CPI Manual Updated 24jan2019

Community
Physical Infrastructure
(CPI)
PROJECT MANUAL
THIRD EDITION
November 2018
Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF)

Community
Physical Infrastructure
(CPI)
PROJECT MANUAL
THIRD EDITION
November 2018
Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF)

Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund CPI Manual
Third Edition
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PREFACE
OVERVIEW
SECTION – I: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE - PROJECT PROCESS
I-1 IDENTIFICATION
I-2 PRE-FEASIBILITY
I-3 PROJECT PREPARATION
I-4 APPROVAL OF PROJECT
I-5 PROJECT INITIATION
I-6 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT
I-7 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O & M)
SECTION – II: DESIGN OF COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
II-1. FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

II-2. DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SCHEME
II-3. IRRIGATION SCHEME
II-4. COMMUNICATION SCHEMES
II-5. FLOOD PROTECTION AND RETAINING STRUCTURES
II-6. SANITATION AND DRAINAGE
SECTION – III: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK (ESMF)
III-1 INTRODUCTION
III-2 ENVIRONMENTAL / SOCIAL SCREENING AND ASSESSMENTS
III-3 DISSEMINATION AND ENFORCEMENT STRATEGIES
III-4. DISSEMINATION & ENFORCEMENT ACTION PLAN
III-5. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
SECTION – IV: SECTION – IV: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE QUALITY

CONTROL MANAGEMENT
IV-1 CONCRETE TEST

IV-2 CURING OF CONCRETE
IV-3. ROLES & RESPONSIBILTY OF FIELD ENGINEER
IV-4. PHASES OF INSPECTION
LIST OF ANNEXURES
ANNEXURE – 1: FORMAT FOR FEASIBILITY PROPOSAL
ANNEXURE – 2: IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS
ANNEXURE – 3: DISCHARGE OF WATER
ANNEXURE – 4: QUANTITIES ESTIMATION
ANNEXURE – 5: SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES
ANNEXURE – 6: ESMF USER’S GUIDELINES
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FOREWORD
As we complete 20 years, Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) is updating and renewing
its commitments, values, guidance documents, manuals and handbooks. The Community
Physical Infrastructure (CPI) Program has been a backbone of PPAF’s program of addressing
multi-dimensional poverty through grant-making. Support has been provided through
several programs to poor communities for small-scale infrastructure projects which enhance
their productive capacity, increase income and reduce work load especially for women and
the elderly. The last edition of the CPI manual was published in June 2001. Since then this
manual has been updated, upgraded and improved as needed. As new types of schemes
were developed, a later version was brought out with design guidelines related to
sanitation, environment and other infrastructure types. Given community needs and diverse
field conditions, small booklets and short guidelines pertaining to specific types of
infrastructure were also brought out.
I am very happy to see this new consolidated version in 2019, the year that PPAF completes
its 20 years, and expect the manual to be used extensively.
This manual is designed to be used by PPAF’s engineers and other people working on
infrastructure projects, as well as by engineers and program staff of Partner Organizations,
Union Council Based Organizations (UCBOs) and other local institutions. It contains technical
specifications, design guidelines, and stages of developing community infrastructure
programs from inception to completion, and guidelines for operation and maintenance.
Government departments can also use this manual for small infrastructure development.
This manual is jointly prepared by the PPAF’s Livelihood Support and Promotion of Small
Community Infrastructure Program (LACIP) Unit and NEC Consultants. I take this opportunity
to appreciate the support that the German Development Bank – Entwicklungsbank (KfW)
has provided to PPAF since January 2012. This support has made it possible for PPAF to
complete LACIP-I and embark on LACIP-II, which will be completed in December 2020. Mr.
M. Nadeem, Senior General Manager LACIP unit has shown leadership and persistence in
continually improving this document and Mr. Azher Ud Din, Team Lead, NEC Consultants,
has given key strategic inputs. The whole LACIP team has put in extended efforts in
producing this document and its work is commendable.
Qazi Azmat Isa

Chief Executive Officer
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PREFACE
This third version of the Community Physical Infrastructure (CPI) design manual has been
prepared by LACIP team for its Partner Organizations (POs) and for professionals engaged in
feasibility studies, survey, design, construction, management, operation & maintenance of
CPI projects. The manual can also be used by implementers and managers with a view to
providing assistance as a training aid and as a reference document.
The manual addresses all the technical and methodological requirements of CPI projects.
POs can also use it to prepare comprehensive project proposals fulfilling all design
requirements of infrastructure projects.
The manual draws from 20 years of PPAF’s experience in community driven infrastructure
projects and distils this knowledge in one document and identify a range of possibilities for
design and implementation processes. Apart from basic to complex parameters, the manual
also encompasses pragmatic and systematic mechanisms for construction, Operation and
Maintenance of CPI projects.
This is a live document; we welcome any comments and suggestions for improvements and
additions in the subsequent editions.
I take this opportunity to felicitate the LACIP team and NEC Consultants on the completion
of this comprehensive manual. This will go a long way in building the capacity of PPAF
Partner Organizations in moving rapidly towards our common goal of alleviating poverty in
less endowed marginalized and disaster prone areas of Pakistan.
Simi Kamal
Senior Group Head
Grants Operations
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OVERVIEW
The Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) is the leading institution focused on
eliminating poverty in Pakistan. As one of the largest establishments spending on the poor,
PPAF facilitates public-private partnerships that have a mutual goal to achieve social and
economic change in Pakistan by addressing the multi-dimensional issues of poverty.
Established by the Government of Pakistan as an autonomous not-for-profit company, PPAF

began its operations in year 2000. Thus far, it is working across 130 districts in the country
with 130 partner organizations.
PPAF works through Partner Organizations that are value-driven and based upon neutral
and inclusive models structured specifically to target the poorest and most marginalized
regions of Pakistan. In creating these alliances, PPAF focuses on ensuring that these partner
organizations are well governed and transparency and accountability remains priority.
Through these alliances, PPAF extends support to communities in dire need of improving
their infrastructure, health and education facilities. It also helps develop resilience to
disasters and improve energy resources. It has an outreach across Pakistan (130 districts),
supporting communities to access improved infrastructure, energy, health, education,
livelihoods, finance, and develop resilience to disasters. We aim to ensure that our core
values of social inclusion, participation, accountability, transparency and stewardship are
built into all processes and programs.
With an experience of close to two decades, PPAF concludes that local and community-
based institutions are key to creating a positive outcome in an effective manner. In order for
poverty reduction efforts to be successful over the long-term, PPAF invites participation
from diverse stakeholders who demonstrate ownership and commitment. PPAF is proud to
have built alliances and partnerships within the national public and private sector, both, as
well as working with international institutions.
PPAF's poverty graduation approach has been tried and tested successfully and is supported
by the Government of Pakistan and multiple donors. To date, the organization has disbursed
USD 2 billion through grants and financial services in various programs targeting the
vulnerable communities and areas of the country. It is proud to have made such a vast
impact through its various approaches and focused operations, and aims to continue
building and nurturing partnerships directed towards eliminating poverty in Pakistan and
empowering the local population.
The Community Physical Infrastructure (CPI) component is an integral part of many PPAF
initiatives, aimed at supporting provision of basic facilities to the communities. It provides
grants to the communities on cost sharing basis for small-scale to medium size
infrastructure projects through Partner Organizations which meet the eligibility criteria of
PPAF. The target population for the component is poor and disadvantaged rural
communities especially women, under-served districts, and communities that lack essential
infrastructure and have high unemployment.
The objectives of the Physical Infrastructure component are:
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 To increase the incomes of the poor.

 To empower the poor, especially women.
 To focus on disadvantaged areas.
 To increase the access of the poor communities to infrastructure for improving their
livelihoods.
 To involve the local stakeholders in identification, planning, execution and monitoring of
physical infrastructure projects.
 To demonstrate the acquired capacity of the communities to other agencies.
 To enhance capacity of local communities.
 Efficient and productive use of local resources without any negative impact on
environment.
 Improve the local environmental conditions.
 To create sense of ownership and responsibility.
 To strengthen the institutional capacity of the PPAF, its partners, and communities in
relation to the preceding objectives.
The above-mentioned objectives shall be achieved through the following mechanism:
 Provision of loans and grants, on cost-sharing basis to the poor rural communities for
infrastructure development.
 Assistance to partner organizations in promoting income-generating activities for the
poor.
A new concept of Integrated Area Up-gradation Projects – IAUP for physical infrastructure
schemes is successfully implemented in recent programs of PPAF for the completeness and
sustainability of physical interventions. IAUP project is an integrated arrangement of
different community infrastructure projects (CPI) prioritized and selected by the
communities. Normally IAUPs are comprised of a set of any of the following CPIs:
 Roads and bridges: Link roads (hilly track with PCC on sharp and steep slopes, brick
pavement, PCC, and earthen road with PCC on sharp and steep slopes), culverts, bridges
(shorter span not more than 40 ft span), and causeways;
 Sanitation and drainage: Street pavement with drainage system both storm and
sanitary covered drains, and wastewater stabilization ponds;
 Drinking water supply schemes: Deep well, hand pump, overhead tank, surface water
tank, and water supply network;
 Irrigation schemes: Lining of water course/sections, water storage ponds, lift irrigation,
pipe irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and drip irrigation; and
 Flood protection and retaining structures: Gabion wall, plum concrete, stone masonry,
earthen embankment with stone pitching, and check dams.
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Conditions for IAUPs:

 Cost of IAUPs should be predefined for each individual program, ideally with 15%
contribution from the community.
 IAUPs should be selected in consultation with communities and fully satisfy the priorities
of the communities.
 IAUPs should substantially contribute in the enhancement of social and economic
wellbeing of the target communities.
 IAUPs should be designed in compliance with the engineering standards established in
PPAF Infrastructure Manual and PPAF Environment & Social Management Framework.
 IAUP should be ideally included in the village or any higher level of development plan of
the local government.
 It is also possible that one large project in any of the above projects categories qualifies
as an IAUP. Even in such cases, the IAUP should qualify the above stated conditions.
While devising and implementing community development projects across the country,
PPAF keeps itself abreast from the emerging global challenges also. Pakistan is ranked
among the top ten countries most vulnerable to climate change in the world in the Global
Climate Risk Index. The frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and natural
disasters have increased considerably. Most important impacts of climate change are
predicted to be the increased frequency and intensity of floods, local level flash floods,
intensive monsoon, droughts, and decrease in crop yields due to weather stresses. It is
projected that temperatures and rainfall levels will increase in Pakistan with further increase
the frequency of extreme events. The poor population is more vulnerable to climate change
impacts. Following are the major climate adaptation and disaster management projects that
could be part of the CPI / IAUP schemes at the village and community levels:
 Local level flood management measures such as reinforcement of river embankments,

retention walls along streams etc;
 Delay/Mini Dams;
 Streams paths reinforcement through retention walls and check dams;
 Rain harvesting ponds;
 Slope stabilization to avoid land erosion and slides;
 Water Confronting Structure;
 Slope stabilization along the local roads; and
 Forestation.
Identification of the projects is to be demand driven, and their selection be transparent and
based on sustainability as determined by the willingness of the communities to plan for
operations and maintenance, including recovery of O&M cost. Partner Organizations shall
assist communities in organizing, preparing, implementing and managing these projects.
The projects shall not only provide communities with assets that contribute to increasing
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incomes and production, but should also act as investment in strengthening their
organizations.
The CPI / IAUP Projects shall be cost-effective (with at least 15 households in the Beneficiary
community concerned benefiting in each case, and the cost per capita (PPAF share) not
exceeding PKR 5,000 in the case of basic small-scale projects (CPI) and in the case of
technologically innovative projects, the cost per capita (PPAF share) up to Rs. 8,500 per
capita is allowable. In the case of the community share in the capital cost of sub-projects
(CPIs) shall be 15% on average, with a minimum of 10% in each sub-project.
Since the concept of the projects are based on Social Organization and the process of doing
projects starts from social mobilization of the communities, therefore, at all stages of the
project process involvement of community as a pro-active stakeholder has supreme
importance.
In order to achieve the objectives of the project, PPAF also extends technical support to the
Partner Organizations apart from the financial support. This manual is a step towards that.
The Community Physical Infrastructure (CPI) Project Manual has been developed by the CPI
unit of PPAF with the objective to help the POs in fulfilling the requirements for achieving
the ultimate goal, with sound technical practices and in an efficient manner.
First edition of the manual was published in January 2000 and after the feedback received
from partners and other stakeholders the second edition published in June 2001. After
2001, PPAF implemented the CPIs in compliance with the second edition of CPI project
manual successfully. During this time, many internal modifications were made in this
manual to align the design standards with latest engineering standards. After receiving
further formal feedback from POs and several consultants working with PPAF, the PPAF top
management decided to publish its third edition in 2018. In this edition Section III (2 nd
edition Design Part) and IV (5th edition of Environmental & Social Management Framework-
ESMF) have been revised for CPI projects.
This manual (3rd Edition) is divided into four sections:
Section-I explains the project process to be adopted by the Partner Organizations of the
PPAF. The process of identification, preparation, approvals, initiation, implementation,
management and operation & maintenance of the CPI projects is elaborated. A flow chart of
the project process is included to understand the process at a glance.
Section-II includes design guidelines for various types of CPI projects.
Section-III gives guidelines for Environmental and Social Management Framework of CPI
projects.
Section-IV gives guidelines for Community Physical Infrastructure Quality Control

Management.
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SECTION – I
COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

PROJECT PROCESS
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CONTENTS
SECTION – I: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT PROCESS
1. IDENTIFICATION ................................................................................................. Sec-I-1

2. PRE-FEASIBILITY ................................................................................................. Sec-I-1
3. PROJECT PREPARATION ..................................................................................... Sec-I-1
3.1 Technical Survey ......................................................................................... Sec-I-1
3.2 Environmental Assessment ........................................................................ Sec-I-2
3.3 Design and Estimates ................................................................................. Sec-I-2
3.4 Project Proposal ......................................................................................... Sec-I-2
4. APPROVAL OF PROJECT ..................................................................................... Sec-I-2
5. PROJECT INITIATION .......................................................................................... Sec-I-3
5.1 Terms of Partnership .................................................................................. Sec-I-3
5.2 Formation of Committees .......................................................................... Sec-I-3
5.3 Project Committee ..................................................................................... Sec-I-3
5.4 Audit Committee ........................................................................................ Sec-I-3
5.5 Maintenance Committee ........................................................................... Sec-I-3
6. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT ............................................ Sec-I-4
6.1 Construction Management ........................................................................ Sec-I-4
6.2 Financial Management ............................................................................... Sec-I-4
7. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O&M) .......................................................... Sec-I-5
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SECTION – I: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT PROCESS
1. IDENTIFICATION
Community Organization (CO) or Village Organization (VO) will identify the need of infrastructure
project. The project that best serves the common infrastructure needs of the community shall be
prioritized. The CO/VO members in the general body meeting of the CO/VO will agree upon the
identified project. At least 75 % of the members should attend the general body meeting when a
decision is to be taken regarding the identification of the project. The CO/VO will send the decision
to the Social Organizer or Field Manager of the Partner Organization (PO) in the form of a resolution
signed by all the members present in the meeting. CO/VO will also keep record of the meeting in the
register.
2. PRE-FEASIBILITY
In response to the resolution received from the CO/VO, the Field Manager or Regional Manager or
any Authorized person of the PO will give approval to carry out pre-feasibility study. Pre-feasibility
will include the social survey and reconnaissance technical survey. Social Organizer and the Field
Engineer will together visit the CO/VO to have a formal meeting with the members. Social Organizer
will conduct the social survey and the Field Engineer will visit the proposed project site to ascertain
the technical viability. Community will record the proceedings of the meeting in their register. Social
Organizer and Field Engineer will submit a report to the Field/Regional Manager or Authorized
person on the viability of the project.
The main features of the report shall include;
 Assessment of priority need of the community.

