 550-750 400 15 -

X3CrNiMo13-4 (+ QT780) 780-980 630 15 70
X5CrNiCuNb16-4 (+ P850) 850 - 1050 600 12 -
Tab. 3.18 Cast steel according to the earlier standard DIN 1681
R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%] KV [J]
GS-38 380 200 25 35
GS-45 450 230 22 27
GS-60 600 300 15 27
Tab. 3.19 Malleable for [ DINEN1562 ] Wk

d [mm] R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%] HB
EN-GJMB-300-6 12 or 15 300 - 6 150 max.
EN-GJMW-450-7 12 450 260 7 220
EN-GJMB-800-1 12 or 15 800 600 1 270-320

Tab. 3.20 Cast iron with lamellar graphite [ DINEN1561 ] Wk
Wk old DIN 1691 d [mm] R m [ N / mm 2] A [%]

EN-GJL-250 GG 25 5 - 10 250 0.8 to 0.3
EN-GJL-250 GG 25 20 - 40 210
EN-GJL-350 GG 35 - 20 350 0.8 to 0.3
EN-GJL-350 GG 35 20 - 40 290
Tab. 3.21 Ductile iron [ DINEN1563 ]

Wk old DIN
wk 1693 R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%] HB
EN-GJS-400-15 GGG 40 400 250 15 140-190
EN-GJS-600 3 GGG 60 600 370 3 210-270
EN-GJS-800- 2 GGG 80 800 480 2
Tab. 3.22 Magnesium alloys for [ DIN1729 ], [ DIN9715 ] Wk

d [mm] R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%] HB
MgMn2 F22 up to 2 220 165 2 40
MgAl6 Zn F27 until 10 270 175 10 55
MgAl8 Zn F31 - 310 215 6 65
Tab. 3.23 Copper and copper alloys by [ DINEN12165 ]

R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%] HB
Cu-DHP 200 50 30 40
CuZn38Pb2 350 140 15 80
CuAl11Fe6Ni6 750 450 5 190
Tab. 3.24 Aluminum and aluminum alloys by [ DINEN485-2 ]

Wk old DIN
1745-1 R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%]
EN AW-1200 (Zst. O) AL 99.0 Max 105 Min. 25 30
EN AW-2024 (Zst. O) AlCu4Mg1 Max. 220 Max. 140 11
EN AW-2024 (Zst. T62) AlCu4Mg1 Min. 435 Min. 345 4

142 B. Sauer
Tab. 3.25 Aluminum and aluminum alloys by [ DINEN603-2 ]

Wk old [DIN
1745-1 R m [ N / mm 2] R p0.2 [ N / mm 2] A [%]
EN AW-6082 (Zst. T62) AlSi1MgMn 310 260 7
EN AW-7075 (Zst. T62) AlZn5,5MgCu 510 430 7
Tab. 3.26 Selection of other engineering materials [ Dub01 ] Wk
R m [ N / mm 2] σ bB [ N / mm 2] E [N / mm 2]
Oak wood 50-180 70-100 ~ 13000
Linear polyester (PET) 50 - 75 - 2500 - 3200
Epoxy resins (EP) 60-200 - 5000-20000

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 9-12 - 450-750
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC-U) 50-80 - 2900 - 3600
Polyamide (PA) 66 70-90 - 2000 - 3500
Glass 30-90 - 40,000 to 95,000
cermets 900 - 400,000 to 530,000

3.5.2 bending cases
Examples of bending moment diagrams

144 B. Sauer
bending lines
146 B. Sauer
148 B. Sauer
3.5.3 Derivation security formula
In the DIN 743 Formulas used to calculate the safety arise as following shown. It is the distortion energy
theory (GEH), also called Mises hypothesis for bending (+ train / pressure) and torsion assumed:
σv= √ σ2+b 3 · τ2t (3.103)
Are the amplitudes of the strain used: σ b = σ ba, τ t = τ ta, σ v = σ va
σ va = √ σ 2 ba + 3 · τ 2 ta (3.104)
The equation is tolerable by the amplitude σ ADK ( Index Amplitude = A, your thumb erfestigkeit = index D, K
= index) divided design strength / notches.
√ ( σ ba
) 2+ 3 · ( τ ta ) 2
σ va
= (3.105)
σ ADK σ ADK σ ADK
Becomes σ ADK = √ 3 · τ ADK set, the result is:
√ ( σ ba
) 2+( τ ta ) 2
σ va
= (3.106)
σ ADK σ ADK τ ADK
If the virtual collateral S b = σ ADK and S τ = τ ADK introduced, can be used for
σ ba τ ta
the security is written:
1 1
+ (3,107)
S2= 1 S2
B
S τ2
It should be noted that S b and S τ no real collateral, but represent operands. Please note also that σ ADK and
τ ADK in Allgemeine nen of the comparison medium voltage σ mv depend.
σ mv = √ σ 2 bm + 3 · τ 2 tm; τ mv = σ mv √ 3 (3.108)
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for lifetime assessment of machine components, 3rd ed. Verlag Stahleisen, Dusseldorf
(1995)
[Well76] Wellinger, K., Dietmannsdorf, H .: Strength calculation -. Fundamentals and technical application,
3rd ed Kröner-Verlag, Stuttgart (1976)
Design elements and systems
4
Jörg Feldhusen
Table of Contents
4.1 Principles of technical systems and elements. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 155

4.1.1 system, machine, assembly item. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 157
4.1.2 Viewing the system turnover and function. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 159
4.2 Basic rules of design. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 161
4.2.1 Clearly. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 162
4.2.2 Simple. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 163
4.2.3 Safe. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 163
4.2.4 Direct safety technology. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 165
4.2.5 Indirect safety technology. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 166
4.2.6 Indicative security technology. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 167
4.3 design principles. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 167
4.3.1 principles of power and energy management. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 168
4.3.1.1 power flow-design. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 168
4.3.1.2 principle the same design strength. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 168
4.3.1.3 Principle of direct and short power line. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 169
4.3.1.4 principle of coordinated deformation. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 169
4.3.1.5 principle of force balance. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 169
4.3.2 principles of division of labor. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 170
4.3.2.1 division of tasks with the same function. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 170
4.3.2.2 division of tasks with different function. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 172
4.3.3 Principle of self-help. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 172
4.3.3.1 Self-energizing solutions. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 173
4.3.3.2 The self-leveling solutions. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 173
4.3.3.3 Self Protective solutions. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 174
J. Feldhusen (!)
Institute of General Engineering Design, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen,
Germany e-mail: feldhusen@ikt.rwth-aachen.de
B. Sauer (eds.), Construction elements of machine 1, Springer Series, DOI: 10.1007 / 151
978-3-642-39501-7_4, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016
152 J. Feldhusen
4.3.4 Principle of stability and bistability. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 174

4.3.4.1 Stable and unstable systems. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 174
4.3.4.2 bistable systems. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 175
4.4 design guidelines. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 175
4.4.1 Design-related design guidelines. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 175
4.4.2 production-related design guidelines. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 175
4.4.2.1 archetype accessible. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 176
4.4.2.2 Umformgerecht. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 176
4.4.2.3 release disabled. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 180
4.4.3 User-specific design guidelines. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 182
4.4.3.1 ergonomics-design. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 186
Literature. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 187
The basis for the design of a product is the beginning of the product development process developed
concept. Here, the active surfaces and the Wirkzusam- be menhang with the aid of schematic drawings
represented by the selected part for realizing the functions of physical effects in their geometric and
material expression and their links are mapped together. The result is the principle solution for the
product, which represents the concept [ PaBe03 ]. The nature, scope and number of schematic diagrams
for a product, including the level of abstraction, depend on its complexity and the studied issue. In Fig. 4.1
is shown an example of an illustration of a principle solution; in this example, the principle solution for
illustration is designed already spatially.
The design of a product on the basis of the principle solution is happening [in two steps Koll98 ]:
1. The qualitative design. It serves the setting of qualitative Gestaltparameter-

values, for example, the full-scale setting of the height, width and length ratio of a transmission
housing.
2. The quantitative design. It is used to set quantitative Gestaltparameter-
values, such as the exact dimensions of the gear housing, the casting bevels etc.
Basically, it should be noted in the design of products that i. Gen. advertising noted a number of
constraints and the resulting restrictions to need. These restrictions may result from, among other
things
• technical constraints such. As the manufacturing capabilities or given the existing design
knowledge,
• economic conditions such. B. to producing quantity or target cost of the product and
• Further general conditions for. supply systems as timely availability of manufacturing or semi-finished
products.
4 design of elements and systems 153
Fig. 4.1 Principle solution for a

taxiway cover of a machine tool
(for illustration here already
configured)
The shape of a product and the design options so depend on the allowable usable form elements Koll98
:
= Form technical structures f (permissible usable form elements and the purpose of the technical structure)
Form elements, engineering / construction elements

Under the form element is the smallest, still influenced by the designer element is understood.
Depending on the task form elements can have very different sizes and complexity. Items will be
constructed the Gestaltele- instruments such. As determined by standardized radii, etc.. When projecting
power plant systems provide, among other things feed pumps layout elements represent as they by the
project engineer
i. Gen. can not be changed, Fig. 4.2 ,
In dealing with these machine elements the principle solutions, so the active principles and their
interaction in the form of the active structure are fixed. In terms of layout elements can in design
elements between two basic types distinction is made are:
• There are structural elements whose basic shape is fixed. Its principles-Pielle form, that the shape
and arrangement of the faces or bodies that make up the structural element, is basically the same in
every application. The exact dimensions, tolerances and surface finishes are currency rend of
constructing such. For example, by corresponding calculations, determined. This type of
construction elements include, for example cross pressing compounds in which the shaft diameter,
incl. Selected tolerances and surface, as well as the design of the hub such. B. varied by choice of
their contour, from case to case.
• In addition to this first type of construction elements, there are also those whose qualitative and
quantitative figure is fixed. Typical of this type are standard and catalog parts. These are available
only in certain dimensions and with a given design. such a selection is made. As a result the
required forces or moments that must be transmitted. For screws, for example, there is the nominal
diameter of the required bias force. The shape of a standard screw elements such filters. For
example, the threads on the cylindrical screw benteil or the screw head. However, this can often be
varied only high during the elected th standard. In the case of the thread diameter
154 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.2 Levels of complexity of layout elements for [ Koll98 ] (Figure 3.1.4)
and the key length is at the screw head are both coupled and predetermined. Only the shape of the
screw head, external or internal hexagon, etc. can be freely selected.
Since the shape of a product from the fulfillment of purpose and respect the result given restrictions,
we need rules for product design that is both safe
Functional performance of a product as well as the compliance with the restrictions ensuring system len.
The Engineering Design has developed three levels of design rules, which differ in their applicability and
importance:
• The Basic rules of design are general rules of design. They are always applicable and may be
disregarded in any construction. Your program is the best case for the "optimal" technical and
economic Gestal- processing of the product.
• The design principles are higher-level design tools. Their application ensures reliable functional
performance of the product. They are essentially an expression of the principles of design and is
largely support rationalizing the product in technical and functional terms.
• The design guidelines help the designer to design the product herstellgerecht and ensure optimal
usability. Both aspects are dependent on the currently edited task. However, whether these general
guidelines are also makes sense in a given case must be checked for each application. Internal
specifications for can. B. make a deviation required. No restrictive information, it makes sense to
apply the guidelines of design.
4.1 Fundamentals of technical systems and elements
Technical systems serve to fulfill a predetermined order. The purpose, ie the function or task of the
technical system is the technical implementation of physical effects Zung reached. The driving of a car
for. As caused by the application of the Coulomb's friction law. These elements form the wheel with the
results from the vehicle weight and road contact force, the technical system friction gear. It required
elements ren the technical implementation of a physical effect and ultimately the required function
realization. These elements are therefore also called officials and real products called components [ Koll98
].
the implementation of the physical effect is enforced on the active surfaces of the functional carrier. In
addition, of course, the different active elements of models must be interconnected by material in order
to fulfill their task such. to lead as forces and moments. A simple lever consists not only of the force
introduction and possibly bearing points, but these active areas are connected to each other through the
"actual lever". The design of technical systems thus relates to the design of the system elements and
their active surfaces as well as all others that active surfaces connecting portions and, of course, by the
required function significantly affected [ AlMa02 ]. In a friction clutch for example, the friction surface pairs
constitute the active faces and represent the main system elements. However, the housing, as an
element for force and torque line must be designed accordingly.
156 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.3 Construction of the pencil
sharpener
The product structure

will meet the required total capacity of engine system
i. Gen. multiple system elements required. These are combined with real products to various points of
view to subsystems or modules. The functional observation of the product leads to functional
assemblies. All elements of a technical system, so the components that serve the realization of a
product duktfunktion summarized. In the example, the car will function modules group interiors from all
components belonging to the driver and passenger seats, the complete rear seats, the fittings panel,
the door panels with all operating elements, etc. are formed. This example illustrates that even
subsystems, the interior of a car, in turn, can be formed from sub-systems and sub-assemblies here.
The result is the structure of the observed product, so the Product structure, in which the connections of
the components, subassemblies and assemblies are illustrated. verdeut- light the example "Interior of a
passenger car" means that the components of the product structure in the real product need not be
connected to each other physically. While back seat and driver seat belonging to the functional module
"interior", but are not physically comparable to each other prevented. As mentioned above, the
structure, the product structure of different to those carried out by the purpose of their use to certain
criteria. In a manufacturing division of the product, all components were summarized, which are
produced for example with the same manufacturing process.
The product structure is needed to plan the construction work or production of a product and to
control, for example by a Konstruktionsarbeits- group is responsible for an assembly. In Fig. 4.3 is a very
simple technical ULTRASONIC system, a pencil sharpener consisting of modules and elements shown.
Fig. 4.4 above represents a highly simplified overview amount. Hence ersicht- is Lich how many
components of each type are needed to make the product. The lower part of Fig. 4.4 is then the product
structure, structured according to the criterion
Fig. 4.4 Above simplified quantity overview for pencil sharpener in Fig. 4.3 , Below broken down by production
aspects of product structure Bleistiftanspitzers from Fig. 4.3
production, are listed. From this it can be seen, with which components here the components of level 3 must
be started in the manufacture or assembly, after their production, they are assembled with the components of
the stage second Thus, the "peak zerdeckel completely" gives the first stage from the assemblies and
components of stage 1 is then assembled the complete product.
4.1.1 system, machine, assembly, Item
Despite many efforts, it has still not managed to introduce a unique use of language for the terms
System system, apparatus, machine, device, module and item. Especially in everyday language, even
of technicians and engineers, an ambiguous terminology introduced. The easiest nor does the term
"system". According to Pahl / Beitz [ PaBe03 ] is a " system "Totality of minor elements such. B. Functions
and technical structures which are due to their properties connected by relations and surrounded by a
system boundary ".
158 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.5 System "engine-transmission unit"
This abstract definition is easy to understand if an example is considered. The system limit of a
coffee machine is passed from outside to inside of Kaffeepul- ver, the filter, water and electrical energy.
In the reverse direction from the Kaffeepul- ver, which was traversed by the hot water, the filter and the
coffee. The jug, in which the coffee is collected, is a subsystem of the system coffee machine. This
self-contained subsystem is used to collect the coffee. The pot is a real subsystem. We use them
separately to get water when making coffee.
In Fig. 4.5 is the example of a "motor-gear unit" means a system S shown with its boundaries and
the boundaries of its subsystems. The input to the system is made of the size "E", in this case electrical
current, the output of the size "A", where torque and speed. It consists of the two subsystems "DC
motor" S1 and "gear" S2. The subsystem "DC motor" consists of the system elements "stator" 1.1, 1.2
rotor. and the "output shaft" 2. The subsystem "transmission" is formed from the system elements of the
"first stage" 3, the "wave" 4, the "second stage" 5 and the "output shaft". 6
Fig. 4.6 Function with possible flow types
Contrary to the notion of the "system" is defined "system" not clearly fixed the term. He is most often
used to characterize a custom system. A petrochemical plant, for example, i. Gen. custom
zusammenge- provides. With the term facility, we also connect most high cost, high complexity and
high cost. It can be distinguished:
• Systems of basic industries such. B. steelworks

• Systems of the processing industry, for. As paper machines
• Equipment for chemical and petrochemical industry
• Infrastructure such. B. Trams
All these technical systems, subsystems and systems are formed from subassemblies and these in turn
from single or components.
Depending on the Peak has the system, it is designated (Peak Power) or device (Peak Signal) as an
apparatus in the structure gauge (Peak material) machine. Here, however, the inconsistency between
the definition of the engineering design and the use of the three terms in everyday life is clear again. A
kneading machine has as main conversion material the dough, a converter device has as main turnover
energy in the form of the current.
4.1.2 Viewing the system turnover and function
The function used here meaning clearly and solution-neutral describes the relationship between the
input and the output of a system. The input and output variables of the system are referred to as system
sales. As already mentioned, there are three types of transactions in one system. These are the
Energieum- set, such systems are referred to in the construction apprenticeship as a machine, the
turnover, the corresponding systems hot apparatus and the signal conversion which is realized by
devices. In Fig. 4.6 This relationship is shown.
160 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.7 Reducing the complexity of a task by break down of the overall task into sub-functions
Most often, a problem to be solved and they descriptive overall function too complex to solve easily.
Therefore, the task is so tion the Gesamtfunk-, broken down into sub-functions. The process is
repeated until the sub-functions have to be handled for each processor complexity VDI2221 See fig. 4.7 ,
Furthermore, it is useful to distinguish between primary and secondary functions. Main functions are
partial functions that directly serve the overall function. In contrast, carry side functions, within the
meaning of auxiliary function only indirectly to the overall function at.
In Fig. 4.8 is once again the motor-gear unit of Fig. 4.5 played. Here, however, the functional
structure of the system is ones shown, is in the lower part of the figure. This simple example illustrates
the ability to detect using the functional structure variations with respect to the solutions found and their
order within the system. The "Zoom in" the torque function which is realized by the gear pairs could be
realized also by a rubbing element giant.
In the design theory there are various proposals for defining functions to which should not be
discussed at this point.
The objective of this procedure is to ultimately function the complex overall task of the total to
present into manageable tasks, to break down the part of functions and their comparison knotting each
other due to the main flow or logical considerations as a system. The result is the function structure as
shown in Fig. 4.8 shown.
After the function structure is erected, Teillö- are solutions sought and links them to a total solution
for any partial function. This approach is the subject of this Engineering Design and should not be dealt
with here.
Fig. 4.8 Functional structure of an engine-transmission unit
4.2 Basic rules of design
The basic rules clear, simple and for sure serve to achieve the overall objectives:
• to fulfill the technical function