 Consensus of the members on the proposed scheme.
 Social Organization.
 Socio-Economic set up of the community.
 Record of the meetings and savings of the community.
 Willingness of the community to contribute to the capital cost of the project.
 Willingness of the community to accept responsibility of Operation and Maintenance of the
project.
 Capacity of the community to implement and maintain the project.
 Technical viability of the project.
 Expected benefits of the project.
 Environmental assessment of the projects and impacts on environment.
3. PROJECT PREPARATION
On the basis of the report submitted by the Social Organizer and Field Engineer, the authorized person
will give formal approval for carrying out the project preparation including; technical survey, design,
quantities and cost estimates, and feasibility proposal.
3.1 Technical Survey
Field Engineer will conduct detailed survey of the project under the guidance of Engineer In-charge.
CO/VO will nominate the required number of members to assist Field Engineer during the survey. It is
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worthwhile to be noted here that the CO/VO members will select the proposed site and alignment of
the project unanimously, as they will be responsible for providing the required land free of cost. That
will not be changed unless otherwise required for technical reasons, but not without consent of the
CO/VO members. The land will be transferred on the name of CO or VO on stamp paper verified by
notary public.
3.2 Environmental Assessment
The engineers and social organizers of the PO will carry out environmental assessment of each project
in line with the Environmental and Social Management Framework Guidelines of the PPAF. The
anticipated negative impacts and mitigation measures will be marked on the prescribed form, which
shall part of the feasibility proposal. The projects requiring IEE and EIA should not be considered. In
order to find out cumulative impacts of various projects in a particular area (District/Region,
Tehsil/Field Unit) the PO should seek information from Line Departments/Agencies like WAPDA, EPA,
PHED, Irrigation Department etc.
3.3 Design and Estimates
After completing the survey, the PO’s Field Engineer will design the project, prepare survey report,
necessary drawings, and quantities & cost estimates under the guidance of Engineer In-charge.
Prepare file of the project and hand it over to the Engineer In-charge. The design should be simple
following the standard specifications. Quantities and cost estimates should be based on the standard
specifications and prevailing market rates. Each item will be separately estimated and costed. Man-
days of the skilled and unskilled labor will also be worked-out by following standard specifications and
labor cost will be estimated on the basis of prevailing market rates. The design and estimates should
be discussed with the CO/VO members in their general body meeting.
3.4 Project Proposal
Engineer In-charge will go through the pre-feasibility report of the Social Organizer and Field Engineer.
He will recheck the survey report, drawings, design and estimates, and make necessary
adjustments/amendments if so required. He will prepare a project proposal including social, technical,
environmental and financial/economic viability of the project. Project proposal will also include the
detailed cost of the project. Item – wise cost of the materials and labor will be given in a tabular form.
Total project cost, community contribution, and PPAF contribution will be given in separate columns.
Annual Operation and Maintenance Cost of the project will also be estimated. Project implementation
and management plan will also be a part of the proposal. The proposal should include; signed minutes
of meeting with the CO/VO where design and estimates were discussed, and proposed operation and
maintenance plans.
Engineer In-charge will submit feasibility proposal along with his recommendations to the Regional
Manager or Authorized person for approval. The recommendations will be made on the basis of the
terms and conditions agreed upon by the PO with the PPAF, and should not contradict with PPAF’s
Policies and Procedures. Format of feasibility proposal is attached as Annexure – 1 of this manual.
4. APPROVAL OF PROJECT
Authorized person or committee of the PO will give approval of the project prior to sending it to the
PPAF for review and final approval. PPAF’s relevant Unit will (send to the project consultants for its
review, where required) review the proposal and approve it, if found in conformity with PPAF’s
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policies and procedures. If a project is found contradictory to the PPAF’s operational policies the PO
will be advised accordingly.
5. PROJECT INITIATION
Upon receiving approval from PPAF, PO will formally initiate the project. The PO will make the
following arrangements prior to the formal initiation;
5.1 Terms of Partnership
PO will prepare “Terms of Partnership” (TOP) to be signed with the CO/VO prior to initiating the
project. The TOP will include all the terms and conditions agreed between PO and PPAF in the sub-
project financing agreement. The responsibilities of the PO and the CO/VO will be clearly explained
in the TOP. The project size, specifications, cost contributions of the CO/VO and PPAF,
disbursements schedule, implementation process and procedures, time to complete the project and
annual Operation and Maintenance plan and cost will be clearly spelled out. TOP will be signed by
two authorized signatories of the PO, and President and Manager of the CO/VO. A formal meeting of
the General Body of the CO/VO will be arranged in which at least 75% of the members should be
present. From PO side field engineer, social organizer and regional management will attend that
meeting. PO will explain the TOP in that meeting and upon agreement of the CO/VO members it
shall be signed. Signatures of all the members of CO/VO present in the meeting will be attached with
the TOP, and both PO and CO/VO will keep a copy of it. CO/VO will open a separate bank account for
the project operated by two signatories nominated by the majority of the members present in the
meeting.
5.2 Formation of Committees
The following three committees from the CO/VO members will be constituted in the same meeting
for implementation and management of the project;
5.2.1 Project Committee
This committee will be responsible for overall implementation of the project. At least two members
will be nominated/elected. They will supervise the execution, liaise with the PO, follow instructions
from the engineer of the PO, assign duties to the members, keep record of the funds received from
the PO and expenditures made on purchase of material and payment of labor etc. Committee will
also keep record of the progress of work, and report it to the PO as and when required. The
committee will be responsible for drawing installments from the PO on the basis of the physical
progress. Request for installments will be submitted in the form of resolution signed by at least 75 %
of the members of the CO/VO.
5.2.2 Audit Committee
This committee will also comprise of at least two members. Its responsibility will be to check the
records and accounts of the project, maintained by the Project Committee. In case of any
discrepancy, the audit committee shall promptly inform the CO/VO members in their general body
meeting and to the Partner Organization as well.
5.2.3 Maintenance Committee
The role of this committee is to manage operation and maintenance of the project. It shall be
comprised of at least two members. Though the main responsibilities of this committee will start
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after completion of the project, but their nomination/election will be done in the same meeting. PO
is expected to formulate a mechanism to generate a maintenance fund in such a manner that, when
construction of the project is completed there should be an amount equal to one-year maintenance
cost of the project in the maintenance account of the CO/VO. Maintenance Committee will
undertake the responsibility to generate this maintenance fund. After completion of the project, the
maintenance committee will manage its operation and maintenance.
The formation of above committees will be transparent and democratic. PO will be required to
prepare proper forms for these committees. Names of the nominated/elected members of the
committees will be filled in the forms and members of the CO/VO present in the meeting will sign on
those forms. A copy of the forms will be attached with TOP and both CO/VO and PO will keep the
record.
6. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT

The PO and CO/VO will jointly manage implementation of the project. CO/VO will be wholly
responsible for the execution under the supervision of PO’s engineers and will be bound to complete
the project within the time specified in the TOP. PO and CO/VO will be responsible for construction
and financial management of the project as described below;
6.1 Construction Management
The Project Committee will be fully responsible for execution of the works. It shall maintain all the
records including installments received from the PO, expenditure vouchers, payments receipts, labor
attendance sheets, community contribution etc. during execution of the project. Engineers of the
PO will visit the project minimum once a week or as per project site requirement, check the quality
of work and ensure adherence to the design specifications. Project Committee will be bound to seek
technical guidance from the engineer who will provide technical assistance and keep elaborating
design specifications of the project to the Committee throughout the construction period of the
project. Due care should be given to protecting the surrounding environment during construction of
the project and necessary measures should be taken where required.
Community mobilization for the execution of the project, and community contribution in operation
and maintenance is not one-time activity, it is a continuous process. PO’s Engineering Staff
accompanied by the Social Organizer will remain in touch with the communities to provide
assistance, throughout the construction period and even after completion of the project to ensure
proper operation and maintenance.
6.2 Financial Management
The payments for execution of the project by the PO will be made in installments to the CO/VO. The
first installment will be paid in advance after signing the TOP depending upon the nature of the
work. The second and subsequent installments will be released on the basis of actual work done at
site. The project committee will forward a request to the PO for the release of an installment in the
form of resolution signed by at least 75 % of the CO/VO members. This resolution will be passed in
the routine or special meeting of the general body of the CO/VO called by Project Committee. The
engineering staff of the PO will check the expenditure vouchers, progress of work, quality as per
design & construction specifications, and required contribution of CO/VO in the form of labor and
material. Field Engineer will evaluate and verify the work done through a standard form for release
of the installment. The Engineer Incharge will make his recommendations on the same form and
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forward to the Authorized person of the PO for sanctioning the release of installment. The payment
will be made to the CO/VO through the crossed cheque.
Final installment will be released after completion of the construction following the same procedure.
Engineering staff will have to make sure that the work has been completed satisfactorily in all
regards.
7. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O&M)

The operation and maintenance of the project will be the responsibility of the CO/VO, who will bear
the O & M cost. The Maintenance Committee should be elected for a specified tenure and elections
be held (say) every two/three years maximum. The Maintenance Committee will be fully responsible
for the operation and maintenance of the project. The Maintenance Committee will collect and use
the maintenance funds as and when required. However, PO will provide technical guidance to the
Maintenance Committee for the proper operation and maintenance of the project. PO will make
sure that Maintenance Committee generates maintenance fund such that when the project is
completed, there is an amount equal to one-year maintenance cost of the project in the
maintenance account of the CO/VO. Partner Organization will also provide necessary training to the
CO/VO for operation and maintenance of the projects.
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PROCESS FLOW OF CPI PROJECT
 Baseline Survey Project

 Area Development Plans Identification
 Prioritization by Community
“CO/VO”
 Social Survey
Pre-Feasibility
 Reconnaissance Technical Survey
“PO&CO/VO”  Pre-Feasibility Report
 Technical Survey Preparation

 Design & Estimates
 Feasibility Proposal “PO&CO/VO”
Submission of
Proposal to PPAF
“PO”
Approval
of Proposal  Review of Proposal
 Verification Visits
“PPAF”
 Terms of Partnership Initiation of Project

 Formation of Committees
“PO&CO/VO”
 Construction Management Project

 Financial Management Implementation
“PO,CO/VO&PPAF”
Monitoring and
Evaluation
“PPAF”
Completion Operation &

Certificate Maintenance
“PO&CO/VO” “CO/VO/Line Dept.”
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SECTION – II
DESIGN OF COMMUNITY PHYSICAL

INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
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CONTENTS
SEC-II-1 FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

SEC-II-2 DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SCHEME
SEC-II-3 IRRIGATION SCHEME
SEC-II-4 COMMUNICATION SCHEMES
SEC-II-5 FLOOD PROTECTION AND RETAINING STRUCTURES
SEC-II-6 SANITATION AND DRAINAGE
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SECTION – II – 1
Flow Measurement Techniques
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CONTENTS
SECTION – II-1: FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
1. FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL (GRAVITY FLOW) .................................................. Sec II-1-1

1.1 Calculating Flow for a known Head ........................................................ Sec II-1-1
1.2 Calculating Slope at known Discharge ................................................... Sec II-1-2
2. FLOW MEASUREMENT ................................................................................... Sec II-1-2
2.1 Weirs....................................................................................................... Sec II-1-2
2.2 Velocity Area Streamflow Method ......................................................... Sec II-1-3
2.3 Bucket Method (Volumetric Streamflow Method) ................................ Sec II-1-4
SEC-II-1
Third Edition
SECTION – II-1: FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Determination of flow should be necessary before the design of any drinking water supply
system and irrigation system etc. The flow measurement can be done randomly, however, if
chances of variation in flow is anticipated a 24 hrs. hourly flow monitoring shall be
conducted.
1. FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL (GRAVITY FLOW)
Open channel flow (gravity flow) does not necessarily mean that channel is open from top; it
is rather a flow situation where hydraulic grade line is same as the water surface. Open
channel may be required to design while detailing any component of wastewater treatment
unit or interconnection between two units.
1.1 Calculating Flow for a known Head
Manning equation is recommended for calculating flow in open channels and is presented
below;
A  R 2 / 3  S 1/ 2
Q
n
Where;
Q = Flow (m3/s)
A = Area of Flow
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
S = Slope (meter/meter)
n = Manning Coefficient, value for various type of pipes is presented in
table below;
Material Manning n
Brass 0.011
Cast Iron 0.013
Smooth Steel 0.012
Corrugated Metal 0.022
Glass 0.010
Clay Tile 0.014
Brickwork 0.015
Asphalt 0.016
Masonry 0.025
Concrete 0.012-0.014
Gravel 0.029
Earth 0.025
Planed Wood 0.012
Wood 0.013
Polyethylene (PE) 0.009-0.015
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 0.009-0.011
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1.2 Calculating Slope at known Discharge
 nQ 
2
S
 A  R 
2/3
Where;
Q = Flow (m3/s)
A = Area of Flow
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
S = Slope (meter/meter)
n = Manning Coefficient
2. FLOW MEASUREMENT
2.1 Weirs
Weirs are more commonly used as flow control devices i.e. to maintain required water
surfaces in unit process, in wastewater treatment plants. They are some times also used for
flow measurement in treatment plants. Weirs are classified according to the shape of notch.
Common weir types are; triangular (V-notch) and rectangular.
 Rectangular Weir
Rectangular weir may be constructed with or without end contraction.
When weir is constructed without end contraction then flow over rectangular weir is
calculated as follows;
Q  C w  L  H 1.5
Whereas head on weir at known discharge can be calculated as;