• to realize the product economically
• ensure safety for people and the environment
As mentioned in this chapter, these goals are always valid. Observance of the inputs is ambiguity
essential for the reliable operation of the latter product. The observance of this principle also allows a
reliable prediction of the behavior of the product in different situations. If the principle of simplicity, noted
a major step towards cost-effective design is done. The principle safety requires a close look at the
durability, reliability and freedom from accidents with appropriate consideration of the consequences for
man and the environment. Another crucial point in this context is the common treatment and
consideration of the terms "clear", "simple" and "safe".
162 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.9 Shaft-hub connections. a Conical surface takes over the functions of 3 'centering of radial "," axial fixing
"and" torque take " b cylindrical surface takes over the functions "radial centering", the end face of the shaft
shoulder "axial location", but because of the shaft nut, a part of the function "direct torque" and the key "torque
take" c Unique solution cylindrical surface performs the functions "radial centering", "direct torque", the end face of
the shaft shoulder "axial fixation" and the feather
4.2.1 Clearly
The principle of uniqueness can relate properties in various aspects of product characteristics. They
will be explained below:
• Unambiguous assignment of the sub-functions together by their corresponding input and output
variables.
• Mathematically, clear connections of input and output variables of a partial function, function and
overall function of the product. This also includes the consideration of the loads and resulting
stresses.
• Unique design of the human-machine interface, so that a proper Bedie- is planning enforced.
• Complete documentation of the product with no redundancies, incl. The production and use of
documents. Particularly in the manufacturing documents must be ensured, inter alia, a clear cut and
complete declaration of all manufacturing information on the drawings.
• make parts and assemblies so that errors in the assembly sequence must be excluded and a
transport such. As is made possible by lifting eyes.
• clearly define maintenance and inspection time. for controls by unambiguous mark.
• For product recycling characterize the materials and predetermined breaking or dismantling shall make
provision for non-compatible material composites.
In Fig. 4.9 must meet are three examples for a shaft-hub-connection shown which "transfer torque",
respectively, the three functions, "radial retention" and "axial securement". In the cone compression
connection from Fig. 4.9 a are the functions realized by a single active surface, the conical surface. Here
we have no clear structure. The position of the hub in the axial direction can not be clearly predicted
due to the Konst- Ruktion. In the example of Figure b. 4.9 Although the radial
Securing the now cylindrical active surface clearly separated from the other two functions. In terms of
torque transmission is no clear solution is present. The axial end face of the shaft shoulder, which now
serves for axial securing, transmits Due to the axial pressing by the lock nut at the same torque,
additionally to the key. How big is the respective share of the torque transmission can not be readily
predicted. A unique solution is the construction of Fig. 4.9 c before. Here own effective area is used for
each of the three functions.
4.2.2 Simple
A solution should be implemented as clear and with little effort, then it is called simple. A simply
constructed product consists of weni- gen components or parts whose arrangement and geometrical
form is also simple. In the following, the term "simple" in terms are described further on the design:
• Small number of components, assemblies and processes for implementing the function
• Simple geometric shapes that can be described mathematically possible, such as cylinders, cubes,
ball etc
• Exploitation of symmetry, both the geometry of components and subassemblies as well as for
power line
• Meaning Mature man-machine interface, few, clear displays and controls in compliance with the
guidelines for ergonomic design [ Lucz93 ] (See also applicable standards)
• Use as few and simple controllable manufacturing processes

• Easily identifiable sections
• Clear and easy to see through assembly operations
• Easy fault detection by z. B. easy recognition of deviations. Examples are attacks, symmetries, etc.
• Easy recycling by using compatible materials and easy removal options
4.2.3 Safe
In connection with technical products, the term "safe" two essential aspects:
• reliable fulfillment of a technical function and

• Risk reduction for humans and the environment.
164 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.10 Effect constructive

actions on the different security
levels [ PaBe03 ]
The designer must be a case of his responsibilities and the consequences of his actions be aware of. In
Fig. 4.10 the concept of security is shown in relation to the impact of construction activity. As in Sect. 4.1 set
forth, a technical system consisting of individual parts, subassemblies and assemblies that meet in
combination the required overall function. Failed component or an assembly of such a system, it may
cause a malfunction of the entire system. The consequences kön- nen here range from a reduced
capacity to cause harm to humans and the environment. Because of the above interaction of the
components and assemblies of a technical system, the safety-compatible design in the design,
interpretation and proper material selection of items begins. A designer has to be in its activities in the
Fig. 4.10 Active chain to be aware shown. This is true even if he "only" designed a simple component.
He influenced so directly, the component, and functional reliability and therefore has the exact loads,
forces, temperatures, etc. know of the component. Thus the operational reliability is ensured, it requires
additional knowledge about the operating conditions of the system. He has such. B. clarify whether
other machines generate harmful vibrations in the hall in which to be positioned to be constructed
machine that must be taken into account accordingly. To the demand for occupational safety to meet,
among other things, requires knowledge of ergonomics and antroprometrische values. Measures for
environmental safety can be taken only makes sense if the damage potential of the technical system
and the damage tolerance of the world are known. The result is that the designer next to the
construction of the actual technical systems u. May need to also take care of the construction of
protective equipment.
The vast number of machines and equipment is heutzu- days to mechatronic products. So a
machine or parts of it are the eingebun- in a control and / or control circuit. Therefore, the control and
regulation needs to be integrated into the security concept StVo92 , Security can be defined as:
A situation, where the risk is smaller than the limit risk.

The limit risk is:

The largest still acceptable plant-specific risk of a particular technical process or state DIN 31000 ,
In order to achieve security, there are three basic strategies:
1. The immediate safety technology: Here the solution is chosen so that from the outset and in
themselves are not at risk.
2. The indirect safety technology come in implementing protection systems and protection device for
hazard prevention used.
3. The indicative safety technology: you can only warn against dangers, but they do not protect or
prevent.
Hereinafter, the terms are explained.
4.2.4 Direct safety technology
If a function can be safely met, at least one of the following principles must be applied:
• Principle of the "safe existence" (safe-life behavior).

• Principle of "limited failure" (fail-safe behavior)
• Principle of "redundant array" principle requires the realization of the Principle of the secure
existence very extensive investigations or existing experiences. To implement the exact knowledge of all
loads and resulting stresses and all other, the safety variables influencing is in terms of their quantity
and quality require sary. Therefore must:
• Acting loads and environmental influences are clearly understood.

• carried out the design based on proven hypotheses and calculation methods.
• The manufacturing and assembly operations are thoroughly described and controlled.
• Systematic component tests are carried out under stringent conditions.
• The scope will be clearly defined.
The designer who works with design elements, so it must accordingly this principle to oversize the
elements. In practice, this means that in each case the most unfavorable conditions are accepted. In
addition, the required safety factor (see Cape. 3 ) Accordingly high. At very high safety requirements and
test series may be necessary to determine firstly the maximum effective stress and on the other to
prove the stresses determined from the calculations.
166 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.11 Spring brake of a crane
In constructions that after Principle of limited failure were designed occurring disorder is allowed but
may not have any serious consequences. Either the function to a limited extent remains, at least the
machine but can be safely taken out of service. The occurrence of failure has to be easily recognizable PaBe03
, In Fig. 4.11 a safety brake for a crane is shown. In the non-actuated state, the brake is slowed, so the
load can not be moved. For this, the spring provides the first only when lifted from the brake drum 3 by
the pneumococcal matikzylinder 2, the brake shoes, the load is released and can be moved. A
"fail-safe" solution is, in this construction due to the used pressure spring for producing the contact
force. Breaks this spring, so much a part of the contact pressure is by setting (shortening) of the spring
by a maximum of one turn lost, but can not advertising the zero. The crane load does not drop abruptly
So in case of damage.
To increase security, but also the reliability is the Principle of redundant arrangement for use. Here
are multiply arranged to fulfill a function systematic melemente. You can either be active during normal
operation, active redundancy, or only on conces- upon failure of the active element, passive redundancy. This
rough distinction should suffice here.
4.2.5 Indirect safety technology
The protective function, and thus the desired security systems with the help of protection and achieved
protective devices.
• protection systems are active systems that trigger a protection reaction at a risk. For this, the risk must be
collected and removed from the protection system. For this purpose, appropriate sensors and actuators are
required. An example of such a protection system, the heat sensor of an electric furnace, which sends the
event of overheating a switching signal to a control device, which then switches the oven energized.
Fig. 4.12 Separation of hazardous and man by a protective device [ StVo92 ]
Fig. 4.13 Clearly interpretable icon to the warnings [ KiBa86 ]
• protective devices are passive systems. so they have a protective function without protective reaction, see
Fig. 4.12 ,
Examples of protective devices are covers for high-speed parts of machinery such as a chain guard or
a clutch cover.
4.2.6 Indicative security technology
The indicative safety technology represents the lowest level of security technology. They should be
seen as a supplementary measure. The task is to point to a dangers and to make them recognizable to
the other. Accordingly, signs must be placed clearly visible and unambiguous interpretation, see Fig. 4.13
,
4.3 design principles
In design principles is a set of design strategies. Whether and how these strategies should be usefully
applied, must be decided individually.
168 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.14 Power flow-design of a

shaft by relief notch at a puncture
4.3.1 principles of force and power line
In the presented consideration not only the actual power cable, the LEI's ten of bending and torque
included. It should be noted that forces as well as bending and torsion moments always also cause
deformation. To the treated here principle, the sub-groups listed below can be counted.
4.3.1.1 power flow-design

If one imagines that passed through the cross-section of a component forces as a flow is present, the
following requirements for a load path-design can be derived from this analogy:
• The flow of force must always be closed (action = reaction).

• Sharp deflections of the power flow and steep change in the power flux density to prevent (avoid
notches) by suitably designing the transitions in cross-section changes. In Fig. 4.14 an example of
kraftflussge- right design of a shaft is illustrated. Here is achieved by not sharp notch to the right of
puncture (often called a relief notch) that occurs at the groove itself not a big increase in voltage.
4.3.1.2 principle the same design strength

the condition is inter alia fen for lightweight construction, and to a certain degree geschaf- also for the
economic efficiency of a component by the same utilization of the strength within a component due to
suitable materials and appropriate design. Looking at the economy must be noted that it is made, inter
alia, to the material consumption and the cost to manufacture a component. The relevant optimum is
referred to as "Sparbau". With so designed components, the weight is in the middle range of what is
possible with the lowest production costs.
Fig. 4.15 Quick and direct power management: Left old version, right improved version with short power conduction
paths [ StVo92 ]
4.3.1.3 Principle of direct and short power line

The management of forces and moments from one point of the product to On the other reindeer is best
carried out on direct and short distances. This should if possible, only tensile and compressive forces
occur in the components involved. The consideration of this principle results in low material costs and
also the slightest deformations of the components on the other. In Fig. 4.15 are exemplary of the
optimization possibilities shown in designing a bearing point. In the improved version, the lines of force
action of the screws were tight moved to the action of force galvanizing line of the camp.
4.3.1.4 principle of coordinated deformation

Under load, the components of the product should have the minimum possible relative deformation. In
addition to this requirement is achieved by the application of this principle, a largely rectified deformation
of the components. This measure a voltage overshoot and fretting corrosion, caused by micro relative
movements in pressure contact, avoided or at least mitigated. The tuning is achieved by appropriate
selection of the materials (Young's modulus), location, shape and dimensions of the components. In Fig. 4.16
is shown a correspondingly shaped shaft-hub connection.
Even with the branching and merging of forces and moments, the principle of coordinated
deformation is observed. A well-known example of this is that in Fig. 4.17 Crane drive shown.
4.3.1.5 principle of force balance

In this principle, a system is free of forces correspond to the outside through the arrangement chender compensating
elements or symmetrical arrangement. Compensating elements can be used up to medium forces. The
symmetrical arrangement of power-conducting elements is used in large forces applied. It should be
noted that the forces have to be compensated in accordance with the system inside. Fig. 4.18
shows the principle of the example of a gear stage. In the left picture a) arises from the
170 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.16 Shaft-hub connection. Left With strong power flow reversal, here opposite addressed preparing torsional
deformation at A between the shaft and hub, right effect with gradual Kraftflussumlen-, here rectified torsional
deformation over the entire hub length [ StVo92 ]
Helical teeth an axial force which must be absorbed by a bearing. In the improved solution in image b)
the axial force acts only within the system and is supported here by "thrust washers." The right image c)
represents the best solution. The resulting by the herringbone gearing oppositely directed axial forces
cancel each other. but they claim the waves on train, or pressure.
4.3.2 principles of the division of tasks
The principle of the division of responsibilities aims to implement the principle of "uniqueness". At the
same time, it is possible by multiple arrangement of Systemele- ment to increase the overall
performance. Basically, the aim is to fulfill functions with as few functionaries. Accordingly, the
constructive needs eur beginning clarify several questions:
1. What part of functions are to be met with one functional support?

2. Is it possible to meet several sub-functions with only one functional support?
3. What part of functions have to, z. As for safety reasons, be satisfied with one or the purposes of
redundancy with multiple office-holders?
4.3.2.1 division of tasks with the same function

This principle is the one used when the officials are to be exploited to their performance limits. Since
she does only one thing, their
Fig. 4.17 Different versions of a crane drive: a Misalignment by unequal torsional deformation of the shaft parts l 1 and l 2
; b Synchronism due to a symmetrical arrangement; c Synchronism due coordinated deformation by the diameter
adjustment of the shaft parts l 1 and l 2
Fig. 4.18 Basic solutions for power compensation using the example of a gear stage
172 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.19 Three-axis truck trailers
Strain and the resulting Beanspruchengen i. Gen. clearly describable and predictable. Secondly, the
principle is used for special safety requirements, see also item 3 above.
Note, however, that a doubling of officials for the same performance capability of the same i. Gen.
has no doubling of overall system performance result. This is partly due to double fits caused by
appropriate tolerances of the components, see Sect. 4.3.2 , In Fig. 4.19 a well-known from the everyday
example of the principle of the division of tasks is shown for the same function. Here, too, it must be
noted that the axles or wheels point position due to the heavy and tolerances are not burdened evenly
in the spring stiffness of the suspension springs.
4.3.2.2 division of tasks with different function

In addition to the aforementioned effects, this form of the tasks can support development and the
economic design and manufacture of a product. It is, in most cases, the condition for parallel
processing of assemblies, so functionaries, in the design and manufacture.
4.3.3 Principle of self-help
Careful selection of the system elements and their clever arrangement in the system ensures a mutually
supportive effect on the principle of self-help, which helps to fulfill the function better and to avoid
damage in case of overload. A typical example is shown in Fig. 4.20 played.
The oval lid in Fig. 4.20 is located on the inside of the container. a spindle, which is supported on a
traverse the outside of the boiler is used to generate a pressing force "U" of the lid in the unpressurized
state. With increasing boiler pressure p i the pressing force of the lid G. increases the sealing force G
Fig. 4.20 Maintenance cover according

to the principle of self-help. With
increasing pressure, the lid inside is
pressed more firmly against the seal
and at the same time relieves the
spindle
Fig. 4.21 U-ring for

sealing of
Hydraulic cylinders on the principle
of self-reinforcing solution
the lid is in this case from the spindle force and the assist force U H = p i * Area-che along the lid. With
increasing pressure p i the spindle is relieved simultaneously.
4.3.3.1 Self-energizing solutions

In Fig. 4.21 is an example of a self-reinforcing solution, a radial oil seal is shown. In normal load, the
auxiliary action results from a fixed assignment of the major or minor size, wherein a is enhancing
overall efficiency sets of auxiliary and origin effect. Due to the geometry of the contact pressure of the
sealing lip increases with increasing pressure.
4.3.3.2 The self-leveling solutions

In this principle, the overall effect is in contrast to previously described, not reinforced. Rather, the
auxiliary effect results at normal load in one accom- panying addition to size in a fixed assignment to a
head size. The auxiliary effect is counteracted in this case, the main action and achieved a balance. In
this way, the overall effect can be increased. In order to achieve an optimal balance, the operating
points of the engine and the forces and torques must be known.
174 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.22 Elastic coupling with coil springs and special attacks to takeover of power in case of overload [ PaBe03 ]
4.3.3.3 Self Protective Solutions

This principle is applied usefully in products in which an overloading can not be excluded, but have no
overload protection. At overload, a new Kraftleitungsweg is used. This leads to a redistribution of loads
on the components and to a different type of stress. In Fig. 4.22 is given an elastic coupling with a
corresponding design. An over-inflated torque the bolts inside the springs push against each other and
prevent the springs can be pressed to "block" and would thus be damaged.
4.3.4 Principle of stability and bistability
From mechanics, the terms "stable", "indifferent" and "unstable" known. When designing products one
strives for the purposes of the principle of "uniqueness" then to provide stable or bistable states in the
product behavior safely.
4.3.4.1 Stable and unstable systems

A stable system returns to its old position with the vorhe- engined equilibrium after a disturbance by
itself. For example, stage of a gearbox, a helical gear, if stored properly, a unique and stable position in
axial direction. A spur gear stage has contrast in the axial direction while a force-free, but unstable
position when the shaft is not uniquely fixed with a bearing arrangement in the axial direction.
4.3.4.2 Latching Systems

The behavior of a system is called bistable if from a state of equilibrium out stops due to a fault, a new
situation or a new, significantly stepped condition and before a limit state has been exceeded. This
principle is often used in the design of an electric switch, in order to have one clearly separate switching
states.
4.4 design guidelines
4.4.1 Design-related design guidelines
The design-related design guidelines arising from the need for clear and safe functional performance of
a product. So they concern the geometric design, in particular the working surfaces and the strength
design of a product, see Cape. 3 , But both aspects of a design can not be considered separately, but
rather depend on i. Gen. each other. In Fig. 4.14 this training is illustrated say. To increase the strength
of the shaft, relief notches certain geometry be introduced into the surface of the shaft. Thus a wave of
a given material can conduct a given torque, it must have least diameter a minimum. A very
comprehensive collection of design guidelines can be found for example in [ PaBe03 ].
4.4.2 production-related design guidelines
Each designer has its work aware be that he tung by the Gestal- the individual parts and their assembly
into modules and ultimately the complete product on the production costs, times a great influence and
-qua- litäten has. By choosing the shape, size, surface finish, tolerances and fits influenced the
designer:
• the usable manufacturing processes

• the usable machine tools, tools and measuring equipment
• the possibilities for quality assurance
In addition, decisions on the internal or external production may be affected if it is comparable fügbar for
the production of the selected component form in-house not a machine.
176 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.23 Classification of manufacturing processes [ DIN8580 ]
Conversely, a designer must inform actuation options given on the in-house FER, or the strategy for
internal and external production share of the company know. It is quite common for workpieces that
require a specific manufacturing process, basically not to term for completion in-house. Sheet metal
parts are a case in point.
Basically, however, the knowledge about the possibilities of different FER is essential operating
procedure, even when components are foreign made, so that the suppliers th based on the given
design in terms of quality and cost can work optimally. Therefore design guidelines for different
production processes are listed below. In Fig. 4.23 is an overview for [ DIN8580 ] Played through the
manufacturing process.
4.4.2.1 archetype for disabled
For parts made of cast materials, ie, the original forms from the liquid state, the design model accessible
(Mo), must be proper form (Fo), gießgerecht (Gi), as well as machining accessible (Be), see Fig. 4.24 ,
Note: In Fig. 4.24 to 4:33 means in the column "targets" a "A": design Directive aims at the reduction
of the effort and a "Q": style guide serves to increase the quality.
In sintered components, ie, the original forms of the powdered state, the design tool accessible (We)
and meet sintering (Si) must be moved or meet, see Fig. 4.25 ,
4.4.2.2 Umformgerecht
Of the in [ DIN8580 ] Procedures listed here are for transforming the Freifor- men and the swaging, Both
methods are part of the pressure deformation, the press cold flow and Pull, both of these methods are part of
the tensile compressive forming, as well as the
bending forming to be viewed as.
Fig. 4.24 Design guidelines for components made of cast materials [ PaBe03 ]. Objectives A = Expense reduction, Q = quality
improvement
178 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.25 Design Directive for sintered parts [ PaBe03 ]
Free-form forged pieces must be wrought by wheelchair. This means that:
• Possible simple shapes with no sharp edges. Great curves and parallel surfaces possible
• not too heavy make forgings, so share any component

• No large cross-sectional differences, avoid high and thin ribs
• provide unilaterally seated eyes
In Fig. 4.26 illustrated instructions for the design of drop forgings. Here is desirable design a
tool-oriented (We), wrought-friendly (Sm) and processing-oriented (Be).
In Fig. 4.27 are statements and examples Cold extrusion played. Such components must be
designed tool accessible (We) and flow accessible (Fi). It should be noted in particular the work
hardening of the material and thus a possible obstruction in the manufacturing process here. Materials
for cold extrusion are essentially hardened and tempered steels such as CK10 - Ck45 and 20MnCr5
and 41Cr4.
At the Pull The following points should be considered:
• select dimensions so that as few drawing stages are required (We)

• Select rotationally symmetrical as possible forms (We / Zi)
• highly tough materials provide (Zi).
Fig. 4.26 Design guidelines for drop [ PaBe03 ]

180 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.27 Design guidelines for cold extruded parts [ PaBe03 ]
Sheet metal parts are i. Gen. by Bending forming ( made cold bending). For this, the semi-finished
products in the first step cut and then processed, bent or assembled with other sheet metal
semi-finished products. Therefore, a cut-oriented (Sn) and on the other a flexurally compliant (Bi) must
be carried out to design a. In Fig. 4.28
Examples are listed for this purpose. The display of sheet metal parts should be noted that although the
handling of standard is very helpful for the designer to control, but the actual extent of the settlement
are very strong machine of the type used Biegema- and the bending tools dependent and are therefore
of doing work specified processing of the company.
4.4.2.3 release access

In the context of this book is to only the machining with geometrically defined cutting edge, so the
turning, drilling and milling as well as the machining with geometrically undefined cutting edge, so the
grinding, and are treated dicing, so the cutting.
The design of the workpieces must be based on the characteristics of the tools, tool-justice (We),
and Spanens, clasp right (Sp), are based. both aspects
Fig. 4.28 Design guidelines for bent parts [ PaBe03 ]

182 J. Feldhusen
require the designer attention and some planning. This becomes clear when both terms are considered
in more detail.
Tool accessible means:

• provide sufficient clamping possibilities.
• To be machined surfaces arranged so that the whole machining can be done in one setting, so does
not need to be re-clamped.
• The workpiece dimensions so provide that for measuring dependent degree piece, the tool does not have to
be exhausted.
• Enough provide a tool runout.
Clasp law states:

• Avoid unnecessary Zerspanaufwand. If not necessary for optical reasons, not edit surfaces without
Passungsfunktion. The voltage must be observed symmetry in the component. Especially with the
heat-treated, so forged, hot-rolled or burned components, the surfaces in the surface-existing
residual stress is observed. Is edited by two parallel surfaces of such semi-finished products only,
this can lead to distortion of the component. In this case, both sides need to be edited.
• Working surfaces provide for possible parallel or perpendicular to the clamping surface.
• The area to be treated should be in cash as possible by turning or drilling producible. Milling and
particularly planing is more complex.
In Fig. 4.29 are re-design guidelines given with examples for turning. Fig. 4.30 shows design guidelines
for drilling operation, fig. 4.31 for milling, and Fig. 4:32 for grinding.
In the design of cut parts, the molds have to be considered advertising to. The components, ie
essentially metal, semi-finished products, tool just (We) and cutting justice (Sn) must be designed. In
Fig. 4:33 are this nien the Gestaltungsrichtli- listed with examples.
4.4.3 User-specific design guidelines
Technical products are typically used by people. So there is a relationship and interface between the
human and the technical Erzeug- nis. With the design of man-machine relationship, the ergonomics is
concerned.
Fig. 4.29 Design guidelines for parts with turning [ PaBe03 ]
Fig. 4.30 Design guidelines for parts with drilling operation [ PaBe03 ]
184 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4.31 Design Directive for parts with milling [ PaBe03 ]
Fig. 4:32 Design guidelines for parts with grinding [ PaBe03 ]

Fig. 4:33 Design guidelines for pattern pieces [ PaBe03 ]

186 J. Feldhusen
Fig. 4:34 Handling area of a person with an indication of the optimal worktop, shaded area [ Lucz93 ]
4.4.3.1 ergonomics-design
The ergonomics-design of products includes a number of aspects, of which the most important are to
be explained here. Since the focus of attention is always the human being, a first important aspect of
the ergonomic design is the consideration of the human form. They include information on:
• body measurements
• Griffin rooms
• , , etc.
Las Only with appropriate guidelines to the work area and future operators, products sen make
ergonomic requirements. In Fig. 4:34 is given as an example for ergonomic shapes miegerechten the
design of a work surface.
In addition to these biomechanical aspects play in the ergonomic design of products and
physiological, such as noise or sound level differences and psychological [such as the visibility and
differentiation of signals aspects of a role PaBe03 ]. Among the last-mentioned aspects, the design or
the design of a product counts.
literature
[AlMa02] Albers, A., Matthiesen, S .: construction Methodical basic model for dependencies between form and
function of technical systems. construction (54 7/8) (2002)
[DIN8580] DIN 8580 (draft): Technologies - Definitions, classification. Beuth, Berlin (2002) [DIN31000] DIN 31000:
Safety-oriented design of technical products. General
Guidelines. Partly replaced by DIN EN 292 Part 1 and. 2. Safety of machinery, basic concepts,
general principles. Beuth, Berlin (1991)
[KiBa86] Kirchner, JH, Tree, E .: Man - machine - environment. Bund-Verlag, Berlin (1986)
[Koll98] Koller, R .: Engineering Design for mechanical engineering, 4th ed. Springer, Berlin (1998)
[Lucz93] Luczak, H .: Industrial Engineering. Springer, Berlin (1993)
[PaBe03] Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Feldhusen, J. Grote, K.-H .: Engineering Design, 5th ed. Springer, Berlin (2003)
[StVo92] Strnad, H., Vorath, B.-J .: Safety in Construction and Design. (1992) Publisher TÜV Rheinland, Cologne
[VDI2221] Approach to the development and design of technical systems and products.
Association of German Engineers, Dusseldorf. Beuth, Berlin (1993)
Elastic, Springs
5
Albert Albers
Table of Contents
5.1 General principles to feathers. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 190

5.1.1 operating principles of springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 191
5.1.2 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 192
5.1.2.1 spring characteristic and spring rate. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 192
5.1.2.2 spring work. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 193
5.1.2.3 efficiency. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 194
5.1.2.4 damping under dynamic loading. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 195
5.1.3 Interconnection of feathers. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 196
5.1.3.1 parallel. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 197
5.1.3.2 series. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 197
5.1.3.3 Mixed interconnection. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 198
5.1.4 The spring-mass-damper system. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 199
5.1.5 spring materials and material handling. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 201
5.1.5.1 Metallic materials. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 201
5.1.5.2 Non-metallic materials. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 203
5.1.6 Classification and types. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 205
5.1.6.1 classification according to the material. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 205
5.1.6.2 classification according to shape. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 206
5.1.6.3 classification by function. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 206
5.1.6.4 classification according to the strain. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 206
5.2 Pulling / Pressurized springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 207
5.2.1 bar springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 207
5.2.1.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 207
5.2.1.2 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 208
5.2.2 Ring springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 208
5.2.2.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 208
5.2.2.2 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 212
A. Albers (!)
Institute of Product Engineering IPEK, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe,
Germany e-mail: albert.albers@kit.edu
190 A. Albers
5.2.3 air springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 213

5.2.3.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 213
5.2.3.2 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 215
5.3 bending Claimed feathers. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 216
5.3.1 leaf springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 216
5.3.1.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 216
5.3.1.2 transition to layered leaf springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 218
5.3.1.3 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 219
5.3.2 Spiral torsion springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 219
5.3.2.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 219
5.3.2.2 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 222
5.3.3 disc springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 222
5.3.3.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 222
5.3.3.2 transition to layered disc springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 225
5.3.3.3 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 226
5.4 torsionally feathers. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 226
5.4.1 torsion bars. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 227
5.4.1.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 227
5.4.1.2 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 229
5.4.2 coil springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 229
5.4.2.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 229
5.4.2.2 Helical compression springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 232
5.4.2.3 spring chart. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 232
5.4.2.4 danger of buckling of compression springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 234
5.4.2.5 transverse suspension. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 235
5.4.2.6 Dynamic stress of compression coil springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 236
5.4.2.7 cylindrical coil springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 238
5.4.2.8 Zugfederdiagramm. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 239
5.4.2.9 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 240
5.5 Claimed thrust springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 240
5.5.1 elastomer springs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 240
5.5.1.1 properties. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 240
5.5.1.2 application. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 243
5.6 design with feathers. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 244
5.6.1 selection criteria and procedure. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 244
5.6.2 Application examples. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 244
5.6.2.1 diaphragm spring on the pressure plate. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 244
5.6.2.2 spring elements between the friction linings. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 247
5.6.2.3 springs in the clutch system for damping vibrations. , , , , , , , 247
Literature. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 250
5.1 General principles for springs
The generic term springs of elastic members to be understood, in which the elasticity of the material is
deliberately exploited by suitable design. Springs can be greatly elastically deform and save this part of
the work performed deformation work beit as potential energy.
5 Elastic, Springs 191
Tab. 5.1 Features of the design elements Springs function
example
Storing energy Spring motors, mechanical watches
Applying forces Slip clutch, disc springs in switchable coupling to compensate for
variations in the friction lining thickness
Absorb shocks and vibrations Vehicle springs, buffer
Tune the dynamism Varying the stiffness in the context of the overall
system
When specifically used as design elements satisfy springs among others in Tab. 5.1 Functions
shown. Functions are to be understood here in the sense of purpose in the system. The quality of the
functional performance of the design and arrangement of the structure as well as elasticity and damping
ability of the spring material used is determined. On the influence of damping in Sect. 5.1.2 received.
These functions can be implemented mechanically, hydraulically or pneumatically or magnetically.

Below mechanical and pneumatic springs are treated.
5.1.1 operating principles of springs
The underlying function of the springs working principle is the storage of energy. This mechanism of
action may be more comparable light by different physical effects. Springs are to be delivered in a
position that stored energy, whereby different functions can be performed. tion to the Energiespeiche-
or the calculation of the spring energy is in the details Sect. 5.1.2 received.
Like any technical structures have springs working surfaces that form when installed together with
the active surfaces of the surrounding system working surface pairs [ Alb02 ]. In principle, the spring for
the introduction of the spring force must have at least two active faces. So there are at any spring when
installed always at least two working surface pairs available. Moreover stage of construction in a single
or more working surface pairs occurred in service that do not serve mainly the introduction of the spring
force, but still have approximately behave a direct impact on the Fede-. For example, if the turns of a
bow spring on spring channel lie (s. Sect. 5.6 ) To occur at the contact points effective area couples with
relative movement, the gene a more or less strong friction influence brin- with it. Also, in the active
surface pairs for introducing force relative movements can occur when occurring or due to the load
deformations of the active surfaces when the relative movements of the working surfaces of an active
surface pair were not restricted by corresponding design.
192 A. Albers
Fig. 5.1 Spring characteristics. a Progressive, b linear and c digressive
5.1.2 features
5.1.2.1 spring characteristic and spring rate

The spring characteristic is the result of the analytical link a load (force F, moment
M t ) (With the corresponding load-specific way Auslenkungsdifferenz s, angle φ in radians) between the
load application points. This also various non-linear gradients can occur in addition to linear pump curve.
Fig. 5.1 shows three characteristic spring curves. Furthermore, there are combinations of these
characteristic curves.
The course of the spring characteristic is decisively influenced by the material and the shape of the
spring. Accordingly, a non-linear spring characteristic can be achieved even with the use of a spring
material with linear elastic behavior by means of suitable shaping. The slope of the spring characteristic
according to [ DINEN13906a .
DINEN13906b mentioned] and the spring rate is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. In general my
apply in Eq. ( 5.1 ) and ( 5.2 ) Shown contexts.
c = dF (5.1)
ds = tan α
c t = dm t (5.2)
d φ = tan α
The spring rate of a spring with a linear characteristic is constant, and is therefore often referred to as a spring
constant. You can according to Eq. ( 5.3 ) or. ( 5.4 ) Are determined by the quotient of an arbitrary load difference
and the associated Auslenkungsdifferenz.
c = F2- F1 (5.3)
s2- s1
c t = M t, 2 - M t, 1 (5.4)
φ2- φ1
Has the characteristic of a spring an increasing (positive) gradient, it will be referred to as progressive
(Fig. 5.1 a). In progressive characteristic curve, the spring rate increases with increasing load. In a
declining curve, that is a characteristic of decreasing (positive) gradient (Fig. 5.1 c), however, decreases
the stiffness and thus the spring rate and the pitch angle as the load increases. In principle, it can be
said that rigid or hard springs a steep and elastic or soft springs have a flat characteristic.
The spring compliance δ is defined as the reciprocal of the spring rate. So apply Eq. ( 5.5 ) and ( 5.6 ).
δ=1 (5.5)
c = ds dF
δt= 1 =dφ (5.6)

ct dm t
5.1.2.2 spring work

The energy which is stored in a spring during the action of an external stress as a potential-elle energy,
i.e. elastic spring work W el. In the diagram, the spring elastic spring work is the area between the spring
characteristic and the Abszis- senabschnitt of the original up to the maximum suspension (s. Fig. 5.2 ).
DEM accordingly, for a general characteristic curve of the elastic spring work (strain energy), which is
stored starting from an initial deflection of the spring when further forming, by Eq. ( 5.7 ) and ( 5.8 ) Can be
expressed.
∫
W = s2 F (s) · ds = W el (5.7)
s1
Fig. 5.2 Elastic spring work in the force-path diagram

194 A. Albers
∫
W = φ2 M t ( φ) · d φ = W el
(5.8)
φ1
For the special case of a linear spring curve, the Eq leave. ( 5.9 ) and ( 5.10 up) connections presented.
Max
W=1 max = F2 (5.9)
2 · F Max · s max = 1 2 · c · s2 2 c = W el
M 2t, max
W=1 max = (5.10)
2 · M t, max · φ max = 1 2 · c · φ2 2 c = W el
5.1.2.3 efficiency
In strict validity of Hooke's law and spring cross section A and spring length l uniformly distributed
normal stresses applies to the ideal Arbeitsaufnah- mefähigkeit the spring provided V = A · l :
ˆs Max ˆ ˆ ˆ
FA · A · l · ds
F · ds = s Max σ · V · ds σ·V·dε (5.11)
l = s Max l = ε Max
0 0 0 0
With d ε = d σ
e ( from Hooke'schem Act) follows:
∫ Max
σ
σ·V Max · V
W= (5.12)
e · d σ = σ2 2e
0
According reads the relationship for the same conditions, but with pure thrust or torsional stress:
∫τ Max
τ·V Max · V
W= (5.13)
G·dτ=τ2 2G
0
Eq. ( 5.12 ) and ( 5.13 ) Describe the ideal utilization of Federwerkstoffvolu- volume. In order to obtain a
general relationship for the elastic spring work W, the degree of utilization is η A introduced, resulting
from the ratio of the actual to the ideal energy absorption capability of a spring Dub01 . Nie01 ,
Max · V Max · V
W = ηA· σ2 or · W = η A · τ 2 (5.14)
2e 2G
Through the utilization rate, the use of the spring material volume in accordance with the shape of the
spring and the load type is characterized. It indicates how evenly the material volume is stressed by the
internal forces or stresses. Since the efficiency η A a characteristic of the shape of the spring value, it is
also
Fig. 5.3 Utilization ratios of different types of spring
the name Art-utility or Artnutzgrad used. For the Zugstabfeder the Artnutzgrad just takes the value 1,
since in this type of spring is an ideal Werkstoffausnut- Zung present (s. Fig. 5.3 ). In the calculation of
Artnutzgrades for certain Federty- pen will be discussed in the appropriate sections. In addition to the
Artnutzgrad in the literature [ Nie01 ] Nor the Volumennutzgrad η V and Gewichtsnutzgrad
η Q used. The Volumennutzgrad results from the ratio of the Arbeitsaufnahme- ability to spring volume
and thus is suitable for determining the volume required to contain a specific elastic work.
ηV= W ηV= W (5.15)

V = η A · σ 2 2 e or. V = ηA· τ 2 2G
Accordingly, the Gewichtsnutzgrad from the ratio of Arbeitsaufnahme- is calculated to the weight
capacity of the spring. So he can to determine the acceptance of up required a certain elastic labor
weight is used.
5.1.2.4 damping under dynamic loading

With dynamic loading, both inner and outer damping damping can occur. The internal damping is
dependent on the damping capacity of Werkstof- fes and is very large particularly in elastomers. Their
behavior is viscoelastic. In this time-dependent material behavior exist elongation of play, whereby a
phase shift between stress and strain is produced. The visco-elastic characteristic with material
behavior looks basically like the one in Fig. 5.4 a) never shown from Kennli-. The area enclosed by the
loading and unloading area line here is a measure of the damping work [ Hor91 . Ils02 . Mac85 . Hin90 ].
The quotient of the
196 A. Albers
Fig. 5.4 Damping under dynamic loading. a internal damping in viscoelastic material behavior works under cyclic
loads, b external damping by friction during loading and unloading of one-off
damping work W D and the elastic spring work W el . which is stored between the middle position and the
maximum deflection is called damping factor ψ designated.
ψ = WD (5.16)
W el
More important than the material damping is the outer damper. It is composed of the damping units that
are due to the design and arrangement of the spring in the system. In particular arrangements working
surface pairs result with relative movement, whereby frictional forces. In this case, due to the harshest
operating friction a part of the captured spring work in the form of heat energy is given off. Typical
examples of systems with strong external damping are layered leaf springs, ring springs and coil
springs in the barrel [ Mei97 ] And bow springs [ Alb91 ]. In Sect. 5.6 is an example from the practice again
the influence of the outer damper on the dynamic behavior received.
5.1.3 Interconnection of springs
In many applications, springs can be combined and connected together. It is possible to arrange the
springs in parallel or in series. In addition, these two possible arrangements can be combined. The
spring rates of the springs involved may be different from each other and are in the following c i called. It
must be observed that the calculation of the total spring rate of interconnected springs in the same way
as the calculation of the total capacity of connected condensers. This relationship is due to the analogy
of the components spring (mechanical energy storage) and capacitor (storage device for electrical
energy).
5.1.3.1 Parallel connection

In a parallel connection, the springs are arranged so that the outer load- F splits proportionally to the
individual springs. As essential condition of this arrangement form is to specify that the spring travel s is
the same for all springs. For a parallel connection of n springs so the following relationships are valid:
s = si= s1= s2=,,,= sn (5.17)
Σ
F =n F i F 1 ̸ = F 2 ̸ =. , , ̸ = F n (5.18)
1
To calculate the spring rate c ges this system it is appropriate to introduce a compensation spring, which
undergoes an external load F and is deflected by the distance s. With the single loads from Eq. ( 5.18 ) And the
condition of Eq. ( 5.17 ) Can be the spring rate c ges Calculate the replacement spring and hence that of the
system as follows:
Σ Σ
s · c tot = F = n Fi= s · n ci (5.19)
1 1
Σ
c tot = n ci (5.20)
1
(: Total capacity of capacitors connected in parallel analogy) Thus, the spring rate of a system results
from parallel springs made of the sum of the spring rates of the individual springs.
5.1.3.2 series
The most important feature of this arrangement form that each individual spring undergoes the same
external load F. Due to the different spring rates c i DEM must also, according to different spring travel s i result.
Thus applies to a system of n series-connected springs:
F = Fi= F1= F2=,,,= Fn (5.21)
Σ
s =n s i With s 1 ̸ = s 2 ̸ =. , , ̸ = s n (5.22)
1
Also in this case, the spring rate of the overall system is used to calculate a to the travel s deflected
replacement spring with the spring rate c ges introduced. Taking into account Eq. ( 5.21 ) surrendered c ges from
Eq. ( 5.22 ).
F c ges Σ Σ 1
= s =n si= F · n (5.23)
ci
1 1
198 A. Albers
Fig. 5.5 Interconnection of springs. a Parallel, b in row
Fig. 5.6 Load-dependent parallel connection of helical compression springs
1 Σ 1
=n (5.24)
c ges ci
1
The sum of the reciprocals of the individual spring rates, the Rezip- the overall spring rate of a system
of series-connected springs results thus rokwert (Analogy: total capacity of capacitors connected in
series) (Fig. 5.5 and 5.6 ).
5.1.3.3 Mixed interconnection