0.67
 Q 
H  
 Cw  L 
\Where;
Q = Flow (m3/s)
L = Length of Weir
H = Head on Weir
Cw = Coefficient of discharge (1.82)
When weir with end contraction is used then the length of weir shall be corrected as L= (L m-
0.2H) where Lm is the measured length of weir.
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 Triangular (V-Notch)
Triangular weir angle ranges from 22.5 to 120 degree, but 90 o V-notch is the most
commonly used weir. Discharge through V-notch weir is calculated through following
formula;
Q  C w  H 2.5
Whereas the head on weir can be calculated using
0 .4
Q
H  
 Cw 
Q = Flow (m3/s)
H = Head on Weir
Cw = Coefficient of discharge (C x tan (/2), where C is 1.38) [for 90o V-
notch Cw = 1.38]
2.2 Velocity Area Streamflow Method
When the set cross-sectional area and the average velocity are known, flow can be obtained
by the formula Q = AV.
Where:
Q = Flow rate (ft3/sec)
A = Cross sectional area (Width x Depth) (ft2)
V = Velocity (ft/sec)
The wet area is determined by measuring the depth, and the average velocity can be
estimated by measuring the surface velocity. Fortunately, a relatively constant relationship
exists between the surface velocity and the average velocity of stream, the average velocity
being approximately 85 to 90 percent of the surface velocity, so the velocity measured shall
be multiplied by 0.85 for rough or rocky bottoms and 0.9 for smooth, muddy, sandy, or
smooth bedrock bottoms. The surface velocity can be measured by placing floating material
in the drain/channel and measuring the time it takes for the float to pass a measured
distance downstream. Any floating material can be used, such as cork, wood, oranges,
match stick or a stoppered bottle. A straight length of channel, free of obstructions, will give
fairly good results. The process should be repeated 4 to 5 times and the average surface
velocity obtained. If time differences between runs vary considerably, about 20 to 30
floating should be made in order to obtain a distribution curve. The mean of this curve
should then be used in determining the mean surface velocity. The depth and velocity of
flow should be measured simultaneously and the set cross sectional area can be obtained
from the depth measurement.
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2.3 Bucket Method (Volumetric Streamflow Method)
The Bucket method is a simple way to measure the flow rate. It requires a stopwatch and a
bucket. To measure the flow rate using the bucket method:
1. Measure the volume of the bucket or container. Bucket should be at least of 10 liters.
2. Find a location along the stream that has a waterfall.
3. With a stopwatch, time how long it takes the waterfall to fill the bucket with water. Start
the stopwatch simultaneously with the start of the bucket being filled and stop the
stopwatch when the bucket fills.
4. Record the time it takes to fill the bucket.
5. Repeat steps two and three about five times and take the average.
6. The flow rate is the volume of the bucket divided by the average time it took to fill the
bucket.
Flow rate will be calculated from the following formula:
Q=V/t
Where:
Q = Volumetric flow rate (ft3/sec)
V = Volume of the bucket (ft3)
T = Time (sec)
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Drinking Water Supply Scheme
SEC-II-2
Third Edition
CONTENTS
SECTION – II-2: DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SCHEME
1. WATER DEMAND ........................................................................................... Sec II-2-1

2. DESIGN OF STORAGE SYSTEM........................................................................ Sec II-2-1
3. DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANK ............................................................... Sec II-2-2
4. DEEP WELL ..................................................................................................... Sec II-2-3
5. HAND PUMP................................................................................................... Sec II-2-5
5.1 Criteria for Selection of Hand Pump ...................................................... Sec II-2-5
6. OVERHEAD TANK ........................................................................................... Sec II-2-7
7. SURFACE WATER TANK .................................................................................. Sec II-2-9
7.1 Methods ................................................................................................. Sec II-2-9
7.2 Results .................................................................................................. Sec II-2-11
7.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................ Sec II-2-12
7.4 Structural Design of Surface Water Tank ............................................. Sec II-2-12
8. UNDERGROUND WATER TANK (UWT) ......................................................... Sec II-2-16
8.1 Design Concept for UWT ...................................................................... Sec II-2-16
8.2 Structural Design of UWT ..................................................................... Sec II-2-18
9. WATER SUPPLY NETWORK ........................................................................... Sec II-2-24
10. WATER PUMPS ............................................................................................. Sec II-2-30
SEC-II-2
Third Edition
SECTION – II-2: DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SCHEME
1. WATER DEMAND
Demand for drinking water is estimated using following formula:
D (N) = P (N) * daily per capita consumption
Where,
D (N) is daily demand in liters after N years, P(N) is population after N years which is
estimated as;
N
P (N) = P (1 + n/100)
Where,
P is present population, n is annual growth rate, and N is no. of years
While water usage varies from place to place, the minimum consumption in rural areas
should not be assumed less than 45 litres per person per day. However, the availability of
water in the source should also be considered while fixing the demand and subsequently
capacity of the system. The storage and supply facilitation should be designed to cater for
future requirements for at least up to 10 years.
2. DESIGN OF STORAGE SYSTEM
The storage capacity of the reservoir is determined by the projected water need and safe
yield of the source. Storage capacity, site conditions and rules of the economical design
determine the actual dimensions of the reservoir. To determine the size of storage reservoir
it is necessary to calculate the water demand at various times during the day and compare
this with water yield of the source.
Water supply system requires storage reservoir when:
The safe yield of the source will not directly provide 0.225 liters per second for each tap.
The daily water demand is greater than the yield of the source during the daylight hours.
Design Example:
Design a storage reservoir for a village of 400 persons with no other special needs. Safe Yield
of the source is 0.45 liters per second and five tap stands are to be built.
Following daily demand pattern typical may be applicable to most of the communities.
6.00 AM – 8.00 AM 30 % of total daily water demand
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8.00 AM – 4.00 PM 40 % - - do - -
4.00 PM – 8.00 PM 30 % - - do - -
8.00 PM – 6.00 AM Negligible water demand
Since the source is not large enough to supply more than two of the tap-stands by itself, a
storage reservoir is required.
Assuming consumption rate of 45 Lpcd and using the demand schedule, calculate the
shortfall as follows;
Supply Demand Difference
Time Periods
(liters) (liters) (liters)
6.00 AM – 8.00 AM (2 hrs) 3,240 5,400 - 2,160
8.00 AM – 4.00 PM (8 hrs) 12,960 7,200 + 5,760
4.00 PM – 8.00 PM (4 hrs) 6,480 5,400 + 1,080
The largest system difference is 2,160 liters, which forms the basis for reservoir storage
capacity. A reservoir size must now be selected to ensure storage of at least 2,160 liters of
water. Site conditions, as well as economy and ease of construction govern tank shape and
dimensions.
Storage reservoir is mostly rectangular in plane. Walls are constructed with brick/stone
masonry or concrete depending upon the site conditions, ease in construction and
maintenance, size of the reservoir and cost effectiveness. Inside walls and the base of the
reservoir are plastered with rich cement plaster.
3. DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANK
Water from stream sources and large springs generally contains suspended particles like silt
and even small particles of gravel. If such water is allowed to settle relatively quietly in a
tank for some period of time, much of these suspended particles may sink and settle out to
the bottom of the tank. This process is called sedimentation.
Settling velocities for clays and fine silts are less than 1 cm/min while it can be as high as 300
– 600 cm/min for medium to course sands. Based on this information, it can be calculated
that a settling period of about 20 minutes will allow some fine silts and larger particles to
settle out of the upper layers of water in the sedimentation tank.
The time that the water spends in the sedimentation tank to allow settling is called
detention time. Required detention time depends upon several factors: quantity of flow,
amounts of suspended particles and their size, and surface area of water in the tank. When
the detention time has been selected, the required capacity of the sedimentation tank can
be calculated by;
C=QxT
C = Capacity in liters, Q is inflow in liters per second, T is detention time in seconds
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The length/width ratio of the water surface area of the sedimentation tank should be at
least 4. This allows the initial discharge turbulence to die away.
The inlet should be about halfway between the surface and the floor. The outlet should
have a gate valve with air vent. The washout should be at least 2-inch diameter GI pipe with
an end cup set in the bottom of the tank, with suitable drainage for washout flow. The
velocity flowing through the sedimentation tank should not exceed 0.5 cm/sec. Greater
velocity may create turbulent currents which hinder the sedimentation process. The velocity
is calculated as,
V= 1000 x Q
WxD
Where, V is velocity in cm per sec., Q is flow in Lps, W is length of water path in cm,
and D is depth of water in cm.
One or more partitioning walls (baffles) may be used to subdivide the surface of water so
that the L/W ratio is improved without increasing the external size of the tank. Baffles
should extend to the full depth of water and can be of masonry construction.
Storage tank, which allows about 10 hours of undisturbed settling time each night, does not
require a sedimentation tank.
4. DEEP WELL
Deep Water Well Sitting
a. General Considerations
All deep wells shall be sited and constructed in such a manner that the well does not act as a
conduit for the transmission of contaminants from either above or below ground to the
ground water resource.
b. Relation to Land Surface

Deep wells shall be located such that there is adequate surface drainage away from the well
and situated such that the well is easily accessed for repairs, maintenance, and inspection.
c. Relation to Property Lines

Every well shall be located at least 10 feet from any property line or boundary.
d. Setback Distances from Contaminant Sources

Deep wells shall be located the minimum lateral distance from any common pollutant
sources listed below:
Source Minimum Distance to Well

Livestock Containment Area 50 feet
Sewer 50 feet
Septic Tank 50 feet
Disposal (Leach) Field 100 feet
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Determining the Proper Depth
Once water is found, the flow rate should be measured and, if insufficient, the well should
be deepened until the desired flow rate is achieved. The well then should be drilled up to an
additional 10 meters (33 feet) to account for seasonal variances in the water table.
Measuring Water Flow
It is important that water from an aquifer flows into a borehole at a rate that is sufficient to
serve the community’s water needs. A pumping test is conducted to measure this rate. The
flow rate is determined by pumping the water at a high rate until the groundwater table
stops declining and remains stable. The flow rate is calculated by dividing the volume of
water pumped by the pumping time.
Figure 1: Typical Detail of Deep Well
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Third Edition
5. HAND PUMP
Fetching water may often involve many hours a day in walking several miles to and from the
source by either children or women. The time spent collecting water is a double burden, as
it means less time is available for the productive activities on which subsistence economies
depend.
Definition given by WHO are as follows;
Access to water: In urban areas, a distance of not more than 200 meters from a home to a public
stand-post may be considered reasonable access. In rural areas, reasonable access implies that a
person does not have to spend a disproportionate part of the day fetching water for the families
need.
Adequate amount of water: 20 liters of safe water per person per day.
Safe water: Water that does not contain biological or chemical agents directly detrimental to health.
The following specification has been drawn up to represent the particular conditions under
which a hand pump will be used:
 The hand pump must be of low cost.

 It must be possible to manufacture and maintain the hand pump within community at
village level with a set of basic hand tools.
 The hand pump should be capable of raising at least 10 liters per minute from a depth of
3 meter.
 Reach water within 200 mm of the bottom of a tank.
 It should have good durability i.e. capable of lifting a minimum of 100,000 liter before
requiring replacement (based on a family of five people with a 20 Lpcd for three years).
 The foot valve must not leak faster than 0.1 liter per minute.
In addition, it is desirable, but not essential, that hand pumps have the following
characteristics:
 Be reasonably secure against children pushing stones or pouring liquids into the outlet.
 No part should be easily stolen or removed.
 The outlet must be at such a height that most collection vessels, especially cans, can be
easily filled.
 Be capable of fitting various types of tank covers, including ferro-cement covers (dome),
and through a parapet wall.
 Permit the rising main and foot valve to be withdrawn for maintenance purposes.
5.1 Criteria for Selection of Hand Pump
To assist in the selection of pump, any manufacturing difficulty or specific skill level, as well
as the amount time required need to be considered.
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Ease of Manufacturing
It must be possible to manufacture and maintain the hand pump within community at
village level with a set of basic hand tools. The following points should be considered while
selecting the hand pump;
 Number of Tools required.

 Time to Manufacture.
 Skill level required.
 Total number of parts.
 Technicians preferred choice.
Ease of Operations
The following points should be considered while selecting the hand pump;
 The force required to operate the hand pump.