It is also possible, of course, to combine parallel and in series one another as desired. To calculate the
total rate of such a spring system, spare spring rates for the contiguous parallel or series circuits are
first to identify. This reduction in replacement springs will continue until finally a simple
Fig. 5.7 Determination of the total spring rate in mixed interconnection
Fig. 5.8 Schematic representation of a spring-mass-damper system
Series or parallel connection of nibs results. Subsequently, the calculation of the overall spring rate of the
system can be reduced in a conventional manner (s. Fig. 5.7 ).
5.1.4 The spring-mass-damper system
Elastic members can perform vibrations. In the following section are periodic oscillations in the example
of Fig. 5.8 schematically illustrated spring-mass-damper system are considered. The external excitation
of the oscillation is by F (t) or s (t). To possible influences attenuation (external friction and damping
material) has already been in Sect. 5.1.2 received. The resilience
200 A. Albers
F D exerted by the two schematically illustrated shock absorbers, is rate-keitsproportional (see FIG.
viscoelastic material behavior). By contrast, the friction force F R acting for example on the working
surface pair between the oscillating weight and guide walls (s. Fig. 5.8 ) [Independent of the speed Mei97
].
For free undamped oscillations ( F (t) = F R = F D = 0) results in the following homogeneous second order
differential equation:
ẍ + c (5.25)
m·x=0
The natural angular frequency of the undamped system is:
ω0= √ c (5.26)
m
Free damped oscillations with viscous, ie speed-proportional damping, the differential equation is
supplemented as follows:
ẍ + d x+c (5.27)
m·˙ m·x=0
If it is in damping power by an authority independent of the speed of resistance, then these can be used
in Eq. ( 5.25 ) to be added. Here aller- recently is term to take account the changing when changing the
direction of movement sign, since the frictional force always opposes the direction of movement. Such
attenuation is called Coulomb damping [ Wit96 . Mei97 . Alb91 ].
m · ¨ x + F R · sign ( ˙ x) + c · x = 0 (5.28)
If the vibration periodically excited by an external force, it is a forced vibration. The external force is a
function of time.
F (t) = ˆ F · cos ( ω · t) (5.29)
equation ( 5.29 ) Forms the right side of the differential equation used to describe a forced vibration. In
speed-proportional damping the inhomogeneous differential equation ( 30.5 ).
F̂
ẍ + d x+c (5.30)
m·˙ m·x= m · cos ( ω · t)
The general stationary solution of Eq. ( 30.5 ) Reads:
F c · V · cos ( ω · t - φ)
x (t) = ˆ (5.31)
For the zoom function V and the phase angle φ the following rela- apply relationships Wit96 :
(2·D·η )
φ = arctan
1 - η2 (5.32)
1
V= √( (5:33)
1 - η 2) 2 + 4 · D 2 · η 2
d
With η = ω and D = (5:34)
ω0 2·√m·c
5.1.5 Spring Materials and Material Processing
Springs are sometimes very stressed components whose failure often comparable with high costs
linked (Example: valve springs). Accordingly, the material selection and treatment is of decisive
importance in the spring development process. In highly loaded springs a correspondingly high yield
strength is required To ensure purely elastic deformation, whereby quite also selectively generated
plastic deformation, in some cases in the manufacturing process of metallic springs (z. B. setting, shot
peening). When setting is a process which metallic compression springs in the preparation subjected to
enhance its elastic deformability. To this end, the spring is so heavily loaded, 5.9 ). These stresses
increase the load capacity for the load direction that was chosen during installation. A distinction is
made between cold and warm setting [ Mei97 ].
Further, in the selection of a suitable spring material, depending on the application, the static and
dynamic strength, corrosion resistance and the hot strength of interest.
This section describes some important spring material classes are introduced and defined key
terms.
5.1.5.1 Metal Materials

Among the metallic materials steel and non-ferrous metals can be distinguished. In spring steels may
be either carbon steel or alloy steels. Pure carbon material steels are more suitable for small wire
diameter, since the martensite
Fig. 5.9 Generation of residual stresses at a torsion bar spring

202 A. Albers
Tab. 5.2 Important standards for spring steels (August 2002) standard
designation Remarks
[ DIN17221 ] Hot rolled steels for quenched and tempered springs
[ DIN17224 ] Spring wire and spring strip of stainless steels
[ DINEN10132a . Cold-rolled stainless steel for heat treatment replaces DIN 17222
DINEN10132b ] Part 1 and
Part 4
[ DINEN10270a ] Part 1 Steel wire for springs - Patented cold drawn unalloyed replaces DIN 17223-1
spring steel wire
[ DINEN10270b ] Part 2 Steel wire for springs - Oil hardened and tempered spring steel replaces DIN 17223-2
wire
[ DINEN10270c ] Part Steel wire for springs - Stainless spring steel

3 wire
Minimum cooling is required. Larger diameters can thus no longer be cured. An improvement of the
hardenability can be achieved by the alloying elements manganese, chromium, molybdenum and
nickel.
In Tab. 5.2 the most important DIN standards are summarized dealing with the composition of
different spring materials. Since DIN standards constantly evolving, be revised and replaced the
standards listed here are for guidance only and does not purport to be complete.
In patenting are, according to [ DINEN10052 ] Lung to a Wärmebehand- in which a dichtstreifiges

pearlitic structure is produced. For this purpose, is cooled rapidly to a temperature above the martensite
point after Auste- nitisieren, wherein the cooling takes place in a hot bath. For the production of
patented-drawn wire, the wire is further deformed after such a heat treatment, by cold drawing, thereby
forming a line structure in the longitudinal direction of the wire. The so erzeug- th structural strengths
can be achieved mm² [to 3000 N / Schu74 ].
In ölschlussvergütetem spring steel wire, the steel is quenched after austenitizing in oil. Directly after
the steel is annealed by heating to an appropriate temperature.
Especially with high dynamic stress springs a high degree of purity of the material used is to be
required, especially in the border area. Non-metallic inclusions lead to breakage outputs under the wire
surface. The test for non-metallic inclusions in [ DIN50602 ] Described. In addition, in view of the
durability, a fine-grained structure desired [ Sik73 . Bart94 ]. The determination of particle sizes is in [ DIN50601
] Treated. Another important parameter for dynamically stressed springs is the surface quality. For
example, reduce the fatigue strength remarkably high levels of decarburization [ Sik73 ]. In addition,
notches are to be avoided on the wire surface. To eliminate nicks and injurious conditions on the wire
surface is peeling of the wire an appropriate measure
Tab. 5.3 DIN standards for non-ferrous metals (August 2002) standard
designation Remarks
[ DIN1787 ] copper
[ DIN17666 ] Low-copper alloys - Composition
[ DIN17741 ] Low-nickel alloys - Composition
[ DIN17753 ] Wires of nickel and nickel alloys -

Properties
[ DINEN1654 ] Copper and copper alloys - Strip for springs Replaces DIN 1777
and connectors
[ DINEN12166 ] Copper and copper alloys - Wire for replaced DIN 1757, DIN 17682, DIN
general purposes 17677-1, 17677-2 DIN, DIN 17682
and DIN 2076 part
. In connection with the requirement of notch-free surfaces, inter alia, corrosion pits by adequate
selection of materials (eg. B. nichtros- tend steels) or be prevented by use of coated spring wire must [ Nie01
] Mei97 ]. To increase the life of the shot peening is often used, in which the wire surface is bombarded
with enough hard metallic or non-metallic particles. [This results in the area near the edge of the wire a
favorable term compressive residual stress state Horo79 . Mac85 . Sal02 . Beck02 ].
Silicon alloyed steels have a significantly higher yield and a better setting behavior as pure carbon steels.
However, Si steels have a strong tendency to Randentkoh- development and the formation of coarse grains
during annealing. Decarburization under the oxidation of the carbon is understood in the edge region of the
wire through the surrounding atmosphere. By the oxidation of the carbon of cementite is decomposed. At
higher temperatures the carbon can travel long paths in the iron and thus, a diffusion from the inner portions
of the wire toward the edge is possible [ Bart94 . Blae94 . Schu74 ].
In the spring construction and non-ferrous metals such come. As copper and nickel alloys. Most of
these alloys have a high corrosion on resistance. Copper alloys furthermore have a good electrical
conductivity [ Scho88 ]. Particularly high strengths have BeCu alloys (beryllium liumbronzen) on. Nickel
alloys are very good for use at high temperatures suitable [ Past85 . Mei97 ]. Some relevant for the spring
manufacturing standards for non-ferrous metals are in Tab. 5.3 compiled.
5.1.5.2 Non-metallic materials

For springs also a number of non-metallic materials are used. table 5.4
provides an overview of some materials and Tab. 5.5 provides an overview of some of the properties of
elastomers.
204 A. Albers
Tab. 5.4 Non-metallic spring materials Material

group Examples
elastomers rubber
woods Beech, oak, ash, spruce, fir
Fiber-reinforced plastics Matrix: z. As epoxies fibers: z.
as glass fibers
fluid substances Air, hydraulic oil, hydrocarbons, water

ceramics silicon nitride
Tab. 5.5 Materials for elastomer springs Material
name Shore A hardness oil resistance ozone resistance

natural rubber 25-98 bad bad
Styrene-butadiene 40-98 bad bad
Ethylene-propylene rubber 25-90 bad Good
Butyl rubber 40-85 bad Good
Chloroprene rubber 50-90 conditioned conditioned
Polyurethane rubber 50-98 Good Good
nitrile rubber 25-95 Good bad

Acrylate rubber 55-90 Good Good
silicone rubber 25-85 conditioned Good
Fluorosilicone rubber 40-80 Good Good
fluororubber 60-95 Good Good
Materials for elastomer springs are made of natural rubber or synthetic rubber. The molecules are
arranged like a coil. To limit plastic deformation, the molecules are linked to each other. This is the
so-called vulcanization achieved. The elastomers produced in this way have a very high elasticity,
which is also known as entropy elasticity. When loaded, an elongation of the elastomer bundle of
molecules occurs, which disappears in relief, as the molecular kül returns to the disordered state [ Goh91
]. In addition, however, plastic deformation due to viscous flow occur, caused by sliding of molecular
chains. By the resulting friction, a high degree of attenuation occurs. Furthermore elastomers are
almost incompressible and thus have a Poisson's ratio of nearly 0.5.
To disposition of the different elastomers Shore hardness A is for [ DIN53505 ] Used. It is determined
from the resistance of a truncated cone (s. Fig. 5.10 ) Experiences during penetration in the rubber
material. Using the Shore hardness of the shear modulus G can be determined which is independent of
the geometry of the spring. Furthermore, depends the dynamic increase factor k d by the Shore A
hardness from.
Fig. 5.10 Contact probe for measuring the hardness according to Shore A [ DIN 53505 ] And dependence of the shear modulus
and the dynamic magnification factor of the Shore hardness
be with him to increase the spring rate under dynamic loading of elastomer can merfedern taken into
account (s. Sect. 5.6 ).
The properties of elastomers are strongly temperature dependent. At low temperatures, the hardness
increases, it decreases the elasticity and damping to.
5.1.6 Classification and types
To be able to gain an overview of the various types of springs in the variety of existing designs, a useful
classification needs to be introduced. In principle, classifications are on the material, by stress, by
functional or after the shape of the spring. Which classification form is the best depends on the
objective pursued.
5.1.6.1 classification according to the material

In Sect. 5.1.5 already pointed to the great importance of material selection in the spring development
process. In this regard would be a classification for materials according to Fig. 5.11 conceivable. With
this type of arrangement, however, the shape of the spring remains completely ignored. Thus, it alone is
not suitable for a development process, because there is not the material used is the starting point.
Fig. 5.11 Breakdown by spring materials

206 A. Albers
Fig. 5.12 Example of a classification according to the function
5.1.6.2 Classification by the form

The properties of a spring are significantly influenced by their shape. Nevertheless, it can be found on
the basis of such classification for a given design goal not always possible the appropriate design.
5.1.6.3 classification according to the function

From the perspective of the customer not the product itself, but the fulfillment of the envisaged function
is ultimately important. Therefore, in the design phase, the product is described abstractly by its function
in order to avoid a harmful pre-fixing on con- crete components deliberately Alb02 , For product
developers a classification thus appears to function as appropriate. To realize such a classification,
different technical systems have to be analyzed in which springs are used. Ultimately, the function of
these springs is then worked out in the system as the only quantity of interest. By consequent alteration
Unterglie- an extensive catalog of functions that can be met in technical systems by springs occurs at
the end. At this point in Fig. 5.12 QUIRES ONLY ized in the beginning of such a breakdown. The starting
point here from storing potential energy as a basic function which is fulfilled by all springs.
5.1.6.4 classification according to the strain

There is also the possibility of classifying springs after Hauptbeanspruchungsart because the type of
stress is the basis for the dimensioning. table 5.6
shows examples of this classification form.
Tab. 5.6 Classification of stress demand Examples
Train / pressure Bar springs, ring springs, gas springs
bend Leaf springs, torsion springs (Belleville springs)
torsion Torsion bar springs, coil springs

shear Some elastomer springs
5.2 Pulling / Pressurized springs
When tensile or compressive stressed springs, the material is uniformly claimed malspannungen by
standards. This category contains bar springs and ring springs. It should be considered here also a
special case of pressure-stressed springs where the "Material" is gaseous. This is the air spring in
many areas of technology getting more and more important (eg. Transport equipment).
5.2.1 bar springs
5.2.1.1 features
The rod spring has the simplest geometry under all springs. They can be described only by the
cross-sectional area A and the length l. If now such a rod loaded by a tensile or compressive force F, as
a constant over the cross section tension.
For purely elastic stress of the spring material Hooke's law is valid and it is obtained for the
expansion or compression of the following expression:
ε=σ (5.35)
e With: ε = # l l=s l
Assuming a linear spring characteristic is now Eq. ( 5.3 be used) to find an expression for the spring rate.
By solving the equation. ( 5:35 ), The spring rate of a bar spring are calculated as follows:
c=A·e (5:36)
l
Taking into consideration of Eq. ( 5.9 ) Results for the spring working under load from the unstressed
condition out:
W=1 (5:37)
2 · F 2e· ·l A
The spring work can also be according to Eq. ( 5.14 ) Represent. For this purpose, the spring volume of the rod spring has to
be calculated directly by the product of cross-sectional area and length.
If the Eq. ( 5.7 ) and ( 5.14 ) Is set equal, we obtain, taking into account
from ( 5:35 ) Following Artnutzgrad:
ηA= 1 (5.38)
Since the volume of material is ideally exploited in the Zugstabfeder and thus Eq. ( 5.12 ) Is directly valid,
the Artnutzgrad takes in the bar spring to the value 1.
208 A. Albers
5.2.1.2 application
The rod spring has a high stiffness. To achieve a certain th travel at a given force, the length of the rod
spring must be significantly larger than the length of another type of spring. The bar spring plays
therefore as tension and compression spring in art, no major role.
5.2.2 Ring springs
5.2.2.1 features
Ring springs are composed of several double taper shaped inner and outer rings and can accommodate
loads in the form of compressive forces toward the cone axis. Each conical surface of an inner ring in
contact with the conical surface of an outer ring, which occur at the contact surfaces working surface
pairs. Half the inner ring and the outer ring half, the cables together erzeu- such a working surface pair
are called ring spring element [ Frie64 ]. Due to the tapered shape of the rings, two effects occur in the
effective area of pairs on loading of the ring spring, which in the Fig. 5.13 Spring characteristic shown
effect. On the one acting in the axial direction of the spring force F in larger is normal standing on the
operative surfaces forces F N implemented. By these forces, the outer rings are stretched and the inner
rings accordingly compressed. Furthermore, the rings move into one another in the axial direction. This
results in the second effect that characterizes the spring characteristic critical. large wegproportionale
friction forces arise on the active surfaces:
F R = μ · F N With F N = f (s) (5:39)
The spring characteristics are not identical for loading and unloading under influence of friction. The
energy and thus the area between the spring characteristic and the abscissa is significantly smaller than
the loading of the spring for the discharge. The difference between the stored spring work load at the
back and cast at relief spring work is the damping or friction work W D. An annular spring is typically
designed so that all the inner rings are in contact on reaching a certain force. In the diagram in Fig. 5.13 the
progressive course falls on the end of the load line. This phenomenon is explained by the fact that not
all the inner rings go simultaneously into the block position [ Frie64 ]. If individual inner rings advertising
blocks in the axial direction, they make to spring compression no longer contribute. Thus, the travel
takes less strongly than before with increasing force.
It will now be worked out acting on a ring spring element forces. Refer to Figure is. 5.14 considered in
the balance of power is registered on the active surface of an inner ring. the force vectors are
correspondingly in the reverse direction draw in on the active surface of the associated outer ring. is in
the picture α
for half the cone angle. Case 1 describes the conditions under ignoring friction, the axial spring force F is
referred to (for modeling is in the
Fig. 5.13 Ring spring having spring characteristics
Fig. 5.14 Balance of forces on the active surface of an inner ring
acting axial direction force F divided into two forces A F / 2). Together with the radially acting force F wheel . resulting
from the deformation of the rings, the force resulting F res , is in this special case F res normal to the effective
area [ Frie64 . Krei58 ]. On the other reindeer in the two cases, the friction with the friction angle ρ considered.
equation ( 5:40 ) Is the relationship between friction angle and coefficient of friction μ again.
ρ = arctan μ (5:40)
In case 2, the spring with the force F 1 stressed that due to the frictional force F R GroE SSSR than the force F from
Case 1. The radial force can now be calculated as follows:
F1
F rad = (5:41)
tan ( α + ρ)
210 A. Albers
If the spring is now relieved (case 3), the spring force drops abruptly to the value F 2
(S. Fig. 5.13 and 5.14 .) Because then acts the frictional force in the opposite direction. The following applies:
F 2 = F wheel · tan ( α - ρ) = F 1 · tan ( α - ρ) (5:42)

tan ( α + ρ)
In order for a rebound to take place, a restoring force must be present. In Fig. 5.14 (Case 3) it can be
seen that the force F 2 only shows a restoring effect when the half cone angle α is greater than the angle
of friction ρ , In order to prevent self-locking is therefore Eq. ( 5:43 to observe).
α> ρ or. α> arctan μ (5:43)
Both in the inner rings and the outer rings is a three-axis voltage condition before (tangential, radial and
axial). From the load on the active surfaces of the outer rings tensile stresses result in addition
compressive stresses in axial and radial direction in the circumferential direction. In contrast, occur at
the Innenrin- gen on in all three directions compressive stresses. The rings can be approximately
regarded as a thin-walled cylindrical tubes, as long as the following relationship between the inner
radius r i and the outer radius r a the rings applies Frie64 :
ra
≤ 1.2 (5:44)
ri
Accordingly, the tangential σ T a good approximation to the equation. ( 5:45 ) and ( 5:46 ) to determine.
σ T, i = - p · r m (5:45)
ti
σ T, a = + p · r m (5:46)
ta
is in the above equations p for the pressure on the effective area pairs
r m for the middle joining radius of the active surfaces and t for the wall thickness of the rings. The
subscript a denotes the outer and the index i is the inner ring. The actual area-is chenpressung by the
normal to the active surface force F N caused, which, however, not the pressure in the Eq. ( 5:45 ) and ( 5:46
) Corresponds. Due to the approximate consideration of the conical rings of cylindrical tubes and the
fact that the tangential stresses induced by radial deformation of the rings, a radially acting force to
generate this zoom in pressure has to be pulled. Accordingly, the conical shape of the rings is
neglected at this point and it will instead be introduced spare rings to calculate the pressure. From Fig. 5.15
shows the basic procedure for calculating the Tangentialspan- voltages. First, the radial force F wheel calculated,
which is responsible for the radial deformation of the rings, and thus for the resulting tangential
stresses. In
Fig. 15.5 Replacement model to calculate the tangential
Illustration 5.15 is F wheel according to the in Fig. 5.14 Agreement reached located. This force results for the
loading case of Fig. 5.14 from the context that in Eq. ( 5:41 ) Is reproduced. Thereafter, the transition is made
to the equivalent model. Now, the surface pressure can be approximated by Eq. ( 5:47 ) Can be calculated,
whereby the mean radius r m is assumed as a radial position of the active surface pair.
F1
p = 2 · F wheel (5:47)
2 · π · rm· b = π · r m · b · tan ( α + ρ)
In compliance with Eq. ( 5:45 ) and ( 5:46 ) Means that tangential to the inner ring and the outer ring:
F1
σ T, i = - (5:48)
π · A i · tan ( α + ρ)
F1
σ T, a = + (5:49)
π · A a · tan ( α + ρ)
Through the expansion of the outer ring and the compression of the inner ring, the rings can move under
the action of the axial force into one another. is ment at each Ringfederele- so that part of travel s 0 kilometer.
This allows taking into account the expansion of the outer ring ! r a and the compression of the inner ring ! r i directly
determined from the geometry of the conical rings.
s 0 =! r a (5:50)
tan α +! r i tan α
212 A. Albers
The following relationships are valid for purely elastic deformation for the expansion or compression,
wherein e a and e i the moduli of elasticity of the materials for outer and inner ring are:
! r a = σ T, a · r m, a With: ε a =! r a (5:51)
ea r m, a
! r i = σ T i · r m, i With: ε i =! r i (5:52)
ei r m, i
Thus can the travel, in a Wirkflächen- the couple formed by the relative movement, calculate, ie the
portion of travel of a ring spring element. The entire spring travel of an annular spring with spring
elements n resulting spring travel from the sum of the individual. equation ( 5:53 ) Applies if the elastic
moduli of the materials of the outer and inner rings are identical. In practice, it may be advantageous to
select different materials Krei58 ,
s = n · σ T, a · r m, a + σ T i · r m, i (5:53)
e · tan α
The spring will work in accordance with Eq. ( 5.14 ) Is calculated. The tangential stresses from Eq. ( 5:48 ) and ( 5:49
) Results in the spring work load:
T, a · Va+ σ2 Ti· Vi
W1= ηA· σ2 (5.54)
2·e
Hence, in consideration of Eq. ( 5:42 ) The delivered spring work will be determined in relief directly:
W 2 = W 1 · tan ( α - ρ) (5.55)
tan ( α + ρ)
The spring volume is at n annular spring elements:
)
V = Va+ Vi= 2 · π · n (5:56)
2 · ( A a · r m, a + A i · r m, i
The annular spring uses the material volume due to the uniform stress distribution from ideal. Therefore,
a Artnutzgrad of 1 would be expected. However, due to the friction more work will be included, as would
be possible by pure elastic suspension. Therefore, the Artnutzgrad in the ring spring is greater than the
first
η A = tan ( α + ρ) (5.57)
tan α
5.2.2.2 application
Because of their cushioning ring springs are used for large or shock-type loads gen whose impact
energy to be damped. typically,
Fig. 5.16 Ring spring as a buffer for railway wagons, [ Frie64 ]
are converted with annular springs about 2/3 of the captured spring working in Dämpfungsar- beit. A
classic application are buffers for railway wagons (Fig. 5.16 ), Bounce-free and battering rams Krei58 ,
Furthermore springs be used for the elastic support of heavy units and elastic suspension of heavy
lifting equipment harnesses.
5.2.3 Suspension
5.2.3.1 features
An air spring is a compression spring whose elastic behavior is not founded in the elastic deformation of a
material, but in the compressibility of a gas at Drucksteige- tion. The air is trapped in an airtight
pressure-resistant cylinder, by a piston or in a slightly compressible bellows. In the piston spring det the
effective area of the piston education together with the adjacent active surface of the gas, a working
surface pair for introducing force. The second working surface pair for the introduction of the force created
between the air and cylinder, as shown in Fig. 5.17 shown. At constant size of the active areas, the change
in the spring force by Eq. ( 5:58 ) Described.
dF = A · dp (5:58)
Air springs have a strongly progressive characteristic curve, with the change in state of gas, the
polytropic law is valid. In Eq. ( 5:59 ) is p the absolute pressure and V the volume of gas.
p · V n = const. (5:59)
At low loads, much of the can be released to the environment during compression entstehen- the heat.
The change in state can thus be approximately regarded as isothermal. Accordingly, the polytropic
exponent strives
214 A. Albers
Fig. 5.17 Schematic representation of a piston spring
n for small excitation frequencies the value 1. With increasing load frequency less heat can be released,
which is why it can be considered a good approximation of a reversible adiabatic change of state at
very high frequencies at which the polytropic equal to the isentropic κ is to be set. takes for air κ the value
1.4 at.
In the following considerations, the sizes of the initial state of the Gasfe- be provided with the index
0th From Eq. ( 5:59 ) Following relationship can be derived:
) n
pp 0
= ( V0 (5.60)
V
To derive a force-displacement relationship is of Eq. ( 5:58 going out). Consequently, in the case of an
unloaded spring in the initial state ( F 0 = 0) :
∫ ) ) n- 1 ]
F =p A · dp = A · p 0 · ( p -1 = A · p 0 · [( V 0 (5.61)
p0 V
p0
With:
V 0 = A · H and V = A · ( H - s) (5.62)
The spring force can be adjusted accordingly by Eq. ( 5.63 ) Representing a function of the spring travel.
)
F = A · p0· ( H (5.63)
( H - s) n - 1
The spring rate is generally defined by Eq. ( 5.1 ). Thereafter, the gas spring in consideration of the
relation is obtained for the spring rate dV = - A · ds :
c = dF (5.64)
ds = A · dpds = - A 2 · dp dV
With the help of Eq. ( 5.60 ), The differential notation of Eq. ( 5.64 ) Are replaced by:
) n· 1
dp dV = - n · p 0 · V n 0
(5.65)
Vn+1= - n · p0· ( V0 V V=-n·p·1 V
Accordingly describes Eq. ( 5.66 ) The relationship of spring rate and pressure and volume.
c = n · p · A2 (5.66)
V
The spring work of the gas spring corresponds to the change in volume of work. The approach here- for is:
∫ ∫ ) n· dV
W=-V p · dV = - V p0· ( V0 (5.67)
V
V0 V0
If Eq. ( 5.67 ) For a polytropic exponent is greater than 1 solved, the spring will work to:
[( V ) ] [( p ) ]
1-n- 1 n-1
n-1
W = p0· V0 = p0· V0 (5.68)
n-1· V0 n-1· p0
In the case of isothermal change of state ( n = 1) in contrast, can derive the following The same chung:
( V0 ) ( pp 0 )
W = p 0 · V 0 · ln = p 0 · V 0 · ln (5.69)
V
It must be noted at this point that the spring rate of an air spring is highly temperature dependent.
5.2.3.2 application
Air springs can be used for less agile up systems because of its relatively simple construction, on the
one hand, for. B. at desk chairs for height and tilt adjustment. The resilient properties can be used as a
comfort feature here. On the other hand, offer air springs for complex systems the ability to vary by
compressors and ancillaries on the applied pressure, the spring rate as required. Thus, for example. B.
leveling systems for car and truck chassis are realized that allow, among other things, a speed and road
surface dependent vehicle body height. For this purpose, air springs so-called partial load-bearing
systems can be used in addition to the existing steel springs. long spring travel avoided especially in
soft structure springs for a comfortable ride - thereby be in charge. it does not use any steel springs
216 A. Albers
fully supporting systems can be realized, as she puts einge- for active chassis can be. Due to the listed
properties of air springs, such systems require an appropriate regulatory burden [ Fel02 ].
5.3 Claimed bending springs
The bending load springs, the material is not uniformly loaded because the cross section an
inhomogeneous voltage profile is created. Thus, the type of loading is expected solely on the basis of
less than 1 with a Artnutzwert. Bending stress spruchte springs are designed as rods, plates and discs.
5.3.1 leaf springs
5.3.1.1 features
For modeling simple leaf springs can be considered as gebelastung clamped beams under bending.
Here can be considered different bearings or input voltages as from technical mechanics are known
(see. Cape. 3 ) [ Dub01 ].
If the leaf spring viewed as a bar with a constant cross-sectional area (s. Fig. 5.18 ), Can be the voltage
at the edge of the fiber, the maximum bending stress is at the same time, for an arbitrary position x with
Eq. ( 5.70 ) Determined.
σ b, R ( x) = 6 · F · x (5.70)
b · H2
Accordingly, the border tensions due to the increasing lever arm for input span spot to go. The
Artnutzgrad is therefore in addition to the stress-induced decrease even further reduced. For bending
springs with constant section of Artnutzgrad is 1.9. To make better use of the material, can be viewed
from Eq. ( 5.70 ) Both the width b and the height h of the leaf spring along the length vari- be ated. In Fig. 5.19
be this example shown a parabolic spring, a triangular spring and one trapezoidal spring. It should be
noted that in the parabolic spring for variable height h (x) a root function has been selected. As seen
from Eq. ( 5.70 ) And this seems appropriate, since the amount is squared. Both in the para- belfeder as
well as the triangular spring constant over the length Randspan- voltage is reached.
With the triangular spring a Artnutzgrad of 1/3 is reached, wherein the Artnutzgrad the trapezoidal spring
dependent on the ratio ! is in the range between 1/3 and 1/9. The following applies to ! the following relationship:
! = b min
b Max (5.71)
Fig. 5.18 Voltages at cantilevered leaf spring with constant cross-section
() = ⋅ () = Max ⋅ (() -=
max min
)⋅ + blxbbxb
min
lxhxh lxbxb
Fig. 5.19 Bending springs with improved material utilization
Tab. 5.7 link between χ and the ratio ! [ Dub01 . Nie01 ]
! 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
χ 1.5 1.39 1.32 1.25 1.2 1.16 1.12 1.09 1.05 1.03 1.0
The maximum travel of a triangular or trapezoidal spring according to the theoretical bending line of a
beam of constant cross section by multiplication by a factor χ calculated to take account of the varying
cross-section the advertising. Has available to it Eq. ( 5.72 ) And the tab. 5.7 to disposal.
s = 4 · F · l3 (5.72)
e · b Max · H 3 · χ
218 A. Albers
To determine the Artnutzgrades is to Eq. ( 5.14 recourse). Here, the cross-section is considered to be
constant over the length of the spring. Thus, the spring volume with a mean width ¯
b calculated.
b̄ = b max + b min
b = b Max · ( 1 +!) (5.73)
2 2
Is now Eq. ( 5.14 ) With Eq. ( 5.9 ) Are compared, then the following relationship:
1 2 · F Max · s max = η A · σ b,
2
max · l · H · b Max · ( 1 +!)
(5.74)
4·e
This approach is valid as a linear spring characteristic is present. Taking account of Eq. ( 5.70 ) and ( 5.72
) Results of Artnutzgrad.
ηA= 2 (5.75)
9·χ 1 +!
5.3.1.2 transition to layered leaf springs

In practice, the installation space of the spring is limited. For this reason, often layered leaf springs are
used. In Fig. 5.20 the exemplary formation of a laminated leaf spring on the basis of a triangular or
trapezoidal single-leaf spring is shown. The strip spring is conceptually into strips of the width b B cut,
which are then layered aufein- other. The basic idea here is that neglecting the
Fig. 5.20 Transition to layered leaf springs

Friction for the layered spring leaves the calculation basis of Einblattfedern are sufficiently accurate valid
[ Gro60a . Nie01 ]. Since the lamination of the individual spring leaves can be considered as a parallel
connection, and the width chenträgheitsmoment undergoes linear in the area-, this approximation is
quite good at ignoring friction.
The triangular spring runs to at the end Spitz, which is unfavorable for large forces to be absorbed in
actual use of such a spring. Better the shape of the ordered is pezfeder with b min = b B suitable, since the
transition to the laminated leaf spring a ungeschwächtes at the ends of spring leaf is formed (s. Fig. 5.20
). For very high forces b min be further increased, so that a plurality of equal length unattenuated spring
leaves are superposed Gro60a ,
arise working surface pairs between the sheet layers, to which effect due to the relative movements
of the working surfaces of a pair of mutually frictional forces acting surface. Accordingly, it is to be
expected with a characteristic curve in which the load characteristic is steeper than the discharge
characteristic (see FIG. Sect. 5.1 ). The damping work, ie the area enclosed by loading and unloading
line area may eventually lead to a desired vibration damping. However, the tire can exercise also cause
frequent undesirable effects.
5.3.1.3 application
Application For leaf springs as locking or pressure springs for gate valves, anchors and latches in
Gesperren as well as contact springs in switches. Previously, often used geschich- tete leaf springs to
cushion road and rail vehicles, the friction effects were used. However, the tire can exercise forces on
the active surface pairs have a negative impact on ride comfort, because the spring deforms until the
temperature exceeds the frictional force. Join forces that fall below this value, they are directly and
unchanged to the vehicle transferred gen [ Gro60a ].
5.3.2 Spiral torsion springs
5.3.2.1 features
Coiled spiral springs exist in the form of coil springs, Scroll springs and cylindrical rule helical torsion
springs. According to [ DIN EN 13906c ] T3 is a torsion spring, a spring which counteracts a torque about
the longitudinal axis. In the helical torsion spring is a wire which is wound around an axis (s. Fig. 5.21 ).
Usually screws torsion springs are made of round wire. Coil springs on the other hand usually have
(see a squared wire cross-section. Fig. 5.22 ). The coil spring is a special case of the coil spring without
winding distance. They can be prepared so that their characteristic runs horizontally almost the entire
spring travel. Because of her
220 A. Albers
Fig. 5.21 Screw torsion springs; a in normal version; b with tangential legs
Fig. 5.22 Spiral springs with Windungszwischenraum and a fixed clamping. Outside actuation ( Left) and internal
operating ( right)
Characteristic is also the name Migra-springs (Migra = Minimum gradient) gän- gig Kei64 , They consist
of a flat spring steel strip which is wound into a roll. Then this role is the put on a little friction as
possible bearing cylinder. There is a certain spring force necessary to unwind the spring band. If the
spring band of the original cylinder rolled up on a cylinder with a larger diameter, a drive motor is
formed (s. Fig. 5.23 ). The calculation principles discussed below apply for fixed Einspan- planning and
neglecting the influence of friction. It can exclusively springs Windungszwischenraum be played. When
the coil spring these conditions are not always met. Specific solutions for the Spi- Ralf eder be in [ Gro60b
. Kei57 ] Proposed. The spring acting on Schraubendreh- or spiral forces create a torsional moment M t . whereby
a bending moment on the spring wire is produced from which can be determined with the equatorial
section modulus the maximum occurring bending stress. For this purpose, may be resorted to the
consideration of a bar, at the end of a bending moment acts. Also the
Fig. 5.23 Roll springs with two axially parallel spring rolls. Left Spring band with the same direction of curvature; Right Spring band
with oppositely directed curvature
Twist angle (in radians) may be a function of the torsional moment calculated net. For this purpose, Eq.
( 5.76 to use), which is known for the calculation of the bending line of a cantilever, and on the other side
is loaded by a torque beam of engineering mechanics.
φ = Mt· l (5.76)
e · I eq
The spring length of the helical spring is a sufficiently accurately from the mean winding D m and the
number of resilient turns n.
l = π · Dm· n (5.77)
In the coil spring, the spring length is the distance assuming a constant interturn a w approximated by Eq.
( 5.78 ) Reproduced. The spring leaf thickness is referred to by t.
)
l≈2·π·n·( ri+ n (5.78)
2 · [ t + a w]
The torsion spring rate c t plugs directly from Eq. ( 5.76 ) Determine, since a linear relationship between M t and
φ consists.
c t = dm t (5.79)
d φ = e · I eql
The Artnutzgrad results from a consideration of the stored elastic energy W Eq. ( 5.10 ) And then
compared with that according to Eq. ( 5.14 ) Calculated work.
σ b,2 max · V
W=1 (5.80)
2 · Mt· φ = ηA· 2·e
If this approach is resolved, the result for the coil spring having a rectangular cross section a
Artnutzgrad of 1/3 and for the helical torsion spring having a round cross-section, a value of 1/4.
222 A. Albers
The above considerations are not taken into account the increase in voltage on the inside of the
springs, which is caused by the curvature of the wire. this increase can be neglected usually springs at
spiral, as the ratio of mean spring diameter to strip thickness is very large [ Nie01 ]. torsion springs in the
screw is to take account of this voltage increase, a correction factor q
according to [ DINEN13906c ] T3 introduce. It depends on the winding ratio w:
q = w + 0.07 (5.81)
w - 0.75 with w = D m d
The corrected bending stress is then calculated as follows:
σ b, corr = q · σ b, max (5.82)
The correction factor q must be considered in a dynamic strain in any case. For statically stressed
springs it is to be included in stress corresponds to the Windungssinnes in the calculation, as are
formed on the inside of the spring winds by the process tensile stresses.
5.3.2.2 application
Coil springs with Windungszwischenraum are often used as return springs in measuring devices. The
coil springs without Windungszwischenraum and rolling springs are primarily used as elevator or driving
forces in mechanical watches, drives and toys because of the good energy storage assets. The helical
torsion springs are used as hinge springs for pressing and retraction of levers, stamping, latches,
covers or brackets (mousetrap springs) application.
5.3.3 disc springs
5.3.3.1 features
Belleville springs are circular rings having a rectangular radial cross-section. These rings are in the axial
direction by the height H 0 slipped, so a cup shape. The Lasteinlei- processing takes place in the axial
direction over the annular working surfaces at the points I and III (see. Fig. 5.24 ). In [ DIN2093 ] Are
divided the plate springs into three groups. Group 1 beinhal- tet disc springs whose plate thickness t is
smaller than 1.25 mm. They are cold formed and not rounded at the edges. Plate springs with a plate
thickness of 1.25 to 6 mm are to be assigned group. 2 Springs of this group are also cold formed, but
the edges are rounded at the inner and the outer diameter here. The springs of group 3 have a plate
thickness of 6-14 mm. They are thermoformed in the rule and then (on the active surfaces position I
and III in Fig. 5.24 edited) machined to produce bearing surfaces that behave the guiding improve this
disc springs and reduce the surface pressure.
Fig. 5.24 Disc spring having a rectangular radial cross-section and application of force
By the axial introduction of force occurs on the one hand a tensile Druckbean- spruchung in the
circumferential direction and, secondly, a bending stress in the radial direction. The exact calculation of disc
springs is very complicated. For an approximation approximate calculation of individual disc springs without
contact surfaces which are approximately approximation equations Almen and László sufficiently precise [ Alm36
. Gro60a ]. is in these equations ν for the Poisson's ratio.
) ( H0 ) ]
t4 st · [( H 0
F=4·e · · + 1 (5.83)
1 - ν2· K1· D2 e
t-s t t-s 2t
K 1 is a characteristic value after DIN 2092 in dependence on the diameter ratio δ