 The pull rod is prone to buckling, at higher cadences (possibly leading to localized wear)
 Priming is necessary when the water level is lower than the bottom of the cylinder.
Figure 2: Typical Detail of Hand Pump
Hand Pump
Platform
Clay Seal 1500mm GI Pipe
Clay
Sandy Clay
150mm Bore hole
38mm 
PVC Pipe
Earth filling
Total Depth Shrouding sand upto
Very fine sand Varies from 1200mm top of filter or
10-15m Full aquifer thickness
3 Nos. centralizers whichever is greater
Made by 10mm 
MS rod
PVC Pipe Shrouding sand of
900-1800mm
Long PVC strainer Appropriate size
700mm
Long sand trap
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6. OVERHEAD TANK
Water reservoirs are built to provide storage to meet the fluctuating demands and to serve
as balancing tanks to maintain the pressure during the peak hour demand. They meet
emergent demands due to failure of pumps and they also reduce the hours of pumping.
Storage requirements and other salient features of storage reservoir are discussed in
Section- III C (Design of Drinking Water Supply Schemes). In this section structural details of
a typical Over Head Water Reservoir (OHWR) are elaborated. In this context, Tables 1 & 2.
give details of RCC design of OHWR.
Table 1: Design Data for Over Head Water Reservoirs (MKS System)
Thickne Reinforcement
Depth
Capacity ss of Walls Floor
Length X includin
walls Horizontal Steel Vertical Steel Bars Each Way
breadth g free
and
(internal) board Bars ‘c’* Bars ‘a & b’* Bars ‘d’*
floors
(m2)
(Litres) Bar Dia Spacing Bar Dia Spacing Bar Dia Spacing
(m)
(cm) (mm) (cm) (mm) (cm) (mm) (cm)
2000 1.5X1.5 1.00 10 6 15 6 15 6 20
3500 1.8X1.8 1.25 10 6 15 6 15 6 20
5000 2.0X2.0 1.40 10 6 15 6 15 6 20
7000 2.3X2.3 1.50 11.5 10 22 10 22 6 20
9000 2.5X2.5 1.60 11.5 10 20 10 13 6 20
14000 2.8X2.8 2.00 13 10 18 12 18 6 14
23000 3.5X3.6 2.10 15 10 16 16 20 6 12
34000 4.0X4.0 2.30 16 10 15 16 18 6 10
45000 4.2X4.2 2.70 18 12 20 16 15 6 10
*See details in Figure 3
The above table has been converted into FPS System and is presented below:
Table 2: Design Data for Overhead Water Reservoirs (FPS System)

Thickn Reinforcement
Depth
ess of Walls Floor
Length X includin
walls
Capacity breadth g free Horizontal Steel Vertical Steel Bars Each Way
and
(Gallons) (internal) board
floors Bars ‘c’* Bars ‘a & b’* Bars ‘d’*
(ft2)
(ft) Bar Dia Spacing Bar Dia Spacing Bar Dia Spacing
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in)
444 5X5 3 4 ¼ 6 ¼ 6 ¼ 8
778 6X6 4 4 ¼ 6 ¼ 6 ¼ 8
1111 6.5X6.5 4.5 4 ¼ 6 ¼ 6 ¼ 8
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Thickn Reinforcement
Depth
ess of Walls Floor
Length X includin
walls
Capacity breadth g free Horizontal Steel Vertical Steel Bars Each Way
and
(Gallons) (internal) board
floors Bars ‘c’* Bars ‘a & b’* Bars ‘d’*
(ft2)
(ft) Bar Dia Spacing Bar Dia Spacing Bar Dia Spacing
(in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in)
1556 7.5X7.5 5 4.5 3/8 9 3/8 9 ¼ 8
2000 8X8 5.5 4.5 3/8 8 3/8 5 ¼ 8
3111 8X8 6.5 5 3/8 7 ½ 7 ¼ 5.5
5111 11.5X11.5 7 6 3/8 6 5/8 8 ¼ 5
7556 13X13 7.5 6.5 3/8 6 5/8 7 ¼ 4
10000 14X14 9 7 1/2 8 5/8 6 ¼ 4
*See details in Figure 3
Figure 3: Typical Details of Overhead Water Reservoir
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7. SURFACE WATER TANK
As of now, the flow rate of the source has yet to be determined. In an effort to help the
builders of said system in the future, an analysis of tank sizing that would be needed
depending upon the flow rate was completed. This table and model could be used by the
community to finish the system when the funds, manpower, and materials are available.
7.1 Methods
7.1.1 Calculating the Size of the Tank
To size the water storage tanks, a method from Field Guide to Environmental Engineering
for Development Workers was used (Mihelcic 2009). First, a population needs to be
projected for the last year of the design life of the storage tank.
The following equation is used to predict the population in twenty years:
Equation 1
Once a projected population is found, the average daily water demand can be calculated,
but only by assuming a demand per person.
Equation 2
From there, we can calculate a maximum daily water demand by simply multiplying by a
safety factor (1.25-1.5).
Equation 3
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The average and maximum daily use are good to have. They tell us the kinds of demands the
users are putting on the system, but how should we size the tank? In this case, the water
will most likely be demanded in a shorter amount of time, as the people of town only collect
water for eight hours out of a twenty-four-hour day. Thus, it would be good to design the
tank using for those peak flow conditions. To do this, we use a peaking factor. This tells us
how many times greater than our maximum demand daily our peak demand will be. Our
equation is:
Equation 4
We will estimate the amount of time that the peak flow would be demanded in any one day
with the following equation:
Equation 5
We take the peak flow minus our source’s flow rate and multiply it by the amount of time
that flow will be demanded to get the size of our tank. This will give us a tank that can
supply continuous flow even if the users demand peak flow for our entire estimated time
calculated in Equation 5.
Equation 6
An excel sheet was created using this method that sizes tanks based on different source
flow rates. A designer without knowledge of engineering could use this sheet as an aid while
finishing the system. The tanks are all set at a height of 7 feet so as not to be too difficult to
build. The site of the tank has also already been selected based on a variety of
characteristics: proximity to the town and the source, height, grade, and security.
Sec-II-2-10
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An alternative method was also used for comparison (Viessman Jr. 1998). The inflows and
outflows of the system are looked at for each hour of the day. The cumulative inflows and
cumulative outflows are then graphed on the same chart over the hours of the day. A
tangent line with the slope of the inflows is drawn at the greatest and least cumulative
outflow. The difference between these two tangent lines vertically is the size storage tank
wanted.
7.2 Results
7.2.1 Results from Sizing the Tank based on Source Flow Rate
Ideal tank sizes were calculated in Excel for various flow rates starting from 1 L/s and
assuming a constant demand of 181,104 liters per day. Each tank’s ideal volume in liters was
calculated first, which was then converted to cubic feet. After this, the diameter in feet was
calculated based on an assumed height of 7 feet (for ease of construction) and a circular
construction. Tabel-3 is intended to aid any builder or designer without engineering
knowledge, in the construction of a gravity-flow water system in the village.
Table 3: Tank Sizing based on Source Flow Rate

Flow at Source (L/s) Volume of Tank (L) Volume of Tank (ft3) Diameter of Tank (ft)
1 N/A N/A N/A
2 N/A N/A N/A
2.1 121,024 4,274 27.88
3 95,104 3,359 24.72
4 66,304 2,341 20.64
5 37,504 1,324 15.52
6 8,704 307 7.48
The design above is a conservative one and should be considered on the high-end of storage
tank sizing. The volumes of the tanks at 1 L/s and 2 L/s are assuming continuous flow, but
we have seen from Table 3 above that at those flow rates, intermittent flow would result.
Thus, we must reformulate our estimates for tank volume based on intermittent flow. Our
tanks in an intermittent flow system will be drained completely every day of what they have
stored because the users will demand more than what can be provided by the spring
overnight and to ensure no microbial growth in the tanks or pipes. Thus, the tanks would be
given the capacity to store as much water as would come in from the source overnight.
Tank Sizing if Source Flow is 1 L/s
Tank Sizing if Source Flow is 2 L/s
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If the source flow is 1 liter/second, the tank should be sized at 43,200 liters. Any bigger tank
would be a waste of money because the water would never fill it. For a source flow of 2
liters/second, the tank should be 86,400 liters. Again, this will never fill past this mark, so a
bigger tank would not be useful.
Table 4: Tank Sizing based on Source Flow Rate

Flow At Source
Volume of Tank (L) Volume of Tank (ft3) Diameter of Tank (ft)
(L/s)
1 43,200 1,526 16.67
2 86,400 3,051 23.56
2.1 121,024 4,274 27.88
3 95,104 3,359 24.72
4 66,304 2,341 20.64
5 37,504 1,324 15.52
6 8,704 307 7.48
An example of the alternative method is provided for the flow of 2.1 liters per second.
7.3 Conclusion
Table 3 could be used by a builder without formal engineering training to size a water
storage tank only by measuring the source flow rate using the table to size the tank. The
tank sizes at 1 and 2 liters per second are sized for intermittent flow, while the rest are sized
Sec-II-2-12
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for continuous flow. If any flows are measured that are between the flows shown, the
builder should interpolate to get the size of the tank. The alternative method is also
effective but is less conservative as it uses no peaking factor.
7.4 Structural Design of Surface Water Tank
7.4.1 Data
1. Water tank 5m x 4m with depth of storage 3m

2. Resting on ground and whose walls are rigidly joined at vertical and horizontal
edges.
3. Assume M20 concrete and Fe415 grade steel.
4. Design Required
Step1: Analysis for moment and tensile force

i) Long wall E
L/a=1.67≈1.75; at y=0, x/a=1, Mx=-0.074; at

y=b/2, x/a=1/4, My= -0.052
A C
Max vertical moment = Mx ɣw = -19.98a3
Max horizontal moment = My ɣwa3 = -14.04; Free F
Tlong=ɣwab/2=60 kN
a=H=3m Fixed
ii) Short wall b=4m
B/a=1.33 ≈1.5; at y=0, x/a=1, Mx=-0.06; at D B

y=b/2, x/a=1/4, My=-0.044 L=5m
Max vertical moment = Mx ɣwa3 = -16.2

Max horizontal moment = My ɣwa3 = -11.88; Tshort=ɣwaL/2=75 kN
Step2: Design constants
∂cbc=7 MPa, ∂st=150 MPa, m=13.33
K= m ∂cbc /m∂cbc ∂st = 0.38 j=1-(k/3)=0.87 Q= ½ ∂cbcjk = 1.15
Step3: Design for vertical moment
For vertical moment, the maximum bending moment from long and short wall
(Mmax)x=-19.98 kN-m
M 19.98x106
d= Qb = 1.15x1000 = 131.8mm
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Assuming effective cover as 33 mm, the thickness of wall is
t=131.88+33=164.8 mm ≈ 170 mm d provided =170-33=137mm
M 19.98x106
A st = = =1117.54mm2
∂st jd 150x0.87x137
Spacing of 12 mm diameter bar = 113x1000 =101.2 mmc / c (Max spacing 3d=411mm)

1117.54
Provide #12 @ 100 mm c/c
Distribution steel
Minimum area of steel is 0.24% of concrete area
Spacing of 8 mm diameter bar = 50.24x1000 = 123.19 mm c / c

408
Provide #8 @ 120 c/c as distribution steel.
Provide #8 @ 120 c/c as vertical and horizontal distribution on the outer face.
Step4: Design for Horizontal moment

Horizontal moments at the corner in long and short wall produce unbalanced moment at
the joint. This unbalanced moment has to be distributed to get balanced moment using
moment distribution method.
14.4 C
K AC=1/5; K AC=1/5; ∑ K=9/20 A
DFAC= (1/5) / (9/20) =0.44

11.8
DFAB= (1/4)/ (9/20) =0.56
B
Moment distribution Table
Joint A
Member AC AB
DF 0.44 0.56
FEM -14 11.88
Distribution 0.9328 1.1872
Final Moment -13.0672 13.0672
The tension in the wall is computed by considering the section at height H 1 from the
base. Where, H1 is greater of i) H/4, ii) 1m, ie., i) 3/4=0.75, ii) 1m; H1= 1m
Depth of water h=H-H1=3-1-2m; p=ɣwh=10 x 2= 20 kN/m2
Sec-II-2-14
Third Edition
Tension in short wall Ts=pL/2=50 kN
Tension in long wall TL=pB/2= 40 kN
Net bending moment M’=M-Tx,
where, x= d-D/2=137-(170/2) =52mm
M’=13.0672-50 x 0.052=10.4672 kN-m
Ast1=10.4672x10^6/150x0.87x137=585.46mm2
Ast2=50x10^3 /150=333.33 mm3
Ast=Ast1+Ast2=918.79 mm2
Spacing of 12 mm diameter bar = (113x1000)/918.74= 123 mmc / c

(Max spacing 3d=411mm)
Provide #12@120 mm c/c at corners
Step5: Base Slab
The slab is resting on firm ground. Hence nominal thickness and reinforcement is
provided. The thickness of slab is assumed to be 200 mm and 0.24% reinforcement is
provided in the form of #8 @ 200 c/c. at top and bottom. A haunch of 150 x 150 x 150
mm size is provided at all corner
Sec-II-2-15
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8. UNDERGROUND WATER TANK
Designing an underground water tank at community level should be avoided. The designing
process requires different parameters of soil which can only be acquired by geotechnical
investigation. The testing parameters and required tests are as follows:
1. Determination of Bearing Capacity, Compaction and Unit Weight of Soil by Standard

Penetration Test and Core Cutter Method
2. Determination of Angle of Repose or Angle of Internal Friction of Soil by Fixed Funnel
Test
Note: Above mentioned geotechnical investigation will be charged a cost by the testing
laboratories/ firm.
On the other hand, the designing of underground water tank requires high skills of
structural designing. However, If the requirement for provision of underground water tank
is essential, the structure of the tank shall be designed by structural engineer (consultant)
having sufficient experience in designing of the hydraulic structures.
8.1 Design Concept for Underground Water Tank
Basic components of underground water tanks are Base slab, Side walls, and Roof slab.
Tanks are very ductile, enabling to withstand seismic forces and varying water backfill. Tanks
utilize material efficiently – steel in tension, concrete in compression. Underground water
tanks have Low maintenance throughout the life as these are built with concrete, durable
material that never corrodes and does not require coatings when in contact with water or
the environment.
Underground water tank faces different type of loads compared to other structures, they
mainly face horizontal or lateral loads due to earth pressure and water pressure or any
liquid pressure which is been stored in the tank. As the ratio of the length of tank to its
breadth is greater than 2, the long walls will be designed as cantilevers and the top portion
Sec-II-2-16
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of the short walls will be designed as slab supported by long walls. Bottom one meter of the
short walls will be designed as cantilever slab. The maximum bending moment from the
support and span for each condition was generally used and confirmed less than the
moment of resistance, Mu= 0.156 f bd 2, where f is the 28-day concrete characteristic
strength, b is one-meter width of slab and d is the effective slab depth (BS 8110).
Concrete Structures: Plain concrete member of reinforced concrete liquid retaining

structure may be designed against structural failure by allowing tension in plain concrete as
per the permissible limits for tension in bending. This will automatically take care of failure
due to cracking. However, nominal reinforcement shall be provided, for plain concrete
structural members.
8.1.1 Permissible Stresses in Concrete
(a) For resistance to cracking. For calculations relating to the resistance of members to
cracking, the permissible stresses in tension (direct and due to bending) and shear shall
confirm to the values specified. The permissible tensile stresses due to bending apply to the
face of the member in contact with the liquid. In members less than 225mm. thick and in
contact with liquid on one side these permissible stresses in bending apply also to the face
remote from the liquid.
(b) For strength calculations. In strength calculations the permissible concrete stresses shall
be in accordance provision given in ACI. Where the calculated shear stress in concrete alone
exceeds the permissible value, reinforcement acting in conjunction with diagonal
compression in the concrete shall be provided to take the whole of the shear.
Permissible Concrete Stresses in Calculations Relating to Resistance to Cracking