can be calculated. The diameter ratio is the ratio of external diameter D e to inner diameter D i ,
)2
δ
K1= 1 With δ = D e (5.84)
π · ( δδ-+11 Di
δ-1- 2 ln δ
From Eq. ( 5.83 ) Given force-displacement relationship can be seen immediately that the disc spring generally
has not a linear characteristic. This becomes even clearer when the spring rate is determined, because then it
can be seen that the spring rate tion a radio of the spring travel is:
[( H 0 ) ]
2- 3 · H0 ) 1
t3 2+
c = dF · (5.85)
ds = 4 · 1e - ν 2 · K1· D2 e
t t·s t+3 2·(s t
The spring working a single plate spring which is stressed from the rest position is according to Eq. ( 5.7 )
to calculate. Since this is a non-linear spring characteristic, the power must be integrated across.
∫ [( H 0 ) ]
( st ) 2+ 1
t5 2·
W =s F · ds = 2 · e · (5.86)
1 - ν2· K1· D2 e
t-s 2t
0
224 A. Albers
Fig. 5.25 Characteristics of Belleville springs of different ratios h 0 / t
From Eq. ( 5.83 ) The spring characteristic can be calculated. In Fig. 5.25 are calculated curves for different
ratios of the Stülphöhe H 0 to plate thickness t dimen- shown sionslos. The observed characteristics are valid
also for a compression of up to twice the Stülphöhe, so on the flatness of the disc spring. the force F C is the
spring force which is theoretically the spring travel s = h 0 ( Flatness) is applied. It can be seen that the spring
characteristic with a small ratio of H 0 / t can be regarded as almost linear. With increasing suspension travel, it
deviates increasingly from the linear course and it even caused characteristic sections with negative spring
rate. The diaphragm spring is the one Zige spring, can be realized with which such characteristic curves.
Plate springs, which are loaded by two flat plates or cup springs, which are laminated to a column
(s. Fig. 5.27 ) Can be compressed only to the flatness due to the boundary conditions. However, the real
characteristics are consistent with those calculated for compressions to about 75% of Stülphöhe. For
larger spring due to a rolling of the single plate spring occurs on the base or the plate springs up on
each other. Thereby, the distance between the effective area at the position I and that is shortened at
position III. Accordingly, the disc springs [are DIN2092 ] For spring travel standardized (seconds to 75%
of the Stülphöhe. Fig. 5.26 ). In order suspension travel to the flatness or even more to realize,
appropriate constructive measures must be taken. For example, intermediate rings can be used [ Gro60a
].
After [ DIN2093 ], The calculated stresses at the four in Fig. 5.24

specified positions are determined. occur at the positions I and IV compressive stresses and tensile
stresses on II and III. In the equations in addition to the already established characteristic value K 1 the
characteristics K 2 and K 3 to be considered. According to [ DIN2092 ] Defines such characteristics as
follows:
ln δ - 1 ln δ
K2= 6 and K 3 = 3 (5.87)
π · δ-1 π · δ - 1ln δ
Fig. 5.26 Normalized characteristic of individual disc springs DIN 2092
For single disc springs without contact surfaces (Groups 1 and 2), the voltages with the help of Eq can.
( 5.88 ) to ( 5.91 ) be calculated. Static load, is according to [ DIN2092 ], The largest stress (compression
stress at position I) shall prevail while under cyclic stress, the tensile stresses are relevant to the
positions II and III. The exact dimensioning regulations [ DIN2092 ] refer to.
) ]
t2 st · [
σI= - 4 · e · K2· ( H0 + K3 (5.88)
1 - ν2· K1· D2 e
t-s 2t
) ]
t2 st · [
σ II = - 4 · e · K2· ( H0 - K3 (5.89)
1 - ν2· K1· D2 e
t-s 2t
) ]
t2 1
σ III = - 4 · e · ( K 2 - 2 · K 3) · ( H 0 - K3 (5.90)
1 - ν2· K1· D2 e
δ·s t·[ t-s 2t
) ]
t2 1
σ IV = - 4 · e · ( K 2 - 2 · K 3) · ( H 0 + K3 (5.91)
1 - ν2· K1· D2 e
δ·s t·[ t-s 2t
5.3.3.2 transition to layered disc springs

Disc springs can be layered to form a spring assembly or a spring column (s. Fig. 5.27 ). Spring columns of n
alternate directions arranged cup springs are to be treated a series circuit of the n individual springs such as
at each of these springs is applied, the same force. On the other hand, it is made with a spring assembly n same
direction reasonable arranged plate springs to a parallel connection, because in this variant of suspension
travel for all individual springs are equal. If the active ingredients produced by the stratification surface pairs
considered, then in the same direction arranged plate springs with a
226 A. Albers
Fig. 5.27 Layering of individual disc springs to spring assemblies or spring stacks
expected significantly greater friction impact than in alternate directions angeordne- th. The influence of
friction the spring characteristic is steeper than the (in relief s under load. Sect. 5.1 ). The permissible
power differences between loading and unloading lastungskennlinie of spring stacks are in [ DIN2093 ]
Indicated. In principle, possible to achieve a greater spring force at the same travel a greater spring
travel for the same force and the same direction by alternate arrangement intimate assembly of disc
springs. By alternately layering of different thicknesses intimate Tellerfe- countries or of spring packs
with different numbers of the same direction layered springs bent characteristics can be realized.
5.3.3.3 application
Disc springs place very frequently used as spring elements for pressing the friction body with friction
clutches and to compensate for play and manufacturing tolerances for axial bearings. The advantage of
the disc springs is clear here in the characteristic curve. Are disc springs sets einge- with a piecewise
constant spring characteristic, the spring can be operated line portion by suitable design of the system
exactly in this ISIN, so that the friction body and the thrust bearing always a nearly constant force is
applied. Another very important application in Sect. 5.6 is considered in more detail, the clutch of motor
vehicles. There, too, the characteristic curve course is utilized.
5.4 torsion-stressed springs
The torsionsbeanspruchten springs often find application in mechanical engineering. Las sen you in
straight and helically coiled springs divide.
5.4.1 Torsion Bars
5.4.1.1 features
Torsion bars have a circular or a rectangular cross section. can bar springs Circular rotation are
performed with both a full and with a hollow cross section. For pure torsion by a torsion M t applies to the
comparison angle of rotation φ following relationship, from which the spring rate may be derived directly:
φ = Mt· l (5.92)
G · It
c = dM t (5.93)
d φ = G · I tl
The shear stress in the extreme fiber is widely accepted management from the Torsionsmo- and
calculated the Torsionswiderstandsmoment. Is now generally a round hollow profile considered,
torsional moment and Torsionswider- are standing moment according to Eq. ( 5.94 use). is in these
equations d i for the inner diameter and d a for the outer diameter of the hollow profile.
( ) ( )
d 4 a - d 4i d 4 a - d 4i
It= π and W t = π (5.94)
32 16 · d a
If the employed here general considerations are applied to the special case of a full profile, it is only for the
inner diameter d i the value 0 switched enforce. The Artnutzgrad the general torsion bar spring with hollow
cross-section can be connected directly by comparing Eq. ( 5.14 ) With ( 5.10 ) Determine, as a linear spring
characteristic is present. As an approach for determining the Artnutzgrades thus resulting folic constricting
relationship:
1 Max · V M t, max · φ Max · 2 · G

(5.95)
2 · M t, max · φ max = η A · τ 2 2 · G or. η A = 1 2 τ 2 max · V
The Artnutzgrad is thus defined for the torsion bar as follows:
a+ d2 i
ηA= d2 (5.96)
2 · d2 a
It is clear that the Artnutzgrad (for the full cross section d i = 0 ) takes the value 1/2 and (for small wall
thicknesses d i → d a ) tends towards the value 1. This is also clear when the linear voltage profile is viewed
over the rod cross-section.
To allow bilateral clamping of the round bar springs technically exist for [ DIN2091 ] Standardized
profiled rod ends (s. Fig. 5.28 ). The thus comparable Thematic change in cross section of the rod is in
the form of circular grooves
228 A. Albers
Fig. 5.28 Spring ends for [ DIN2091 ]
Fig. 5.29 Geometric features a torsion bar [ DIN2091 ]
carried out in order to avoid undue stress concentrations. Because both derstandsmoment the
Torsionswi- and the torsional moment in these areas increase, the length l can not be considered as an
effective length. According to [ Dub01 ] Is the spring length l f Eq. ( 5.97 to determine) (Fig. 5.29 ).
l f = l - 2 · ( l H - l e) With l e = ν · l H (5.97)
The fillet factor ν is the [ DIN2091 ] refer to.

Also, for a torsion bar having a rectangular cross-section are the Eq. ( 5.92 ) and ( 5.93 )
valid without limitation. Torsional moment and Torsionswiderstandsmoment be described by the
following equations Dub01 :
I t = c 1 · H · b 3 and W t = c 1 · H · b2 (5.98)
c2
by definition H > b. the constants c 1 and c 2 are shown in Table. 5.8 lists listed for some cases. In torsion bars with
rectangular cross section, the maximum voltage in the center of the large rectangular side occurs.
The Artnutzgrad is also used in a rectangular cross section according to the approach of Eq. ( 5.95 ) Is determined.
The result:
ηA= c1
c22 (5.99)
Tab. 5.8 Constant for the calculation of I t and W t the rectangular cross section [ Dub01 ] H / b
1 1.5 2 3 4 6 8th 10 ∞
c1 0.141 0.196 0.229 0.263 0.281 0,298 0.307 0.312 0.333
c2 0.675 0,852 0.928 0.977 0.990 0.997 0.999 1 1
The Artnutzgrad a rectangular cross-section which is significantly lower than that of a round off the cross
section. Torsion bars having a rectangular cross section may also be arranged geschich- tet.
To increase the resistance of a torsion bar, is a very good surface quality required. Cracks can be
removed by peeling or grinding. To avoid notch effect by corrosion pits, the spring must be protected
against corrosion. Furthermore, the service life can be increased by compressive stresses in the
near-surface area, which can be induced by shot peening. If the torsion bar spring loaded during
operation in one direction only, so a more favorable residual stress state of loading in this direction can
limit on the stretching also be generated (see Fig. Sect. 5.1 ).
5.4.1.2 application
Torsion bar springs are mainly used in vehicle in axle design application. As a frequently encountered
as stabilizers can be mentioned.
5.4.2 coil springs
5.4.2.1 features
Coil springs are made of a helically with a pitch angle α w
wound around a mandrel or without a mandrel by means of a coiling machine gewunde- NEN wire. In
the following only wires with a round cross-section to be betrach- tet. Coil springs are mainly subjected
to torsion. There are coil springs ([ DINEN13906a ]), And coil springs ([ DINEN13906b ]) Distinction.
The pitch angle on the middle winding cylinders can be described by Eq. ( 5100 )
determine. it says D m for the mean winding, d diameter of the wire and a 0 for the clear distance between
the turns of the unloaded spring th.
tan α w = a 0 + d (5.100)
π · Dm
For centrical load of the coil spring by an axially acting force F hen different stresses in the spring wire
entste-. The force F is the spring pitch in accordance with a component along the wire, and a
component transverse to the
230 A. Albers
Fig. 5.30 Allocating an axially acting

force along the wire
Wire divided. The case which is established along the wire ratios are schematically shown in Fig. 30.5 shown.
The transverse force causes a shear stress to a torsional stress on the other. By the longitudinal
force results in addition to a tensile or compressive stress, a bending stress. For a small angle of
inclination and the bending stress is the tensile or compressive stress is negligible. Since this is in the
spring wire around a long "lean" staff, the shear strain against torsion is negligibly small. For the
Torsionsbeanspru- chung approximately which can be small lead angle in Eq. ( 5101 ) Expression shown
derived:
Mt= Fq· Dm (5.101)

2 = F · cos α w · D m 2 ≈ F · Dm 2
If the curvature of the spring wire is not taken into account, the result is an over the wire cross-section
linear shear stress distribution, the maximum value, planning the Randspan- with Eq. ( 5102 ) Can be
calculated.
τt= Mt ≈ 16 (5.102)
Wt 2 · F · Dπm· d 3 = 8th · F · Dπm· d 3
Due to the curvature of the wire higher shear stresses as (s at the outer periphery. Fig arise at the end
facing the inside of the spring section edge. 5.31 ). The higher voltage on the inside of the spring by [ DINEN13906a
] or. [ DINEN13906b ] By taking into account a correction factor k calculated. This correction factor can in
Fig. 5.31 Uneven stress distribution on the wire cross section edge of a coil spring
Depending upon the winding ratio w are determined using the approximate equation of Bergsträsser:
k = w + 0.5 (5.103)
w - 0.75 with w = D m d
mainly because a stress due to torsion is present, the coil spring may be considered to be a coiled
torsion spring. Accordingly, the axial spring travel is also directly related to the torsional stress, and thus
it is clear from the angle of twist of the wire. the twist φ is given by Eq. ( 5.92 to determine) that has
already been used in the torsion bar. The length l the resilient length of spring wire is used, which,
disregarding the slope approximated by Eq. ( 5104 ) Results. Here is n the number of resilient turns.
lf≈ π · Dm· n (5.104)
In order to close the final angle of rotation to the axial travel, a multiplication of the angle with the middle
spring radius.
Dm m
s = φ · Dm · ·n (5.105)
2 = M t ·Gl f· I t 2 ≈ 8th · F · D
G3· d 4
As a relation for calculating the spring rate may be provided a straight-line spring characteristic Eq. ( 5106
) Are derived:
c=F (5.106)
s ≈ G · d8th
4 · D3
m· n
From the consideration of the coil spring as a spiral torsion spring, a Artnutzgrad of 1/2 for this type of
spring is obtained. For this, the spring volume may be neglected lässigung the slope with Eq. ( 5107 ) be
calculated.
V = π · d2 · π · Dm· n (5.107)
4
232 A. Albers
5.4.2.2 Helical compression springs

In the case of the helical compression springs thermoformed by [ DIN2096 ] And cold-formed by [ DIN2095
] Distinguished.
The cold-formed coil springs are mainly produced from patented-gezo- genes, oil tempered or
stainless spring steel wires. The wire is wound in the cold state to a helical spring. The residual stresses
arising from the cold forming can be degraded by voltage relief annealing after winding. Cold forming is
suitable for the wire diameter to about 17 mm and sufficiently large winding conditions. Springs with
larger wire diameter can be produced by hot shaping, which may also springs with smaller wire
diameters are thermoformed. springs for thermoformed screw come mainly hot rolled steels are used,
which are heated before the winds to near 900 ° C [ Mei97 . Carl78 ]. Immediately after the hot forming,
the springs can be reimbursed. To this end, they are deterred in an oil bath and then tempered [ Mei97 . Carl78
. Sae96 . Otz57 ].
The active surfaces for the application of force formed by the spring ends. These active surfaces
should be to the spring axis perpendicular as possible so that position at each spring axial compression
is achieved. For this, the spring ends are applied and sanded if possible. With wire diameters d < 1 mm or
Wickelverhält- Nissen w = D m / d> 15 can be dispensed with the grinding of the spring ends. In
cold-formed springs, there is a contact between the wire end and the next turn, while in hot-formed
springs a small gap remains Gro60a , By resting the wire end on the next turn of another working surface
pair, so each spring end does not spring one turn produced during the cold-formed springs. The number
of spring coils is thus obtained according to [ DINEN13906a ] The following equation:
n = n ges - 2 (5,108)
The thermoformed springs at the beginning of exercise not working surface pair between wire end and
the next turn is complete. As a non-spring-4.3 a Endwin- dung is considered here, namely the region
with a reduced pitch. From this, the number of spring coils can according to [ DINEN13906a ] to
calculate:
n = n ges - 1.5 (5.109)
The exact design of helical compression springs under static, quasi-static and dynamic loading is in [ DINEN13906a
. DINEN13906b ] Dealt with in detail and will be explained in detail here. Nevertheless derdiagramm
below the theoretical pressure spring and discussed the danger of buckling of compression springs.
5.4.2.3 spring chart

In Fig. 5:32 the theoretical compression spring chart is shown, as in [ DINEN13906a ] Is specified. is in this
illustration L 0 for the length of the unloaded spring. Becomes
Fig. 5:32 Spring diagram of a compression coil spring for [ DINEN13906 ]
the spring is compressed so far that the windings touch each other, the block length
L c reached. In this state "blocked" the spring because the turns are no longer springs. In the illustration in
Fig. 5:32 can be directly related to the spring travel s c the achievement of the block length chen be read.
The block length is used in the theoretical maximum spring force F c, th reached. In practice, a maximum
spring force F n defined, when reached, nor a minimum distance s a remains between the windings. After [ DINEN13906a
] Is to determine this distance as follows: For cold-formed springs:
)
m
sa= n · ( 0.0015 · D 2 (5.110)
d + 0.1 · d
For thermoformed springs:
s a = 0.02 · n · ( D m + d) (5.111)
234 A. Albers
Fig. 5:33 Lagerungsbeiwerte for [ DINEN13906 ]
These values apply to static or quasi-static loading and according to dynamic loads [ DINEN13906a ]
Enlarge. The calculation of the block length L c depends on the design of the end turns and is in [ DINEN13906a
] Described.
5.4.2.4 danger of buckling of compression springs

Under certain conditions helical compression springs may buckle sideways. Even with central force
application on the active surfaces of the spring danger of buckling may program. Here, the ratio of
spring length plays L 0 to the middle Windungsdurchmes- ser D m an important role that can be referred to
as aspect ratio. The larger this ratio is, the more the spring tends to buckle. To assess the buckling, the
slenderness ratio with a Lagerungsbeiwert is ν weighted and then the buckling spring travel s k with the
help of Eq. ( 5112 ) 1 calculated. The positional rungsbeiwerte are Fig. 5:33 refer to.
•• 1 - √√√√ 1 -
[ ( π · Dm ) 2] ••
L0 1 - G/ e
sk= ) · · (5.112)
0.5 + G/ e ν · L0
2 · ( 1 - G/ e
The spring is kink-resistant when s k> s is, or if in Eq. ( 5112 ) An imaginary Wur- individual value results [ DINEN13906a
]. It is also possible to assess the Knicksicher- standardized by diagram (s. Fig. 5:34 ).
Not unbreakable springs guided in a sleeve or on a mandrel advertising to. However, in such a case
there are active surface couples with relative movement between the guide and spring body, creating
friction, which causes seizure. The service life of the spring can thus be significantly reduced. ever
1 Annotation: DIN EN 13906a 2002 edition is erroneous in this formula!