Permissible Stress in KN/m2 Tension
Grade of Concrete Shear
Direct Bending
M15 (1:2:4) 1.1 1.5 1.5
M20 (1:1.5:3) 1.2 1.7 1.7
M25 (1:1:2) 1.3 1.8 1.9
8.1.2 Permissible Stresses in Steel
(a) For resistance to cracking: When steel and concrete are assumed to act together for
checking the tensile stress in concrete for avoidance of crack, the tensile stress in steel will
be limited by the requirement that the permissible tensile stress in the concrete is not
exceeded so the tensile stress in steel shall be equal to the product of modular ratio of steel
and concrete, and the corresponding allowable tensile stress in concrete.
(b) For strength calculations: In strength calculations the permissible stress shall be as
follows:
(i) Tensile stress in member in direct tension

(ii) Tensile stress in member in bending on liquid retaining face of members or face away
from liquid for members less than 225mm thick
Sec-II-2-17
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(iii) On face away from liquid for members 225mm or more in thickness
(iv) Tensile stress in shear reinforcement, For members less than 225 mm thickness 1000
kg/cm, 1250 kg/cm
(v) Stresses due to drying shrinkage or temperature change may be ignored provided that
ñ the permissible stresses specified above in (ii) and (iii) are not otherwise exceeded.
Adequate precautions are taken to avoid cracking of concrete during the construction
period and until the reservoir is put into use. Recommendation regarding joints given above
and for suitable sliding layer beneath the reservoir are complied with, or the reservoir is to
be used only for the storage of water or aqueous liquid at or near ambient temperature and
the circumstances are such that the concrete will never dry out.
i. Shrinkage stresses may however be required to be calculated in special -6 cases, when

a shrinkage co-efficient of 300 x 10 may be assumed.
ii. When the shrinkage stresses are allowed, the permissible stresses, tensile stresses to
concrete (direct and bending) may be increased by 33.33 per cent.
8.2 Structural Design of Underground Water Tank
LIST OF SYMBOLS
ᵩ- Angle of repose M – Bending moment

σcbc – Permissible stress in concrete in Mv – Bending moment at vertical direction
bending
Mh – Bending moment at horizontal
σst – Permissible stress in steel in tension direction
jd – Lever arm depth At – Area of tensile steel
m – Modular ratio L – Length of the tank
d – Overall depth B – Width of the tank
de – Effective depth H – Overall height of the tank
b – Breadth
W – Load at the structure
DESIGN DATA:
1. Capacity of water tank = 200,000 Liters or 200 m3
2. Shape = Rectangular underground water tank
3. Assumed Unit weight of soil = 34.93 KN/m3
4. Assumed Angle of internal friction φ = 37
5. Assumed Bearing capacity of soil = 230 KN/m2
6. Free board = 0.25 m
7. Materials available = M20 grade of concrete (1:1.5:3)
Sec-II-2-18
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8. Characteristic Strengths (From Design Table of ACI Code)

a. Compression due to bending σcb = 7 N/mm2
b. Steel reinforcement strength σs t= 140N/mm2
c. Tension due to bending σctb = 1.7 N/mm2
d. Design Constants m = 13, j =0.84
STEP-1: DIMENSION CALCULATIONS

d = √25.63 x 1000 = 1.71 m
Required capacity= 200 m3 0.87 x 1000
de = 175 mm, d = 200 mm
Assumed depth= 4 m
Total height with free board= 4.25 m Reinforcement:
Area of tank in plane= 200/4= 50 m2
(At= M/jdσst)
Use 10 x 5 x 4.25 m
At = (25.63 x 10^6) / (0.87 x 140 x 175) =
STEP-2: CONDITIONS OF LOADING 1,202 mm2
L=10 m, H=4.25 m, B=5 m Provide 12mm dia bars at 100 mm c/c

Secondary reinforcement = (0.15/100) x 200
L/B ≥ 2 = 10/5 = 2 (Long wall) x 1000 = 300 mm2
B/H < 2 = 5/4.25 = 1.17 < 2 (Short wall)
L/H= 10/4.25 = 2.35 Provide 6mm dia bars at 100 mm c/c
Long wall span in one direction, Shot wall STEP-4: LONG WALL
span in two directions. Roof slab in one
direction only. L/H= 10/4.25 = 2.35 > 2
STEP-3: ROOF SLAB ONE WAY Wall spans in vertical direction only, Walls
are assumed fixed at the base and supported
Assuming thickness of wall = 300 mm at top.
Span of roof slab in the direction of bending
=5.3 m Case (i) Tank full dry earth outside
Live load=1.5 KN/m2
Self-weight (200 mm) =0.2 x 1x 1 x 24 Max water pressure = Ww x H = 10 x 4.25
= 4.8 KN/m2 =42.5 KN/m2
Screeding = 1 KN/m2
Total load (w)= 7.3 KN/m2 Max earth pressure = W x H (1-sinφ/1+sin φ)
= 34.93 x 4.25 x (1-sin37/1+sin37)
Bending Moment: =36.9 KN/m2
BM=w/4 xl2 = 7.3/8x5.32 = 25.63 KN-m Net pressure on wall (P) = 42.5-36.9
= 5.6 KN/m2
Depth of Slab:
BM= 8.7 bd2
Sec-II-2-19
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Max negative BM (water face) Reinforcement Details for Long Wall

PH^2 =5.6x2.2^2
Mw=. = 6.74 KN-m Case (i) Tank full dry earth outside
15 15
At required for –ve BM
Max positive BM (Earth face)
(At= M/jdσst)
PH^2 5.6x4.25^2 = 3.01 KN-m
Me = =
33.5 33.5 At = (6.67 x 10^6) / (140 x 0.84 x 400)
= 141.79 mm2
Case-(ii) Tank empty dry earth pressure
outside Provide 12mm dia bars at 300 mm c/c
Max earth pressure = WeH WxH (1- At required for +ve BM

sinφ/1+sin φ)
= 0.93 x 4.25 x (1-sin37/1+sin37) At = (3.01 x 10^6) / (140 x 0.84 x 400)
= 36.9 KN/m2 = 63.98 mm2
Max negative BM (water face) Provide 12 mm dia bars at 400 mm c/c
Mw = PH^2 = 36.9x4.25^2 = 44.43 KN-m Case (ii) Tank empty dry earth outside
15 15
Max positive BM (Earth face) At required for –ve BM
Me = PH^2 = 36.9∗4.25^2: = 19.89 KN-m At = (44.43 x 10^6) / (140 x 0.84 x 400)

33.5 33.5 = 944.5 mm2
Table: BM at water face and earth face. Provide 12 mm dia bars at 115 mm c/c
BM water BM earth At required for +ve BM

Case
face KN-m face KN-m
i 6.74 3.01 At = (19.89 x 10^6) / (140 x 0.84 x 400)
ii 19.89 44.43 = 422 mm2
Provide 12 mm dia bars at 250 mm c/c

Thickness of wall on cracking stress
Provide reinforcement details of Case(ii)
Consideration Resisting moment
Secondary reinforcement
Mr =bd ^2σctb
6
At = 3/100 x 440 x 1000 = 1320 mm2
Mr = 44.43x10 =1/6x1000xd2x1.7
6
Provide 10mm dia bars at 60 mm c/c

d=395.99mm provide 400mm
de=400mm d=440mm
Sec-II-2-20
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STEP-5: SHORT WALL +ve moment at center (earth face) = 0.43Mh

= 0.43 x 44.95 = 19.32 KN-m
BM VERTICAL DIRECTION
DIRECT TENSION IN SHORT WALL
Mv=0.083 w h2 (k/k+1)
P=42.5KN/m
K=0.375 from the graph of ACI Code
TB=42.5x1/2=21.25KN
Mv=0.083 x 5.6 x 4.252 (.0.375/0.375+1)
= 2.28KN/m Maximum moment in short wall occurs
Max –ve moment (water face) Thickness of the side wall

= 0.89 x 2.28 = 2.0292 KN/m
1/6xbd^2 σctb = 25.62x106 N/mm2
Max +ve moment (earth face) = 0.65 x 2.28
= 1.482 KN/m d=300.7 mm
However, use the same thickness as the
Mv=0.083 x 36.9 x 4.252 (0.375/0.375+1) long wall that is de=400mm
=15.09 KN/m
d=440mm
Max –ve moment (water face) = 0.89 x 15.09
= 13.43 KN/m MAIN REINFORCEMENT FOR THE SHORT
WALL
Max +ve moment (earth face) = 0.65 x1 5.09
= 9.808 KN/m
Steel required for Max bending moment at
BM HORIZONTAL DIRECTION corner (water face)
Mh = (0.67 x W x H)/(K+1) At = (25.62x 10^6) / 140x0.84x400

= 544.64 mm2
Mh = 0.67 x 5.6x 4.25^2 / (0.375+1)
= 6.82 KN/m Provide 12 mm dia. bars at 200 mm c/c
-ve moment at corner (water face) = 0.57Mh Steel required for Max bending moment at
= 0.57 x 6.82 = 3.88 KN-m center (earth face)
+ve moment at center (earth face) = 0.43Mh At = (19.32 x 10^6) / 140x0.84x400

= 0.43 x 6.82 = 2.93KN-m = 410.7 mm2
Mh = (0.67 x W x H)/(K+1) Provide 10 mm dia bars at 160 mm c/c
Mh = 0.67 x 36.9 x 4.25^2 / (0.375+1) Secondary reinforcement

= 44.95 KN/m
At=0.3/100 x440x1000=1320 mm2
-ve moment at corner (water face) =.57Mh
= 0.57 x 44.95 = 25.62 KN-m Provide 10mm dia bars at 60 mm c/c
Sec-II-2-21
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BASE SLAB BM at the base due to soil pressure (earth

face) =44.43KN-m
L/B=10/5=2
Spans in one direction only Net moment at center of the slab (Produces
the tension on the outer face)
Tank full and dry soil outside = 124.59-44.43=80.16KN-m
In this case the water pressure on base slab Net BM at the support = 44.43+13.03
will be concentrated by the soil pressure = 57.46 KNm
below it.
BM at center and at supports
Loads
Case BM at center BM at support
Weight of the roof = 24 x 5.88 x 10.88
1 131.33KN-m 6.29KN-m
=1535.38KN
2 80.16KN-m 57.46KN-m
Weight of side walls=2 x (10.44+5.44) x Thickness of the slab on cracking stress
4.25 x 24 x 0.44=1425.38KN consideration
Total weight =1535.38+1425.38 7xbxd2xσctb =131.33

=2960.76KN
d = (131.33x6) /1000x1.7=463.51mm
Base slab dimensions =6.88x11.88
de =470mm; d=520mm
Soil reaction below base= 2960.76 /
(6.88x11.88) =36.33KN/m Main reinforcement
At = (131.33x10^6) x (140 x 0.84x470)
BM at center of the slab (water face) = 2376.06 mm2
= 36.22 x 6.88 / 2 x (5.44/2 – 6.88/4)
=124.59KN/m Use 16 mm dia bars at 80 mm c/c steel at
support (water face)
BM at support (earth face)
= (36.33x0.72) / 2 = 13.03KN/m At=6.29x10^6 / (140x0.84x470) = 113.8 mm2
-ve BM at base due to loads on the side wall Use 16mm dia bars at 100 mm c/c
(water face) =19.89KM-m Net max BM at
center (produces tension on the water face) At= 57.46 x10^6 / (140x0.84x470)
= 124.59+6.74=131.33KN-m =1039.58 mm2
Net Max BM at support (produces tension on Use 10 mm dia bars at 80 mm c/c

the water face) =13.03 - 6.74 = 6.29KN-m
Secondary reinforcement
Tank empty dry soil outside At=0.2% of cross sectional area (d>450mm)
BM due to self-weight of roof and side walls At= 0.2/100x520x1000 = 1040 mm2
and center (water face) =124.59KN-m
At support=13.03KN-m Use 10 mm dia at 150 mm c/c.
Sec-II-2-22
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Reinforcement details of plan is below:
PLAN
Reinforcement details of long wall and short wall
LONG WALL
SHORT WALL
Sec-II-2-23
Third Edition
9. WATER SUPPLY NETWORK
In drinking water supply schemes, the distribution system is the most expensive component
in respect of both initial costs and maintenance. The basic understanding of certain aspects
of hydraulic theory is crucial to the design of distribution system in which the concept of
gravitation energy or the action of gravity upon water is of key importance. This energy is
responsible for moving water through the distribution systems. The amount of such energy
is determined by relative elevations at all the points in the system. As the water flows
through the pipes, fittings, tanks etc. some of this energy is lost forever, dissipated by
friction, while the remaining energy represents what is commonly known as the “pressure
head” at any given point in the system.
Pressure Head Limits at Consumer Points
A minimum head also known as terminal head or residual head is required to ensure the
required discharge at a given point. The pressure head at any given point should not
increase beyond the maximum acceptable limits. Guidelines for minimum and maximum
terminal heads are given below:
Absolute minimum 05 m Desired minimum/Ideal 10 m
Desired maximum 15 m Absolute maximum 30 m
Pipe Network and Storage Tank
Design of the pipe lines begins with the graphic plotting of the topographic survey, and ends
when all sections of the pipe network i.e. transmission main, main line, branch lines, and
delivery line are designed. For each segment of the pipe network, flow is calculated on the
basis of peak demand. The velocity is assumed within the allowable limits, and pipe
diameters and residual heads are determined with the help of “Flow Nomogram” given in
Fig. 5. The minimum and maximum recommended velocity limits are 0.7 and 3.0 m/sec.
respectively, whereas recommended gradient is 1 to 3 per 1000. The acceptable pressure
head limits are given above. The process is repeated by assuming different velocities, until
the acceptable values are obtained. The design process for the distribution system is best
illustrated with the help of hydraulic statement (Table 7) and a layout plan showing the
spring source, storage reservoir, transmission main, main line, branch lines and taps as in
Fig-4.
Design Example:
The assumptions made are explained as:

Spring discharge: = 2250 liters/hour.
Pipe type: = GI
Number of households = 104
Population in 1999 at 7 persons/HH = 728
Population in 2019 (at 3% growth rate) = 1315
Daily water demand = 45 liters per capita
Sec-II-2-24
Third Edition
Daily present and future demand:
Year (liters) Population Daily water demand

1999 728 32760
2019 1,315 59175
Using water consumption schedule as following:
Time Period % age Water Available Water Demand Difference

(hours) Consumption (liters) (liters) (liters)
6 AM – 8 AM 30 % 4500 17753 - 13252
8 AM – 4 PM 40 % 18000 23670 - 5670
4 PM – 8 PM 30 % 9000 17753 - 8753
This is the worst scenario where there is a short fall throughout the consumption period.
The total shortage from 6 AM to 8 PM is 27,675 liters, say 28,000 liters. This may be taken as
the basis for calculation of the storage reservoir capacity. However, a storage time of 10
hour from 8 PM to 6 AM is also available. During this period 22,500 liters is available for
storage in the dry season. Since the water available is minimum possible during the dry
season, it is therefore, expected that discharge from source will increase during wet season.
A storage capacity of 1.5 to 2 times the daily water shortage may therefore be provided.
Hence, the storage tank required may be 28,000 x 1.75, that comes to be 49,000 liters, say
50,000 liters.
In order to ensure whether this capacity is sufficient or not, a check may be provided by
considering total short fall, and total discharge from the source as follows;
Total Total
Storage of Balance at 8 Supply
shortage available
water pm (night) during night
Time Period every day water at
available (8am-6pm)
6 am
(Liters) (Liters) (Liters) (Liters) (Liters)
1st Day 50,000 28,000 + 22,000 22,500 44,500
2nd Day 44,500 28,000 + 16,500 22,500 39,000
rd
3 Day 39,000 28,000 + 11,000 22,500 33,500
5th Day 33,500 28,000 + 5,500 22,500 28,000
6th Day 28,000 28,000 0
The example shows that after every sixth day the reservoir will be empty by 8 PM during dry
season. During 10 hours in night between 6th and 7th day 22,500 liters will be stored. On the
7th day, if the supply is closed for about 2 hours during day time and kept equal to the inflow
(2,250 l/hr.) during remaining 12 hours, about 5,000 liters will be stored to bring total
storage to 27,500 liters at 8 PM. Remaining 22,500 liters will be stored during next 10 hours
closure. Hence total water stored at 8 AM on 8th day will be the required 50,000 liters. It is
also expected that the short fall will reduce in the wet season with the increase of discharge
from the source. This will increase the length of short fall cycle (six days). However, it is to
be noted that short fall cycle will continue to occur until discharge from the source is
Sec-II-2-25
Third Edition
insufficient to fill the reservoir during 10 hours in night. Hence the storage reservoir of the
said capacity 50,000 liters may fulfill the requirements and will be economical.
Figure 4: Layout Plan Drinking Water Supply Scheme
The following thumb rules can also be applied for estimating the reservoir storage capacity;
 75 percent of the total daily demand or

 Total water available from the source during the storage time.
Sec-II-2-26
Third Edition
whichever is greater.
Qr = 0.75 x 59,175 (liters) = 44,381 liters

or Qr = 10 (hrs) x 2,250(liters/hr) = 22,500 liters
Where, Qr is the Storage Capacity
A storage reservoir of 45,000 liters capacity may be provided.
The table given below can also be used for estimating pipe diameter of transmission main
and distribution system.
Table 5: Suggested internal diameters of pipe in mm for various lengths of discharge-lines

Discharge Length of pipe-line in meters
in l/sec. 15 30 75 150 250 300 600 900 1200 1500
0.41 25 25 25 32 25 32 32 40 40 40
0.58 25 32 32 32 40 40 40 50 50 50
0.75 25 32 32 32 40 40 40 50 50 50
1.160 32 32 40 40 50 50 50 65 65 80
1.50 32 40 50 50 65 65 65 80 80 100
2.25 40 50 50 65 65 80 80 80 100 100
3.00 50 50 65 65 80 80 80 100 100 125
The above table shows that if discharge to be passed through the pipe is say 0.685 liters per
second (total daily demand) and length of pipe section is say 400 (Transmission main)
meters, then internal diameter of the pipe will be 40 mm.
Table 6: Diameter and discharge of delivery pipe

Flow in litres/sec. 0.167 0.333 0.50 0.75 1.167 1.833
Dia. Of pipe in mm. 15 20 25 32 40 50
Table-6 shows that if discharge required through the tap is say 0.167 litres per second, then
internal diameter of the delivery pipe will be 15 mm.
Sec-II-2-27
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Figure 5: Flow Nomogram for Plastic & GI Pipe
Sec-II-2-28
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Table 7: Hydraulic Statement

Maximum
Water
Demand
Length No of Demand Velocity Pipe Dia Head Upper Lower Ground Technical
Segment Discharge
(m) Taps 6AM- (m/sec) (mm) Loss (m) End (EL) End (EL) Level (EL) Head (m)
(liters/sec.)
8AM
(liters)
B–C 275 7 17753 2.47 1.50 50 14.85 510.00 495.15 481.00 14.15
C–D 225 3 7608 1.06 0.72 40 7.65 495.15 487.50 479.00 8.50
D – T1 128 1 2536 0.35 0.80 25 6.91 487.50 480.59 475.00 5.59
D–E 263 2 5072 0.70 1.10 30 14.20 487.50 473.30 463.00 10.30
E – T2 150 1 2536 0.35 0.7 25 8.10 473.30 465.20 460.00 5.20
E – T3 186 1 2536 0.35 0.7 25 10.04 473.30 463.25 444.50 18.75
C–F 392 4 10145 1.41 1.20 40 19.99 495.15 475.16 466.20 8.96
F–G 275 2 5072 0.70 1.10 30 14.85 475.16 460.31 447.00 13.31
G – T4 110 1 2536 0.35 0.80 25 5.94 460.31 454.37 439.10 15.27
G – T5 95 1 2536 0.35 0.80 25 5.13 460.31 455.18 438.70 16.48
F–H 135 2 5072 0.70 1.10 30 7.29 475.16 467.87 459.00 8.87
H – T6 151 1 2536 0.35 0.80 25 8.15 467.87 459.71 438.70 21.01
H – T7 230 1 2536 0.35 0.80 25 12.42 467.87 455.45 448.00 7.45
Sec-II-2-29
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10. WATER PUMPS
Pump is a machine for moving fluid/water from one place to another against resistance.
Normally pumping is involved in lift irrigation and drinking water supply schemes, as far as
CPI projects are concerned.
Power is the rate at which work is done. In case of pumping, it is calculated by the rate at
which a known mass of water is moved against the total resistance or total pumping head.
The power required to operate not only depends on the weight of water moved and the
distance through which it is moved vertically, but also frictional resistance, and the
efficiency of the pump itself.
When water is pumped against a known resistance (head), the power (Horse Power) used to
actually move the water is calculated as:
H.P = Q H
550 Ep
Where:
H.P. = Horsepower of pump.
Q = The required discharge in cusecs.
 = Specific Weight of water (62.4 lbs per cubic foot).
H = The height in feet through which water has to be lifted plus frictional losses
(losses due to friction in pipe, velocity, bends, foot valve, change in diameter
of the pipe).
Ep = Efficiency of the pump (usually taken as 80%),
The required Brake Horse Power (B.H.P) of the electric motor to drive the pump is given as
under:
B.H.P = H.P
Em
Where:
Em = Efficiency of the electric motor, usually taken as 70%.
Frictional losses in water pipes may be calculated from the following Tabel-8.
Table 8: Frictional Loss in Water Pipes

Frictional loss in Meters per Frictional loss in Meters per
100 m of Pipe length 100 m of Pipe length
Discharge in Discharge in
Diameter of Pipe Diameter of Pipe
L/Hr L/Hr
15 20 25 32 40 50 80 100
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
300 2.0 0.7 - - 1500 0.4 - - -
350 2.5 - - - 2000 0.8 - - -
400 3.5 1.0 - - 2300 1.0 - - -
450 4.2 - - - 2600 1.1
500 5.4 1.5 0.5 3000 1.5
550 6.5 1.8 3500 2.0
Sec-II-2-30
Third Edition
Frictional loss in Meters per Frictional loss in Meters per

100 m of Pipe length 100 m of Pipe length
Discharge in Discharge in
Diameter of Pipe Diameter of Pipe
L/Hr L/Hr
15 20 25 32 40 50 80 100
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
600 7.9 2.0 0.8 0.3 4000 2.8
650 9.0 2.4 4300 3.0
700 3.0 1.0 4600 3.6
800 4.0 1.5 0.5 5000 4.1 1.0 0.2
900 4.7 5500 5.0
1000 4.8 1.8 0.6 6000 5.9 2.2
1100 5.3 6500 6.8
1200 6.0 2.0 0.8 7000 8.0
1300 7.9 2.8 0.9 7500 9.0
1400 9.0 3.0 1.0 8000 4.0
1500 4.0 10000 5.0 0.5
1600 4.8 1.3 11000 6.0
1700 5.0 12000 8.0
1800 6.0 1.8 13000 10
2000 6.8 2.0 15000 1.0 0.3
2300 8.8 2.8 20000 2.0 0.5
2500 3.0 25000 3.0 0.9
2600 3.5 30000 4.5 1.5
2800 4.0 35000 6.0 2.0
3000 4.5 40000 7.9 2.8
3200 5.0 45000 10 3.4
3500 6.0 50000 4.0
3600 6.8 55000 4.8
3800 7.0 60000 6.0
4000 7.9 65000 7.0
4300 9.0 70000 8.0
4500 10 75000 9.5
Add 10% for friction losses due to fittings etc.
(Note: To convert Liters/sec into Cu. ft/min, multiply the former by 2.119 and then divide by
60 to get the result in cusecs, 1 inch = 2.54 cm or 25.4 mm, 1 m = 3.281 ft.)
For more realistic calculation of frictional losses due to fittings the following Table -9 should
be consulted.
Table 9: Frictional Losses due to fittings

Fittings Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe in Meters
Sluice valve 4.6
Non-return valve 6.0
Foot valve 6.0
Strainer 12.0
Bends 4.6
Sec-II-2-31
Third Edition
Head loss due to friction (HLf) in pipes is expressed as:
HL = 4f L V2
2dg
Where:
f = Coefficient of friction of pipe material.

L = Length of pipe (ft).
V = Velocity of flow of water in the pipe (ft/sec).
d = Diameter of pipe (in).
g = Gravitational constant.
Other losses as mentioned above can be calculated as:
Head loss due to (bends, elbows etc) = 0.5 V2

2g
If there are two bends in the pipe, then the value obtained from the above equation should
be multiplied by 2 and so on.
Here it is to be noted that velocity in suction pipe should be assumed as 5 ft/sec (min.)
whereas in delivery pipe as 8 ft/sec (min.). Based on the velocities mentioned above,
diameter of the suction as well as delivery pipe can be calculated.
Design Example
Calculate capacity of pump and motor for lifting 0.5 cusecs of water from a source 10 ft
below the pump house to a height of 15 ft. Efficiency of the pump is 80% and that of motor
is 70%.
First calculate the total head as:

Suction Head = 10 ft
Delivery Head = 15 ft
Other losses (all losses as mentioned) = 5 ft (say after calculation)
Total Head = 30 ft.
Q = 0.5 cusec.
H = 30 ft
 = 62.4 lbs per cubic foot.
HP = 0.5*62.4*30 / 550*0.8
= 2.1 (say 2 HP).
BHP = 2 / 0.7
= 2.85 (say 3 HP)
Hence 2.0 HP pump and 3.0 HP motor is required.
Sec-II-2-32
Third Edition
Irrigation Scheme
SEC-II-3
Third Edition
CONTENTS
SECTION II-3: IRRIGATION SCHEME
1. LIFT IRRIGATION ................................................................................................... SEC-II-3-1