Fig. 5:34 Theoretical buckling limit of springs for [ DINEN13906a ]
Fig. 5:35 Axial and lateral

load at a helical
compression spring [ DINEN13906
]
the boundary conditions is accordingly a subdivision of the spring is preferable in one behind the
connected partial springs. Between the individual springs guided between plates are connected [ Gro60a ].
5.4.2.5 transverse spring

Under transverse suspension means the displacement in the transverse direction due to a lateral force (s. Fig
at a between two parallel plates eingespann- th spring. 5:35 ). The stress at cross suspension should not be
dealt with here. The transverse spring rate c Q
can be for [ DINEN13906a Calculate] as follows:
236 A. Albers
ξ
cQ= c · ( )
√ (5,113)
ξ - 1 + 1 /! A
A · B tan !·ξ·√ A·B
With: A = 1 (5,114)
2 + G e and B = G e + 1 - ξξ
This includes:
! = L0 the slenderness ratio (5.115)

Dm
ξ=s the related travel (5.116)

L0
The shear stress (with simultaneous axial spring biased length

L = L 0 - s ) and transverse suspension to:
) ]
τ t = 8th + F Q · ( L - d) (5.117)
π · d3· [ F · ( Dm+ sQ
The condition for the contact of the spring ends is according to DIN 13906 T1:
FQ· L (5.118)
2 ≤ F · Dm- sQ 2
5.4.2.6 Dynamic stress of compression coil springs

In many applications, helical compression springs are used with combined, revel lender load in the pressure
range (see. Sect. 3.2 ). It follows from the dynamic load that the maximum permissible shear stress of the
material decreases with increasing number of cycles gender. It must therefore be distinguished in the
dynamic spring design between the time and fatigue strength. Depending on the material of the spring, the
transition between time and fatigue strength is at a duty cycle of from 2 * 10 6 until 10 (7 see.
Sect. 3.3.3 ). It must therefore be fixed at the beginning of the dimensioning, which play numerous load experienced
by the spring and thus on which this strength must be designed.
For the dynamic design of the corrected shear stress from Eq. ( 5102 )
used by the factor k in Eq. ( 5103 ).
τ tk = τ t · k = 8th DF (5.119)
π · d3· k
Based on the load, the lower and upper corrected shear stress τ TKU
or. τ TKO in accordance with the spring forces at minimum and maximum load and the difference between the two
corrected shear stresses, the stroke voltage τ TKH determine.
τ ods = τ TKO - τ TKU (5.120)

Fig. 5:36 Example of a built-in valve with the valve spring
Fig. 5:37 Goodman diagram for springs made of tempered spring steel wire of the variety VD according to EN 10270-2: 2001, shot
peened
Based on the material-specific Goodman diagrams for time and endurance, the maximum allowable
Hubspannungen for various Federdrahtdurch- be determined diameter. These must be greater than the
calculated stroke voltage for the required number of load cycles.
238 A. Albers
In Fig. 5:36 a valve with a valve spring is shown in the cylinder head. With the force F1 = 300 N
prestressed spring is dynamically loaded on the force F2 = 500 N. For a spring wire diameter of 4 mm
and a known geometry of the spring factors tor k = 1.22 and 8th D / π d 3 = 1,035mm - 2 been detected.
Eq. ( 5116 ) Results in the corrected upper edge stress to τ TKO = 631 N / mm 2 .
the lower edge corrected voltage to τ TKU = 379 N / mm 2 and the corrected voltage to Hubspan- τ ods = 252 N /
mm 2 ,
In the material-specific Goodman diagram (s. Fig. 5:37 ) Can be with you
an undervoltage of τ TKU = 379 N / mm 2 the maximum upper voltage
τ TKO = 631 N / mm 2 Register, which is designed for wire diameters of 4 mm below the maximum allowable times
voltage.
For the corrected undervoltage can be enter or read the maximum permitted under this load stroke
voltage, the stroke voltage. This amounts to 700 N / mm 2
- 379 N / mm 2 = 321 N / mm Second Thus the allowable stroke voltage is greater than the estimate total voltage. The
spring is therefore endurance for this burden [ Otz57 ].
5.4.2.7 Cylindrical helical extension

Cylindrical coil springs are wound usually around a mandrel without winding pitch. thermoformed are
also in the cylindrical coil springs and cold-formed springs distinguished [ Fis87 ]. The cold-formed coil
springs are mainly exhibits patented-drawn or oil tempered spring steel wires manufactured. The
maximum wire diameter for cold forming is 17 mm. Springs with a larger wire diameter be
thermoformed. Thermoformed Schraubenzugfe- countries are wound hot rolled off, unpaid rods and
then remunerated comparable. In contrast to the cold-formed coil springs can not be produced with an
inner pretension thermoformed, since the introduced prestress is reduced again by the annealing after
winding. The result is even a small play between the turns. To bring einzu- a bias voltage for cold
formed coil springs, which turns with a pressure to each other are wound [ Fis87 ].
In order to introduce the power of different designs Federen- are the usual. [ DINEN13906b ] Gives
an overview of possible variants, as shown in Fig.
5:38 shown. Thus, can. B. the terminal convolution are in bent at 90 ° in the spring axis on both sides of
the spring to form a loop for introducing force. Furthermore, it is possible already to curl a hook or a
threaded bolt when winds process. In addition, the helical shape of the coil can be used to screw a tab
or a correspondingly shaped plug with integrated threaded bolts.
The number of spring coils is equal to the number of total turns in curved loops. If the element is
rolled up or for introducing force screwed, so the number of resilient turns of the winding number, which
is prevented by the generated in designing working surface pairs the springs is reduced.
As with the helical compression springs, should also not elaborate on the interpretation of coil
springs for static, quasi-static and dynamic loads
Fig. 5:38 Examples of spring ends with coil springs for [ DINEN13906 ]
To be received. This is described in detail in [ DINEN13906b ] Treated. The following should be only
discussed the theoretical Zugfederdiagramm.
5.4.2.8 Zugfederdiagramm
In Fig. 5:39 is the theoretical Zugfederdiagramm by [ DINEN13906b ] Shown. Due to the achievable with
cold-formed coil springs bias the characteristic curve starts at a biasing force F 0 and increases linearly
with increasing travel. With increasing spring travel and the length of the spring increases. It can be for
any travel s i calculated using the following equation:
Li= LK+ 2 · LH+ si (5.121)
L K the spring body length of the unloaded spring. Since the turns lie can L K
be calculated from the total number of turns and the coil diameter. In [ DINEN13906b ] Is given the
following relationship:
)
L K = ( n ges + 1 ·d (5.122)
Taking account of the biasing force and the linear characteristic curve, the spring rate of the coil spring
can be determined:
c = F - F0 (5.123)
s = G · d 8th
8
4th · D 3m · n
240 A. Albers
Fig. 5:39 Theoretical Schraubenzugfederdiagramm for [ DINEN13906b ]
5.4.2.9 application
Coil springs are the ten most frequently in machine and vehicle verwende- feathers. There are
numerous applications in which coil springs are set to turn. are alone in the automotive coil springs in
the strut, as valve springs in the engine, as the return springs in back brakes, as a damper springs in
the drive train and still many other places. The coil spring is for the developer to be particularly
attractive, since almost any spring characteristic can be achieved with it by parallel or series
connection. In Sect. 5.6 is received as part of a construction example of a further form of the coil spring,
the spring sheet.
5.5 Claimed thrust springs
5.5.1 elastomer springs
5.5.1.1 features
Elastomer springs from the in Sect. 5.1.5 produced presented elastomers. They are mainly subjected to
shear, whereby tensile and Druckbeanspru- deviations are possible.
Fig. 5:40 Form factors concerning pressurized elastomeric spring
Pressurized rubber springs are used to accommodate large loads with high rigidity. Usually in the
pressure surfaces metal plates kanisiert einvul- that hinder cross-stretch. Thus, a high rigidity can be
achieved in printing direction at constant shear stiffness. A calculation of the modulus of elasticity
according to the known relationship would at a Poisson's ratio of 0.5 to Eq. ( 5124 lead) connection
shown.
e = 2 (1 + ν) · G = 3 · G (5,124)
In the case described above, a cross-strain restriction, the elasticity module can not be calculated so
however. It introduces a factor that takes into account the Querdeh- voltage disability to a calculated
modulus of elasticity e R to determine. e R is not a pure material constant, but also depends on the
geometry of the spring. The form factor k depends on the so-called shape parameter k f , and is
determined experimentally (s. fig. 5:40 ). Here, the shape characteristic is constituted by The ratio of the
pressure-loaded surface to the free surface perpendicular thereto.
k f = A claimed (5,125)
A free
The calculated modulus of elasticity is then according to Eq. ( 5126 ) Is calculated and is valid for round and
approximately circular elastomer springs in the linear range [ Gro60a ].
eR= k · G (5.126)
With e R is the spring rate c for a round elastomer spring to:
c = 4 · eR (5,127)
π · d2· H
242 A. Albers
Fig. 5:41 Disc elastomer spring under parallel shear
Tensile elastomeric springs are used only for the elastic suspension or vibration isolation of small
masses. Usually tension should be in elastomer springs but rather avoided as very large waists and
high stresses.
Most elastomer springs are subjected to shear. Fig. 5:41 shows a disc elastomeric spring with
embedded metal discs with the same thrust. From the known relationship between shear stress and the
tangent of the Verschiebungswin- kels the spring rate follows:
c=A·G (5,128)
H
In practice, such an elastomer spring is often biased to pressure. The spring characteristics is thus
hardly influenced [ Gro60a ].
Another claimed in shear Elastomerfederart represents the claimed to axial thrust on or turning and
sliding sleeve spring (Fig. 5:42 ). Also here is again assumed the same shear displacement angle ratio
as above. Aller- absolutely must be taken into account the variation of the thrust surface as a function of
the radius. Accordingly, the spring rate for axial thrust is:
c = 2 π · H (· G
da )
(5,129)
ln
di
The spring rate for rotary shear stress becomes:
cd= π · H · G
1 (5.130)
-1
d2i d2a
In Fig. 5:43 a disc spring is shown at turning and sliding. For the torsion spring rate applies:
)
a- d3 i· da
cd= π · G · ( d4 (5.131)
24 · t a
Fig. 5:42 (Sleeve spring under axial thrust Left) and turning and sliding ( right)
Fig. 5:43 Woodruff under turning and sliding
With dynamic loading of elastomer springs is the time that is available to stretch the molecule skein
available, shorter with increasing frequency. Thus, the elastomer appears stiffer. Accordingly, the spring
rate is höhungsfaktor with the dynamic over- k d multiplying (s. Sect. 5.1.5 ) To obtain the dynamic spring
rate.
c dyn = k d · c (5.132)
5.5.1.2 application
Elastomeric springs may be obtained as finished construction elements with metallic fastening points
almost exclusively, wherein the metallic components are connected by gluing or vulcanizing with the
elastomer component. These elements will share for the storage and management of both machines
and machine and used construction and engines, shock absorbers and other components in the motor
vehicle. The specific characteristics of the elastomers sprung bearings and guides can be implemented
for the damping of vibrations and shocks [ Kel02 . Goe69 . Mat87 ].
244 A. Albers
5.6 Construction with springs
5.6.1 selection criteria and procedure
When selecting to satisfy a predetermined function of suitable springs the boundary conditions are at
the beginning precisely to clarify and weighted. Then you can decide which type of spring to the desired
function and the associated boundary conditions suit. It must be excluded selects a suitable material,
which in addition to the required mechanical properties and a sufficient resistance to the existing
environmental conditions has (corrosion, temperature, ...). While selecting Pen and material rough
calculations are required. Both Pen as a spring material also determine an accurate dimensioning of the
spring can be made. In principle, it is advisable to include the spring manufacturer at the beginning of
the development process,
5.6.2 Applications
The following section describes application examples of springs using a system of example are
presented. As an example of a coupling system with Zweimassenschwung- was chosen rad. The clutch
in the drive train of a motor vehicle has prepare (gear), inter alia, the task of a separable connection
between the drive (motor) and the output, thus enabling the circuit of the energy flow during start-up
and gear shifting. For vehicles with manual transmission, this function is realized frictional conclusive. In
detail on clutches Cape. 14 (Volume 2) Received, therefore, should be placed at this point focusing on
the function of the springs (Tab. 5.9 ) [ Rob59 ].
5.6.2.1 diaphragm spring on the pressure plate

When in Fig. 5:44 Coupling shown the pressure plate is pressed against the friction lining of the clutch
disc, thereby forming a working surface pair is formed with frictional engagement. Another working
surface pair is formed between the second friction lining of the clutch disc and the secondary flywheel.
The contact force must be large enough to generate the necessary friction for torque transmission.
During the shift process, no moment to be transmitted via the clutch, that is, the force shall be repealed.
This is a relative movement between the clutch disc and pressure plate allows the working surface pairs
disappear immediately, but first advertising to effective area pairs with the relative movement.
Accordingly, the friction pads wear out over time and its thickness increases from hence. Nevertheless,
the contact pressure on the service life of the clutch linings should be almost constant. In the presently
described problem of the use of a spring appears to be extremely useful. For this spring following
conditions apply:
Tab. 5.9 Brief summary of the most common types of spring Pen
spring rate Theoretical material stress Artnutzgrad Section.
(static)
bar spring ηA= 1 5.3

c=A·e σ=F
l A
Ringfeder strongly F η A> 1 5.3
σ=± π · A · tan ( α + ρ)
friction dependent
air spring 5.3

c = n · p · A2
V
leaf spring 1 9 < ηA< 1 5.4
c = 1 β · e · I eq σ b, max = α · F · l W eq
l3
3
Screw Coil 5.4

c = e · I eql σ b, max = M t ηA= 1
spring W eq
4
(Round cross
section)
spiral spring 5.4

c = e · I eql σ b, max = M t ηA= 1
W eq
3
(Square cross
section)
Belleville spring Heavily dependent on the geometric 5.4

ηA< 1
relationships 3
Torsion bar 1 5.5

c = G · I lt τ t, max = M t Wt
2 ≤ ηA< 1
(Vollquer- cut or
hollow cross-section)
Cylindrical coil spring c ≈ G · d 4 5.5

τ t, max ≈ 8th · F · D m ηA= 1
8th · D 3m · n π · d3 2
(Round cross
section)
• realize defined contact force

• Spring characteristic strong sliding scale or even piecewise horizontally
A coil spring with linear characteristic here is therefore less suitable because with decreasing coating
thickness decreases, the spring force. In Sect. 5.3 a spring was presented with the required
characteristic here - the disc spring. It is characterized by a partially flat characteristic curve, wherein
the curve part even. Has a negative slope (see Fig. 5:45 ). This is a slotted design of the plate spring,
thereby adapting the spring characteristic is made possible.
246 A. Albers
Fig. 5:44 Example system for different spring applications: Coupling with dual-mass flywheel (LuK)
Fig. 5:45 Disc spring and principled spring characteristic
Due to this characteristic, the plate spring with regard to the lining wear and the resulting force is very
well suited for actuation of the clutch. The pre-tension of the spring is chosen so that the point 1 on the
in Fig. 5:45 Force shown is achieved displacement curve. The spring now supplies the necessary contact
force for torque transmission. , The thickness of the friction linings in the course of time, so the operating
point from point 1 to point 2 moves on the curve. To reach from point 2, therefore, the contact pressure
remains almost constant.
To disengage the clutch the stopper is pressed against the strap ends to the inner diameter of the
diaphragm spring. Thereby, the pressing force is reduced, and the frictional-fit connection on the working
surface pair between pressure plate and the friction lining is achieved. The Belleville spring is on at a further
point of support in the pressure plate, thereby constructively achieved an additional force translation [ Schr72 . Mar94
].
Fig. 5:46 Left Fixing the friction linings on spring segments Right possible form of a spring segment
5.6.2.2 spring elements between the friction linings

The friction linings are riveted generally to the clutch plate (s. Fig. 5:46 ). Bumps on the friction linings
lead to uneven wear. It is also important for the comfort that when clutch a modulatable structure of the
contact pressure can be achieved. Both problems lead to a spring between the friction linings. The
following conditions exist:
• Small axial space

• Driver function, ie establish connection between clutch plate and friction linings
The requirement for a small axial space leads to a flexural stress spring. The driver function can be
realized so good. Illustration 5:46 shows One possible solution. Corrugated sheet metal segments are
placed on each other in alternate directions, so connected in series. Through the lower holes they are
firmly connected to the clutch disc. On the corrugated surfaces of the clutch linings are laid and fixed on
a so-called Belagniet.
5.6.2.3 springs in the clutch system for damping vibrations

Due to the intermittent operation of an internal combustion engine causes vibrations in the drive train of
vehicles. These vibrations have a negative impact including through gear noise, body boom and jerking
of the vehicle. In addition to the already mentioned function is therefore by the clutch system to exert a
damping function [ Alb91 ]. Desired is a low-pass filtering. Accordingly, it is to build a
spring-mass-damper system, in which the spring meets the following boundary conditions:
248 A. Albers
Fig. 5:47 Coupling with integrated

torsional dampers
• Low spring rate to achieve a low corner frequency

• Coupling of two relatively rotatable masses
The attenuation required can be achieved by friction. One option would be to integrate tangentially
arranged compression springs in the clutch disc. The principle of such a system can be illustrated by
Fig. 5:47 to explain. The friction linings are connected to a drive plate riveted, which is rotatably mounted
on the clutch hub. On the same coupling hub is the form fit in the tangential direction sig fixed hub disc.
Both discs have on their circumference several windows in the helical compression springs (so-called.
Clutch damper) can be inserted. Is the friction linings a moment introduced into the clutch system, then
the drive plate can rotate relative to the hub disc. The power line from the co- participants in the hub
disc is carried out by the helical compression springs, thus defining the torsional rigidity of the system.
The attenuation function is fulfilled primarily by friction action face pairs with relative movement. Such
Wirkflächen- pairs can be generated by friction disks inserted.
ben by the very low available construction volume in the Kupplungsschei- can only relatively high
spring rate and thus high cutoff frequencies of the lowpass filter can be realized in this way.
In Sect. 5.4 was discussed that the spring rate of the helical compression spring with increasing
length or resilient as the number of resilient turns decreases. To meet the demand for low spring rate, it
is obvious, therefore, that is to put the spring further outward to a larger Durchmes- ser to make them
longer. Here, however, the circular shape of the clutch disc will be felt. Such a helical compression
spring will have a sheet form, which is why it is also called bow spring.
Fig. 5:48 Theoretical

characteristic of the ZMS
Such a system exists - the so-called dual mass flywheel (DMF). When ZMS two bow springs are
used, through which the force is transmitted from the primary to the secondary flywheel. Primary and
secondary flywheel mass are mounted coaxially with each other. can be achieved advised by a suitable
choice of the mass inertia and the spring substantially reduce the resonance frequency of the clutch
system, so from a speed of 1000 rev / min throughout the travel range results in very good filtering of
the vibrations [ Alb91 ].
Further facilities in the dual-mass flywheel behave a characteristic attenuation, which is almost
exclusively determined by Coulomb friction. Firstly, there is a speed and frequency-dependent
attenuation and on the other a construc- aunt damping which causes the so-called Grundhysterese (s.
Fig. 5:46 ). This basic friction consists of from seal friction, bearing friction and the friction in the system
integrated friction plates together. As can be seen in the figure, exists in the ZMS a backlash in the
region of the zero crossing (horizontal curve).
In Fig. 5:48 verdrehwinkelabhängige theoretical hysteresis found resulting from the friction against
the active surface pairs (WFP) between the bow spring turns and the spring guide shell (s. Fig. 5:49 ).
Due to the arc shape of the springs the lines of action of the spring forces are not identical. By the force
deflection results at each turn a radial force component F N with which the bow spring is supported on the
spring guide shell. Accordingly arise friction forces F R to the in Fig. 5:49 Effective area pairs of spring
coils with the shell shown. The radial force F N and thus the frictional force F R take with existing speed up
due to the centrifugal forces to grow. In Fig. 5:50 a measured characteristic curves of a two-mass
flywheel for different angle of rotation at the same speed is shown. It can be seen that the damping due
to the hysteresis for large Verdrehwin- angle is very high. Hysteresis is caused by friction during loading
and unloading. Through this large damping bucking can be filtered during load changes. When driving,
a base load is present, which is superimposed on a periodic (swelling) load, thereby advertising
typically undergo small partial loops with higher spring rate to. The damping is low in these loops, which
is extremely favorable for the vibration isolation while driving [ Alb91 . Lux00 ].
250 A. Albers
Fig. 5:49 Forces at the bow spring turns and the effective area pairs (WFP)
Fig. 5:50 Measured characteristics of a ZMS
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Screws and screw connections
6
Bernd Sauer
Table of Contents
6.1 principle of action of the screw. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 257