1.1 Systems of Lift Irrigation Schemes ................................................................ SEC-II-3-1
2. IRRIGATION CHANNELS ........................................................................................ SEC-II-3-8
2.1 Design Criteria ............................................................................................... SEC-II-3-8
2.2 Irrigation Water Requirements..................................................................... SEC-II-3-8
2.3 Fixation of Channel Capacity......................................................................... SEC-II-3-8
2.4 Flow Velocities .............................................................................................. SEC-II-3-8
2.5 Freeboard .................................................................................................... SEC-II-3-10
2.6 Side-Slope ................................................................................................... SEC-II-3-10
2.7 Design of Rectangular and Trapezoidal Channel ........................................ SEC-II-3-11
2.8 Design of Parabolic Channel ....................................................................... SEC-II-3-12
3. WATER STORAGE RESERVOIRS ........................................................................... SEC-II-3-14
SEC-II-3
Third Edition
SECTION II-3: IRRIGATION SCHEME
A properly designed irrigation system addresses uniform irrigation application in a timely

manner while minimizing losses and damage to soil, water, air, plant, and animal resources.
Key points in designing an irrigation system include:
 The irrigation system must be able to deliver and apply the amount of water needed to
meet the crop-water requirement.
 Application rates must not exceed the maximum allowable infiltration rate for the soil
type. Excess application rates will result in water loss, soil erosion, and possible surface
sealing. As a result, there may be inadequate moisture in the root zone after irrigation,
and the crop could be damaged.
 Flow rates must be known for proper design and management.
 Soil textures, available soil water holding capacity and crop rooting depth must be
known for planning and designing system application rates, irrigation water
management, and scheduling irrigations so that water applied is beneficially used by the
crop.
 The water supply, capacity, and quality need to be determined and recorded.
 Climatic data - precipitation, wind velocity, temperature, and humidity must be
addressed.
 Topography and field layout must be recorded.
 Farmer’s preferences in irrigation methods, available operation time, farm labor,
cultural practices, and management skills must be noted for selecting and planning the
type and method of irrigation.
1. LIFT IRRIGATION
Lift irrigation is generally defined as lifting of water from perennial sources of rivers with
heavy capacity electric pumps and distributed through pipeline to nearby fields within its
command area in the flood plains of the river. However, the lift irrigation schemes are not
promoted by PPAF in the areas due to depletion of ground water. Furthermore, this scheme
can only be implemented where it is necessary with due approval from PPAF after assessing
the design and need of community at site.
1.1 Systems of Lift Irrigation Schemes
In areas where abundant water in the form of rivers and fertile land exist the projects aim
not only at ensuring continuous supply of water but also aim at increasing agricultural
production and productivity through intensive use of land.
Lift projects should be based on sound technical and economic feasibility. The technical
aspects pertain to the source of water on which the lifts are constructed and the designing
SEC-II-3-1
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of the project. The material input of lift irrigation or design of the lift project will include the
following:
Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of a Lift Irrigation Scheme
Intake Well
An intake well is a small diameter well-constructed in the river near its bank to collect river
water and deliver it to the jackwell through a conduit pipe. An intake well is always located
in the river bed. For lift irrigation schemes on canals an intake well in not necessary and
intake pipe is fixed in a head wall constructed on the canal bank. It is desirable to locate the
well at place where there is a continuous flow even under low water conditions and where
foundation conditions are good.
The other guidelines are:
i. The foundation of the intake structure in erodible river bed should at least be upto the
scour depth computed from Lacey’s formula
R = 1.35 (q2 / f) (1/8)
Where R = Scour depth below FSL (m)
q= Discharge Intensity/unit width of river (cumec/m)
f = Lacey’s silt factor, generally taken as 1.0, f can also be calculated by the equation, f =
1.76d, where d = mean particle size in mm.
SEC-II-3-2
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Where hard rock is available within a reasonable depth below the river bed, foundation of
the intake structure should be taken so as to be at least 0.6 m in the hard rock strata.
ii. The diameter of the intake well should be minimum 1.5 m or twice the diameter of
intake pipe whichever is more.
iii. The height of the intake well is governed by the lowest water level in the river and its
depth below the river bed. The height of the well should be such that at least 0.5 m
water head is always available above the top of outlet pipe from the well.
iv. The top of the well should be covered with a RCC slab with suitable provision for access
to inside of the well for de-silting and repair work.
v. The outside exposed surface of the well should be plastered in 1:4 cement mortar.
Intake Pipe
Water from the intake well carried to the jack well or sump-well through an intake pipe. The
size of pipe is governed by the discharge to be carried but it is generally of 750 mm diameter
for lengths upto 15 m. For larger length of pipe a 1200 mm diameter pipe is mostly used.
The main deciding factor however, is the discharge to be carried. When the length of the
intake pipe exceeds 100 m. an inspection chamber called a manhole should be provided in
the middle for inspection and de-silting purposes.
Jack Well / Sump Well
The water diverted from the river and carried through the intake pipe is collected in a well
called jackwell/Sumpwell from where it is pumped to the command area.
 The term jackwell is used when the pump house is directly over the well in which case
vertical turbine pumps are mostly used.
 When the pump house is located on ground and is near to it the well as called a
sumpwell.
The design of the well is determined by the lowest water level and high flood level of the
river as well as the relief of the river banks.
 If the difference between the lowest water level and the high flood level is within 4.5 m
then centrifugal pump set can be used and sumpwell constructed near the river bank.
 If the difference between lowest water level and high flood level of the river is more
than 4.5m necessitating use of either vertical turbine or submersible pump sets it is
necessary to construct a jackwell.
Functionally, jackwell and sumpwell are the same but their design is based on the relative
river water stages. Where the river bank has high relief it is preferable to construct a
SEC-II-3-3
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jackwell instead of sumpwell though the difference between the lowest water level and high
flood levels may not be more than 4.5 m. This is mainly due to convenience of construction
and approach to the well.
JackWell
A jackwell is an important item of civil works in a lift irrigation scheme. It is generally circular
in shape. The jackwell should be located close to the river but should be so cited as to be
safe against river attack during floods. It should have a free board of about 1 m above the
high flood level.
Size of JackWell: The internal diameter of a jackwell depends upon the size and number of
pumpsets to be installed. Normally 3 pumping units are adequate for most of the lift
irrigation schemes. Tabel-1 indicating the discharge of a lift irrigation scheme and the
corresponding diameter of jackwell is given in below.
Table 1: Discharge of a Lift Irrigation Scheme

Min. Water Column
Internal diameter of
Sr. No. Discharge per Pump (Lps) above Strainer in
Jackwell (m)
Jackwell (m)
1 25 4.0 4.0
2 50 4.5 1.5
3 100 4.5 1.5
4 150 5.0 1.5
5 200 5.0 1.5
6 300 5.5 1.5
7 350 5.5 2.0
8 450 5.5 2.0
9 550 6.0 2.0
10 700 6.0 2.0
The above are optimum diameters but a slightly larger diameter can also be provided so as
to have adequate operating room after leaving enough space for electrical and mechanical
fitting in pump house above jackwell.
Height: The height of jackwell is governed by location of pump intake and the high flood
level. The intake section of the vertical turbine pump should be kept about 2 m. below the
lowest level. This is aimed to provide equitable distribution of water to all the pumps
without causing excessive turbulence. In case of centrifugal pumps the water cover should
not be less than 1.4 m. The top of the jackwell should be 1.0 m above the high flood level or
0.3 m above grand level whichever is more. These two mainly govern total height of a
jackwell.
SumpWell
Where the river water level is within the suction lift of a centrifugal pump a sumpwell is
provided instead of a jackwell. A sumpwell is an open dug well excavated underground and
SEC-II-3-4
Third Edition
having a parapet wall above the ground level. The dimensions of a sumpwell i.e, diameter
and its height depend upon the following factors.
a) Spacing between suction pipes.

b) Diameter of suction pipes
c) Size of foot valve or bell mouth as the case may be
d) Clearance between bottom of bell mouth/foot valve and floor level of well
e) Minimum and maximum water levels.
The sumpwell can either be circular or rectangular in shape. The dimensions of a sumpwell
for various discharges, both for circular and rectangular wells are given in Table-2 below.
Table 2: Circular and Rectangular Wells

Circular Rectangular Clearance between Min. water
Discharge of
Sr. Sumpwell SumpWell well bottom and above foot
each pump
No. diameter Length Width foot valve of pump valve in
set (lps)
(m) (m) (m) (m) sumpwell (m)
1 25 2.5 5.0 2.5 0.6 1.4
2 50 2.75 5.5 2.5 0.6 1.4
3 100 2.75 5.5 2.5 0.6 1.4
4 150 3.25 6.0 3.0 0.6 1.4
5 200 4.0 6.5 3.5 0.6 1.4
6 300 5.0 7.5 4.0 0.6 1.4
7 350 6.0 8.5 4.0 0.6 1.4
8 450 6.5 9.0 4.0 0.6 1.4
9 550 7.5 9.5 4.0 0.6 1.4
10 700 8.5 10.5 4.5 0.6 1.4
Pump House
Pump house for vertical turbine pumps for lift irrigation schemes where vertical turbine
pumps are used it is preferable to provide circular pump house over a circular jackwell. A
rectangular pump house above a circular jackwell is not desirable as it may be structurally
unstable and uneconomical. The floor level of the pump house should be about 0.3 m above
ground level or 1.0 m above high flood level whichever is higher.
The height of the pump house should be kept at 5 m. Gantry arrangements with chain pulley
block can be provided at a height of 4 m above the floor of the pump house. This is very
convenient for handling equipment during erection, dismantling and maintenance. Two
windows of size 1 m x 1.2 m each and one door of 1.5 m x 2.1 m, preferably with rolling
shutter, should be provided in the pump house. A ventilator near the gantry level should
also be provided.
Pump house for centrifugal pumps in lift irrigation schemes horizontal centrifugal, pumps
are generally large units. For their installation the pump house does not have to house the
pumpset alone but also the control panels and other electrical and mechanical fittings. For
such units pump houses are generally constructed rectangular in shape. The size of pump
house for centrifugal units for different discharge is given in table below.
SEC-II-3-5
Third Edition
Table-3 below presents the size of pump houses for centrifugal pumpsets.
Table 3: Size of Pump Houses for Centrifugal Pumpsets

Discharge of each pump Size of pump house
Sr.No.
(lps) Length (m) Width (m) Height (m)
1 25 6.25 2.75 3.25
2 50 6.25 2.75 3.25
3 100 6.25 2.75 3.25
4 150 7.25 3.5 3.25
5 200 7.25 3.5 3.25
6 300 8.5 4.0 4.0
7 350 9.75 4.25 4.25
8 450 9.75 4.25 4.25
9 550 10.25 4.5 4.5
10 700 12.75 4.75 4.5
Main Pipeline/Rising Main
It includes a cement pipe, with radius ranging from 0.5 meter to 2 meter depending on the
volume of water to flow into the pipe line. The main pipeline has been connected to the jack
well and sump-well which are situated on the river bank and command area of the scheme
respectively.
Table-4 below gives the recommended diameter of suction and delivery pipe in the
discharge range of 20 to 500 litres/sec. While using he pipe sizes given in Table care should
be taken to keep the pipes as straight as possible by avoiding bends.
Table 4: Recommended Diameter of Suction and delivery pipe

Pipe diameter (mm)
Sr.No. Discharge (lps)
Suction Delivery
1 20 125 100
2 30 150 125
3 50 200 150
4 100 300 250
5 150 350 300
6 200 400 350
7 250 450 400
8 300 500 450
9 350 550 500
10 400 600 550
11 450 600 600
12 500 650 650
We should select the rising main pipe diameter such that friction losses do not exceed 3m
per 1000 m. length of the pipe. A pipe diameter which is larger of the two as given by
velocity and friction head criteria should be adopted.
The friction losses in a piping main can be computed from any of the following equations.
SEC-II-3-6
Third Edition
(i) Darcy- Weisbach Formula
Hf = flv2 / 2gd
Where,
hf=Loss of head due to friction in m
F =Coefficient of friction for the type of pipe (generally taken as 0.003 to 0.01)
L = Length of pipe in m
D = Internal diameter of pipe in m
V = Velocity of water in m/sec and
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2)
(ii) William Hazen Formula
V = 0.85 CR2/3 S1/2

Where
V=Velocity of water in m/sec
C = Coefficient of friction for the pipe material taken as 130 for concrete pipes.
R = hydraulic mean depth of pipe in metre (d) for circular pipes flowing full
S = hydraulic gradient
Using friction losses as a guiding factor and keeping them below the permissible limit of 3
m/1000 m the diameter of RCC pipes for different discharges are worked out on the basis of
above formulae and the higher of these is recommended as given in Table-5 below.
Table 5: Recommended Diameters of RCC

Sr. No. Discharge (lps) Recommended Diameter (mm)
1 20 250
2 30 250
3 50 300
4 100 400
5 150 450
6 200 450
7 250 500
8 300 600
9 350 600
10 400 600
11 450 700
12 500 700
13 550 700
14 700 800
15 800 800
16 900 900
17 950 900
18 1000 900
Laying of Sub line
It includes PVC pipe which is used for the distribution of water in the command area. The
radius ranges from 30 mm to 240 mm.
SEC-II-3-7
Third Edition
Electric Pump
The device for lifting the water is an electric pump of heavy capacity. The capacity of pumps
ranges from 30 H.P. to 500 H.P. It depends on the extended of command area.
2. IRRIGATION CHANNELS
2.1 Design Criteria
Irrigation channels are constructed for conveying water from natural streams/nallahs to the
land to be irrigated. These earthen channels are main source of irrigation in hilly and barani
areas of Pakistan. Design of earthen channels to be constructed and maintained by the
communities should be so simple, that the community can easily construct them with
minimum external support, and operate and maintain efficiently. Depending upon the
topography and soil type, cross-section of the channel and its bed slope is designed to
achieve maximum conveyance efficiency (minimum water loss), prevent silting and scouring,
and keep the full supply level (FSL) high enough to provide a proper working head to whole
of the command area. Typical channel cross-sections are shown in Figure-2.
2.2 Irrigation Water Requirements
Design capacity of the irrigation channel depends upon the quantity of water required for
growing crops, forest, orchard etc. on the land to be irrigated by the channel i.e. command
area of the channel. Therefore, estimation of Irrigation Water Requirements is essential.
Quantity of water required for irrigation depends upon the crop water requirements and
losses in the system. Sum of these two is termed as Irrigation Water Requirements. Crop
water requirement for each crop vary from region to region depending upon the climatic
conditions such as air temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind speed etc and soil type.
Losses in the system mainly depend upon the climate and types of channel bed material.
There are various methods of estimating water requirements, but the simplest one that can
be easily used by the engineers is explained in Annexure-2.
2.3 Fixation of Channel Capacity
Channel capacity is fixed by keeping in view the water requirements, water availability and
conveyance losses. Water requirements are the crop water requirements converted in
number of acres or hectares to be irrigated with one cusecs of discharge. Conveyance losses
depend upon the channel bed material. If the channel passes through an area that has
porous soils with relatively high infiltration rate heavy losses are expected. Estimated
conveyance losses are added to the design capacity of the channel.
2.4 Flow Velocities
Flow velocities in channels should be non-silting and non-scouring. Erosion occurs if the
velocity is too high, whereas, low velocity causes silt deposition in the channel. Drop
structure may be required to reduce the channel slope and velocity. The maximum and
minimum permissible velocities for various channel bed materials are given in the Table 6.
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Third Edition
Table 6: Maximum and Minimum Velocities with Side Slopes