6.2 thread forming screws, nuts. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 263
6.2.1 Mounting thread. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 266
6.2.2 thread for pipes, fittings and valves. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 266
6.2.3 motion thread. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 269
6.2.4 Special threads for special screws (selection). , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 270
6.2.5 fixing screws. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 272
6.2.6 nuts and accessories. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 277
6.3 Preparation and materials. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 280
6.3.1 materials of bolts and nuts. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 282
6.3.1.1 steel screws. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 282
6.3.1.2 Aluminum screws further materials of bolts. , , , , , , , , , , , , , 284
6.3.2 coatings. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 284
6.3.3 strength of screws and screw connections. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 285
6.3.3.1 Rapid load of the thread and shaft. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 288
6.3.3.2 pull-out strength of the threads. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 289
6.3.3.3 fatigue strength of the threaded connection. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 291
6.3.3.4 surface pressure at the head and nut contact surface. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 294
6.4 dimensioning and calculation. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 295
6.4.1 Calculation principles and modeling. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 295
6.4.2 The biased Einschraubenverbindung. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 298
6.4.2.1 The resilience of the components. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 298
6.4.2.2 The bias. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 304
6.4.3 The loaded bolt connection. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 308
6.4.3.1 screw connection to the shear force transmission. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 308
B. Sauer (!)
Chair of Machine Elements and Gear Technology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserlsautern, Germany
e-mail: sauer@mv.uni-kl.de
256 B. Sauer
6.4.3.2 screw connection to the longitudinal power transmission. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 311

6.4.3.3 Real behavior of stressed parts. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 318
6.4.3.4 temperature load. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 319
6.4.4 Systematic calculation of the screw connections. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 322
6.4.4.1 cross-loaded bolt connection. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 327
6.4.4.2 longitudinal-loaded bolt connection. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 330
6.5 Mounting the screw connections. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 333
6.5.1 installation by tightening. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 333
6.5.1.1 manual assembly. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 334
6.5.1.2 Torque-controlled tightening. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 336
6.5.1.3 tightening with extension measurement. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 336
6.5.1.4 rotation angle controlled tightening. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 337
6.5.1.5 yield controlled tightening. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 338
6.5.1.6 tightening with impact wrenches. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 339
6.5.2 Assembly by tensing. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 339
6.5.2.1 assembly by thermal expansion. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 339
6.5.2.2 Hydraulic tightening. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 340
6.6 Design of bolted joints. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 340
6.6.1 arrangement of screw connections. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 341
6.6.2 Warranty and increase the load capacity. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 345
6.6.2.1 increasing strength. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 346
6.6.2.2 reduction in the load. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 347
6.6.2.3 rearrangement unequal voltage distribution. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 351
6.6.3 securing screw connections. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 354
6.6.3.1 Loosen the screw connections. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 354
6.6.3.2 loosening the screw connections. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 356
6.7 movement screws. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 358
6.7.1 designs. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 358
6.7.2 Calculation. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 361
6.8 Appendix. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 362 literature. , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 363
Bolted connections are among the most common element connections between components Kloos07 ,
Because of their manufacturing (production and installation) and operational (safety) are also used
advantages where a detachable connection would not be required.
The operating principle of the screw is of the wedge, which is wound listed on a core body. As this is
the screw as a machine or gear transmission for Bewegungsüber- and - by force storage (elastic strain)
and friction - used as fastening means. A further use of screws lies in the usage-of the screw as a
movement thread or as a measuring tool.
Since the standardization and unification plays a special role in the field of threads and screws and
must be observed by the user in any case, it should again be noted that the standards referred to in this
book are mentioned only illustrative and not intended to be comprehensive and, all can not meet up to
date. Each-applying engineer has a duty to inquire about the currently valid standard level and to
include this in his work.
6 screws and screw connections 257
6.1 Working principle of the screw
The helix is a three-dimensional cam, in the simplest case to a cylinder of constant radius r wound line
with a rotational angle θ proportional progress z in the axial direction, see Fig. 6.1 , She is right-handed
(right-handed) when a moving to their point when rotating clockwise axial eighth from the observations,
otherwise left-handed (left-handed). The formal description is:
r = const
-∞ ≤ θ ≤ + ∞
z=a·θ
( θ = Circumferential angle in radians; a = Pitch of the helix).

A round is referred to as transitional, the helix rises to the pitch
P. It follows:
z=P (6.1)
2πθ
Expanded with the cylinder radius r and after the introduction of the variables scope U = 2 π r
and circumferential coordinate u = r θ . the relationship turns into:
z=P (6.2)
2 π rr θ = P U·u=C·u
This is the equation of a straight line with a constant pitch C under the pitch angle φ = arc tan ( P / U) , The
helix thus describes a (on the cylinder medium cylinder with the pitch diameter d 2 the thread or radius r 2 )
wound wedge, and as that a lateral transfers into a longitudinal movement or vice versa, the screw
converts (so-called. screwing) between a rotation and a proportional longitudinal movement. Thereafter,
the two use cases arise: as a screw machine and screw as connecting element.
1. The screw machine as

The screw serves as an engine for transmitting a rotational movement into a longitudinal movement (rare
reversed due to the frictional influence). Depending on the prevailing problem, the function can be divided
into:
a) Actuating function: The primary object is the movement conversion with high accu-
accuracy, the transmission of forces resigns. Examples are feeding spindles on machine tools
and measuring tools or steering columns in cars.
b) Work function: task is the torque force conversion. Examples are the
Screw press and the jack. As a special feature can view the worm gear, wherein the screw
(auger) formed as a wheel (worm wheel) nut cooperates. An essential aspect in the order
achievable high speed conversion is the low-loss power transmission.
258 B. Sauer
Fig. 6.1 helix
Second The screw as connecting element

Your task is to releasable connecting of parts by a joining force (biasing force clamping force) by
screwing the screw thread is formed (thread of the bolt) in an internal thread (threaded hole mother).
The bolt force causes a elastic tensioning of the parts to be joined and the bolt and a power storage.
The threaded dereibung prevents the automatic disengagement of the screw (self-locking).
Thread forces and moments

The force ratios in a screw connection can be presented clearly arranged if the forces are concentrated
to a small nut member moves on the bolt thread unwound (Fig. 6.2 ). The element is benkraft through
the screw F S loaded, the peripheral force F U moves it when tightening wedge upwards. the normal force
acting on thread F N . the one of the oppositely directed movement, has frictional force lying in the contact
area results in:
F R = F N · μ = F N · tan ρ (6.3)
Where:
μ = Coefficient of friction
ρ = arc tan μ = angle of friction

Fig. 6.2 Forces on the

thread
In the force diagram (Fig. 6.3 ), Which is situated parallel to the plane of the coil axis, only the component
appears
/ 2)
F N' = F N · cos ( α
with the friction force F R the friction angle ρ ' includes. The tip angle α the thread applies to the axial section, but the
deviation thereof is in the normal section because of the small pitch angle φ negligible (as compared to the dispersion
of the coefficient of friction). Exactly applies:
tan ( α N / 2) = tan ( α / 2) · cos φ
The axially normal component of the normal force thread F N causes an internal radial load on the nut.
By comparing the apparent friction arises μ ' the thread for which the following relationship applies:
/ / cos ( / 2) = μ / cos ( / 2)
F R F N' = μ '= tan ρ α α (6.4)
This apparent Thread friction μ ' thus appears to be dependent on the angle of inclination of the thread
flank. Upon movement of screws one will seek a flat flank angle (in trapezoidal thread 15 °, while buttress
thread 3 °) in order to keep the friction low. As for fixing screws large friction is desired, the thread profile
angle is therefore perform steeper ( α = 55 °; 60 °). erge- from the force diagram ben after Fig. 6.3 a while
tightening the peripheral force:
260 B. Sauer
Fig. 6.3 Forces plans for tightening and loosening of a thread a Attract; b and c To solve
(
F U = F S · tan φ + ρ ') (6.5)
Because, by definition on the pitch diameter d 2 attacks that arises Thread Connections tightening torque.
M GA = 0.5 F S · d 2 · tan ( φ + ρ ') (6.6)
When loosening the screw connection, the direction of movement and therefore the friction force return F R (Fig. 6.3
b). The forces plan leads to Thread loosening torque:
M GA = 0.5 F S · d 2 · tan ( φ + ρ ') (6.7)
Most often, the thread with pitch angles are performed, which are smaller than the friction angle. It then:
φ <ρ '
that means self-locking

This results in Eq. ( 6.7 ) For formal conversion:
)
M GL = - 0.5 F S · d 2 · tan ( ρ'- φ (6.8)
and from the illustration in Fig. 6.3 c can be seen that when loosening the screwed connection the circumferential
force F U Loosen and the thread moment of tightening direction opposite
Fig. 6.4 Efficiency of the screw drive in the conversion torque in longitudinal force
directed. To disconnect a loosening torque is required because no matter how high axial forces can not
cause screw movement. This statement is only partly true because of the complex relationships for
dynamic load in practice. This called "self-locking" feature is essential for the function of the mounting
screws and lifting and adjusting spindles that need to keep their bias or load after removal of the
makeup torque. The use of the screw as engine or transmission is restricted by the fact, because the
friction means on the one hand power loss (dissipation). On the other hand, the conversion of an axial
force into a torque is very limited above the self-locking limit possible.
efficiency
The efficiency, the ratio of useful energy at the output to the system input work up-turned, is to convert
the torque in the longitudinal force (Fig. 6.4 ):
tan φ
ηD= FS· P (6.9)
M GA · 2 π = tan ( φ + ρ ( ') M GA → M G) Attract
And (for the conversion of the longitudinal force in torque Fig. 6.5 ):
(
φ - ρ ')
η F = M GL · 2 π ( M GL → M G) To solve (6.10)
F S · P = tan tan φ
As shown in Fig. 6.4 is the efficiency η D . in the conversion of torque in the longitudinal force on the
Selbsthemungsgrenze at about 50%, for fixing screws in conventional friction coefficients μ = 0.1 to 0.15 well
below 40%, since the slope angle z. B. the ISO standard thread are in the range of 1.7 to 4.0 °. For the
same statement chen a splitting of the equation leads. ( 6.6 ). The addition theorem provides:
262 B. Sauer
Fig. 6.5 Efficiency of the screw drive in the conversion longitudinal force in torque
At the same statement a splitting of the equation leads. ( 6.6 ). The addition theorem provides:
tan ( φ + ρ ') = tan φ + tan ρ '

1 - tan φ tan ρ '
In the illustrated size of the pitch angle φ furthermore with sufficient accuracy applies:
(
tan φ + ρ ') ~ = tan φ + tan ρ '
The thread torque M GA decomposes then into the two components useful torque M GN .
the bolts force F S supplies, and friction M GR ; formally applies:
M GA = M GN + M GR
M GA = 0.5 F S · d 2 · tan φ + 0.5 F S · d 2 · tan ρ ' (6.11)
With M GN = 0.5 · F S · d 2 · tan φ
and M GR = 0.5 · F S · d 2 · tan ρ '
At an average slope angle of the mounting screws and power spindles φ = 2.5 ° and a coefficient of
friction adopted μ ' ~ = 0.12 has followed the Nutzmo- management only accounts for 27% of the thread
tightening torque, 73%, about the threefold che, are required to overcome the friction.
Screwed instincts for power transmission, such as for pressing, need with regard to the efficiency with
inclination angles above 20 °, are better performed by 30 °, and advantageously even more smoothly. The
efficiency according to Eq. ( 6.9 ) Has its optimum balance at a pitch angle φ = (
90 ◦ - ρ ') / 2 , With a coefficient of friction μ ' ~ = 0.1 . ie

a friction angle ρ '= 6 ◦ are the optimum pitch angle φ opt = 47 ◦ and the efficiency of η D = 0.81 ,
The machine for the conversion of the longitudinal to the rotational movement can be executed only
with a steep thread, since its function limit is of self-locking. Better efficiency at smaller angles of
inclination can be reached by a ball screw in which the sliding friction is replaced by the smaller orders
of magnitude rolling friction.
6.2 Thread forming screws, nuts
The technical realization of the helix, the threads for [ DIN202 . DIN2244 ]. Your profile is produced by a
generating area runs along the helix. The different depending on the surface shape of profile shapes
cause the force and the frictional states in transmission of the bolt forces, which require a certain
allocation of thread forms for use case, Fig. 6.6 , Other names result from the following sizes:
a) Winding direction. Are normal right-hand thread, the rare left-hand thread
nachgesetztes by the measurement method L characterized.
b) Ratio P slope height to base width b the generatrix. This is greater than 1,
then there is an open thread, in which the winding offset by the cylindrical core runs. Z execution.
B. at tapping screws and plastic injection parts. The thread is closed when the base width or in
multiple threads, the sum of the base width is equal to the slope height, fig. 6.7.
c) Transfer coefficient. Multi-Turn are threaded, in which a plurality ( n ) Threads same

revolve slope equidistant. They are used for quick release and adjusting tasks because they enable
a high pitch and a large threaded surface (load capacity) with small radial dimensions. In these
threads is to distinguish between the pitch of the helix P H . and the pitch P . the successive axially
parallel distance following, rectified flanks. The following applies:
Ph= n · P ,
Mounting thread load threads are always mostly catchy, Fig. 6.7 , is at entrances gigem thread P h = P . ie
pitch and pitch are equal.
Dimension designation of the threaded
Using the example of ISO-V-thread in Fig. 6.8 are defined:
d Outer diameter of the bolt thread, at the same time the nominal diameter. the foreign
diameter D the nut thread is the ISO thread the same size, otherwise larger double head game
264 B. Sauer
generating designation description Standards (examples)

surface
rectangle flat thread Previously often sen for the screw press.
No technical importance, since inaccurate
tung supply in the manufacturing and non
nachzuscheiden when worn
sym. trapeze Preferably trapezoidal thread for motion DIN 103

thread such as thread force at low load
or indefinite force direction
unbalanced. Trapezoidal buttress thread screw force at high unilateral

term exposure, z. B. presses DIN 513 DIN 2781
arc round thread Insensitive compounds in severe DIN 405 DIN

operating conditions (vehicle couplings) 20400
and rolled sheet thread
triangle angular thread Joining and fastening screws DIN 13
Fig. 6.6 Tapping (For further information: [ DIN202 ])
d 3 Core diameter that is the diameter of the inner cylindrical shaft. Of the
/
Core cross-section A 3 = π · d 2 3
4 is used for the resistance computation. Of the
Inner diameter of the nut thread is greater by double the tip clearance
d 2 Pitch diameter. He referred to the central cylinder on which in Achsrich-
processing thread and the same width are -void. to state the average slope angle is for this
diameter φ . Illustration 6.1
H 1 Supporting depth that is measured perpendicular to the thread axis width of the
Flank coverage
H The amount of the theoretical triangle profile

Mechanical Design 1.2

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128 B.

Waves - Calculation against damage at maximum load

Tab. 3.5 Determination of the maximum voltages as rated voltages

of stress acting power Cross-sectional area and section modulus

with waves Ø d, hollow shaft inside diameter d 1

σ zd, BFK = K 1( d e ff) · K 2F · γ F · σ S ( d B) (3.87)

σ s ( d B) Yield for the reference diameter d B after [ DIN743d ]

1. Determination of the maximum rated voltages train / compression, bending u. Torsion.

strength of the material for train / compression, bending and torsion.

Waves - Calculation against damage by dynamic stress

1.5 to 2.0 1.05

2.0 to 3.0 1.10

over 3.0 1.15

torsion any 1.00

without hard with hard without hard with hard

Train / pressure 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

bend 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0

torsion 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0

3. Insertion of the variables in the formula to determine the safety:

σ zdWK = σ zdw · K 1( d e ff) (3.92)

σ BWK = σ bW · K 1( d e ff) (3.93)

τ CDW = τ tw · K 1( d e ff) (3.94)

8. consideration of the medium-voltage influence on the design strength:

9. Determination of the comparison means voltages:

σ zdADK = σ zdWK - ψ zd σ K · σ mv (3.100)

Fig. 3:50 Constant voltage

σ badk = σ BWK - ψ b σ K · σ mv (3.101)

τ tADK = τ CDW - ψ τ K · τ tmv (3.102)

3.4.1.2 notch stress concept

3.4.1.3 Security numbers

3.4.2 Calculation example

3.5.1 Material data

Tab. 3.8 Key to the following tables Abbreviation

R p0.2 yield strength

HV1 Surface hardening

Tab. 3.9 Structural steels for [ DINEN10025 ] Wk

Wk old DIN 17100 C [%] R m [ N / mm 2] R e [ N / mm 2] A [%]

S235JR (d ≤ 16 mm) St37-2 0.21 340-470 235 26

S235JR (d ≤ 40 mm) St37-2 0.25 340-470 225 26

S355JO (d ≤ 16 mm) St52-3U - 510-680 355 22

E295 (d ≤ 16 mm) St50-2 - 470-610 295 20

E295 (d ≤ 40 mm) St50-2 - 470-610 285 20

E360 (d ≤ 16 mm) St70-2 - 670-830 360 11

E360 (d ≤ 40 mm) St70-2 - 670-830 355 11

Tab. 3.10 Treatable steels for [ DINEN10083 ]

C22R a 340 500-650 20 240 430 24

C60E a 580 850 - 1000 11 380 710 10

42CrMo4 900 1100 - 1300 10 - - -

Tab. 3.11 Hardening steels for [ DINEN10084 ]

16MnCr5 Min. 900 Min. 635 9 140

20MoCrS4 Min. 900 Min. 785 7 -

18CrNiMo7-6 Min. 1100 159

Table values ​for component dimensions 16 mm ≤ d ≤ 40 mm Wk

S355JO 510 355 205 255 150

C10E 750 430 300 375 225

16MnCr5 900 630 360 450 270

20MnCr5 1100 730 440 550 330

42CrMo4 1100 900 440 550 330

30CrNiMo8 1250 1050 500 625 375

Table values ​for component dimensions d ≤ 16 mm WK

Tab. 3.13 Cutting steels for [ DINEN10087 ]

38SMn28 166-216 560-730 650 700-900 12

46S20 175-225 590-760 620 700-850 10

Table values ​for component dimensions 16 mm ≤ d ≤ 40 mm Wk

Table values for component dimensions 16 mm ≤ d ≤ 40 mm Wk

Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 16 mm WK

Table values for component dimensions 16 mm ≤ d ≤ 40 mm Wk

Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 100 mm Wk

Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 60 mm Wk

Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 30 mm Wk

Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 80 mm Wk

Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 25 mm Wk

Table values for component dimensions d ≤ 100 mm Wk