Velocity
Channel Bed Material Side Slope in Cut Side Slope in Fill
(m/sec)
Concrete 4.6 to 7.6 1.5:1 (cut/fill)
Hard Rock 3.05 to 4.60 0.125:1 to 0.25:1 -
Soft Rock 1.35 to 2.45 0.25:1 to 0.5:1 -
Hard Clay or Gravel 1.10 0.75:1 to 1:1 1.5:1
Soft Clay 0.15 to 0.23 1:1 1.5:1 to 2:1
Sandy Loam 0.75 to 0.85 2:1 2:1 to 3:1
Figure 2: Typical Channel Cross – Sections (Rectangular)
SEC-II-3-9
Third Edition
Figure 3: Typical Channel Cross – Sections (Trapezoidal)
2.5 Freeboard
Freeboard is the berm height above the maximum designed water surface level. It is
provided to avoid spill over the banks due to fluctuations in the water surface. The
maximum freeboard requirement is based on the assumption that the finished bed
elevation will not deviate more than two centimeters from the designed elevation. More
freeboard may be provided if required for berm settlement, siltation, or expected poor
maintenance. Minimum freeboard requirements are given in Table-7.
Table 7: Minimum free-board requirement

Min. Free-Board
Type of Channel
Requirement
1/3 of design flow depth or
Earthen channels
15 cms, whichever is greater.
Rectangular lined channels 10 cms
Trapezoidal lined channels 7.5 cms
2.6 Side-Slope
Earthen channels should be designed to have stable side-slopes. Side-slopes for design flow
depths that are not greater than 2.5 m are given in Table-6.
SEC-II-3-10
Third Edition
2.7 Design of Rectangular and Trapezoidal Channel
 The water surface should be kept at a level where flow irrigation is possible. Slope of the
channel generally conforms to the slope of the country. A minimum slope of 1 in 5000 is
ordinarily adopted. Two opposing forces primarily control the flow of water in an open
channel: gravity and friction. The moving force is gravity and its strength are
proportional to the slope of the channel. On the other hand, the opposing force trying to
retard the flow of water is friction, which depends on roughness of the channel bed,
walls and shape of the cross section. The hydraulic formulae can be used to compute the
channel velocity and cross-section requirements.
 Manning’s formula is most commonly used for the design of earthen channels. It is a
relationship derived for estimating the flow velocities in the channel as given below;
2/3 1/2
V = 1/n x R xS
Where:
V = Velocity of flow (m/sec.)

n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (given in Table 8)
R = Hydraulic Radius = A/P A is area in square meters and
P is wetted perimeter in meters
S = Bed Slope of the channel (m/m)
Manning’s formula in FPS system is;
V = 1.486/n x R2/3 x S1/2
The channel capacity (Q) is calculated by;
Q = AV
 The fixation of channel cross-section by using Manning’s equation is iterative process.

Channel bed and width are varied till the desired discharge and velocities are obtained.
The design velocity should be kept within the specified range. The proportioning of bed
width and depth should be so as to achieve maximum hydraulic efficiency i.e. the cross-
section giving maximum hydraulic radius R.
 The roughness coefficient, also known as the Manning’s “n” is the resistance or friction
between the water and the channel. Channel conditions that have the greatest influence
on “n” value are physical roughness of bottom and sides of the channel, vegetation,
variations in size and cross-section, channel alignment, silting or scouring and
obstructions.
 It is common practice to use two “n” values in designing small earthen channels since
channel conditions change with time. The “n” value of a new straight and uniform
channel is lower, the condition giving the fastest velocity. The “n” value of the aged and
SEC-II-3-11
Third Edition
vegetated channel is high, the condition requiring the larger cross-section. The higher
value of “n” is used to ensure that the channel has adequate capacity under the
conditions offering the most resistance. The lower value of “n” is used to determine if
the velocity is non-erosive under the newly constructed or cleaned conditions. The
values of “n” for small channels are given in Table 8.
Table 8: Manning’s Roughness Coefficient “n”

Description Minimum Maximum Recommended
Unlined Earthen Channels
 New-straight and uniform 0.020 0.025 0.025
 Aged and vegetated with:
0.030 0.040
a) Short grass 0.035
0.050 0.080
b) Long grass
Lined Channels
 Concrete 0.012 0.018 0.014
 Brick plastered 0.012 0.018 0.013
 Brick unplastered 0.012 0.020 0.018
2.8 Design of Parabolic Channel
For lining of water courses the best practical solution is precast concrete parabolic
segments. The parabolic cross section shape is for many situations the best practical shape
for an open channel. One of its advantages is the ability to maintain a higher velocity at low
discharge which reduces the tendency to deposit sediment. Another is its greater depth at
low discharges which enables it to carry floating and semi-floating debris more easily than a
flat-bottomed channel.
Geometric Properties of Parabolic Sections

A parabolic section is described by the equation;
Y = aX2
Where Y = vertical co-ordinate; X = abscissa; and a = shape parameter (Figure -4 below).
SEC-II-3-12
Third Edition
Figure 4 Geometric Properties of Parabolic Section
It can be shown that the total area At is given by;

At = 8/3 (y + f)2 z1
and flow area A as
A = 8/3 zy2
in which y = the flow depth (m); f = freeboard (m); 1/z1 is the side slope at the top bank
level, and 1/z is the side slope at the water surface level.
It can also be shown that z1 and z are related by the equation
z = z1 √ 1 + k
where
k = f/y
Thus flow area A can be expressed as

A = 8/3 y2 z1 √ 1 + k
Top width T is given by
T = 4z1y(1 + k)
Wetted perimeter, W, is given by
W = y j (z)
where
j(z) = 2z2 [1/z √ 1 + 1/z2 + ln (1/z + √ 1 + 1/z2)
Table 9 below gives values of Y for different values of z1 and k.
SEC-II-3-13
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Table 9: Values of Y for Different Values of z1 and k

Y
z1
k=0 k = 0.1 k = 0.2 k = 0.3 k = 0.4 k = 0.5 k = 0.6 k = 0.7 k = 0.8 k = 0.9 k = 1.0
0.1 2.7401 2.6616 2.5920 2.5297 2.4735 2.4223 2.3756 2.3325 2.2927 2.2557 2.2212
0.2 1.8090 1.7595 1.7157 1.6766 1.6413 1.6093 1.5800 1.5531 1.5283 1.5052 1.4837
0.3 1.4359 1.3986 1.3657 1.3363 1.3098 1.2857 1.2638 1.2436 1.2250 1.2078 1.1917
0.4 1.2290 1.1987 1.1719 1.1480 1.1265 1.1069 1.0891 1.0727 1.0576 1.0436 1.0305
0.5 1.0956 1.0698 1.0470 1.0266 1.0083 0.9916 0.9764 0.9624 0.9495 0.9375 0.9264
0.6 1.0014 0.9788 0.9587 0.9408 0.9247 0.9100 0.8966 0.8843 0.8729 0.8623 0.8524
0.7 0.9307 0.9104 0.8924 0.8762 0.8617 0.8485 0.8364 0.8253 0.8149 0.8054 0.7964
0.8 0.8753 0.8567 0.8402 0.8255 0.8121 0.8000 0.7889 0.7787 0.7692 0.7604 0.7521
0.9 0.8304 0.8131 0.7979 0.7842 0.7718 0.7605 0.7502 0.7406 0.7318 0.7236 0.7159
1 0.7930 0.7768 0.7625 0.7497 0.7381 0.7275 0.7178 0.7088 0.7005 0.6927 0.6855
1.1 0.7612 0.7460 0.7324 0.7203 0.7093 0.6993 0.6901 0.6816 0.6737 0.6663 0.6594
1.2 0.7337 0.7193 0.7064 0.6948 0.6844 0.6748 0.6660 0.6579 0.6504 0.6433 0.6368
1.3 0.7096 0.6958 0.6835 0.6725 0.6624 0.6533 0.6449 0.6371 0.6298 0.6231 0.6168
1.4 0.6883 0.6751 0.6632 0.6526 0.643 0.6341 0.6260 0.6185 0.6116 0.6051 0.5990
1.5 0.6692 0.6564 0.6451 0.6348 0.6255 0.6170 0.6091 0.6019 0.5951 0.5888 0.5830
1.6 0.6520 0.6396 0.6286 0.6187 0.6097 0.6014 0.5938 0.5868 0.5803 0.5742 0.5684
1.7 0.6363 0.6243 0.6136 0.6040 0.5953 0.5872 0.5799 0.5730 0.5667 0.5607 0.5552
1.8 0.6220 0.6103 0.5999 0.5906 0.5820 0.5742 0.5671 0.5604 0.5542 0.5484 0.5430
1.9 0.6088 0.5975 0.5873 0.5782 0.5699 0.5623 0.5553 0.5488 0.5427 0.5371 0.5318
2 0.5966 0.5855 0.5756 0.5667 0.5586 0.5512 0.5443 0.5380 0.5321 0.5266 0.5214
2.1 0.5853 0.5745 0.5648 0.5561 0.5481 0.5409 0.5342 0.5279 0.5222 0.5168 0.5117
2.2 0.5747 0.5641 0.5547 0.5461 0.5383 0.5312 0.5247 0.5186 0.5129 0.5076 0.5026
2.3 0.5648 0.5545 0.5452 0.5368 0.5292 0.5222 0.5158 0.5098 0.5042 0.4990 0.4942
2.4 0.5556 0.5454 0.5363 0.5281 0.5206 0.5137 0.5074 0.5015 0.4961 0.4910 0.4862
2.5 0.5468 0.5368 0.5279 0.5198 0.5125 0.5057 0.4995 0.4938 0.4884 0.4834 0.4787
2.6 0.5386 0.5288 0.5200 0.5120 0.5048 0.4982 0.4921 0.4864 0.4811 0.4762 0.4716
2.7 0.5308 0.5211 0.5125 0.5047 0.4976 0.4911 0.4850 0.4795 0.4743 0.4694 0.4648
2.8 0.5234 0.5139 0.5054 0.4977 0.4907 0.4843 0.4783 0.4729 0.4677 0.4629 0.4585
2.9 0.5164 0.5070 0.4986 0.4911 0.4842 0.4778 0.4720 0.4666 0.4615 0.4568 0.4524
3 0.5097 0.5005 0.4922 0.4847 0.4779 0.4717 0.4659 0.4606 0.4556 0.4510 0.4466
3. WATER STORAGE RESERVOIRS
Purpose
Conserve water by holding it in storage until it is used to meet crop irrigation requirements.
Conditions Where Practice Applies

This practice applies to irrigation water storage structures that meet all the following
criteria:
1. The water supply available to the irrigated area is insufficient to meet conservation
irrigation requirements during part or all of the irrigation season.
SEC-II-3-14
Third Edition
2. Water is available for storage from surface runoff, stream flow, or a subsurface source.
3. A suitable site is available for the construction of a storage reservoir.
Storage reservoirs shall be planned and located to serve as an integral part of an irrigation
system. The installation and operation of an Irrigation Storage Reservoir shall comply with
all federal, state and local laws, rules and regulations.
The criteria for the design of components shall be consistent with sound engineering
principles.
Irrigation: The amount of water required to meet variations in water demand within the
growing season must be determined to calculate storage requirements.
Storage: Irrigation storage reservoirs shall be designed to satisfy irrigation requirements in

the design area, unless limited by reservoir site characteristics, available watershed yield, or
limitations imposed by water rights. Additional capacity shall be provided as needed for
sediment storage.
Capacity: Reservoir capacity required to satisfy irrigation demands shall be computed

according to the length of the storage period, the anticipated inflow and outflow during this
period, and the expected seepage and evaporation losses.
If storage capacity is limited, benefits may be evaluated on the basis of the more frequent
availability of water to satisfy irrigation demands for the design area.
Type of structures: The type of dam, embankment, or ponds and appurtenant structures
shall be based on site-specific hydrologic studies, engineering, geologic investigations, and
construction materials.
Outlet works: Outlet works shall be provided for the controlled withdrawal or release of
irrigation water. Outlet works may consist of a direct pumping system, or a water control
structure such as a gated conduit through or over the embankment for gravitational flow to
the irrigated area, to a pumping plant or another storage facility.
The capacity of the outlet works shall be sufficient to meet peak period irrigation system
demands.
Considerations
When planning this practice the following items should be considered, as applicable:
1. Short-term and construction-related effects on the quality of downstream water

courses.
2. Potential for earth moving during construction to uncover or redistribute toxic materials.
Consider the effects on:
1. The water budget, especially on evaporation, transpiration rates of runoff, infiltration,

percolation, and ground water recharge.
SEC-II-3-15
Third Edition
2. Downstream flows or aquifers that would affect other water uses or users.
3. The volume of downstream flow that could have undesirable environmental, social, or
economic effects.
4. Erosion, sediment, soluble contaminants, and contaminants attached to sediment in
runoff.
5. The movement of dissolved substances to ground water.
6. Downstream waters such as water temperature changes that could cause undesirable
effects on aquatic and wildlife communities.
7. Wetlands or water-related wildlife habitats.
8. The visual quality of water resources.
9. Cultural resources.
Plans and Specifications

Plans and specifications for constructing irrigation storage reservoirs shall be in keeping with
this standard and shall describe the requirements for applying the practice to achieve its
intended purposes.
Operations and Maintenance

An Operation and Maintenance plan shall be prepared for use by the landowner or
operator. The plan shall provide specific instructions for operating and maintaining facilities
to ensure they function properly. The plan shall include the following provisions:
1. Periodic cleaning and re-grading of collection facilities to maintain proper flow lines and
functionality.
2. Periodic checks and removal of debris from trash racks and from inlet and outlet
structures to assure proper operation.
3. Periodic removal of sediment to maintain design capacity and efficiency.
4. Routine maintenance of all mechanical components in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
5. Periodic inspection and maintenance of embankments and earth spillways to control
erosion and undesirable vegetation.
6. Periodic water quality analysis as necessary to evaluate nutrients, pesticides, and
pathogens.
SEC-II-3-16
Third Edition
Communication Schemes
SEC-II-4
Third Edition
CONTENTS
SECTION II-4: COMMUNICATION SCHEMES
1. LINK ROAD .............................................................................................................Sec-II-4-1

1.1 Hilly Track .......................................................................................................Sec-II-4-6
1.2 Brick Pavement ..............................................................................................Sec-II-4-9
1.3 Plain Cement Concrete Pavement ...............................................................Sec-II-4-10
1.4 Earthen Roads ..............................................................................................Sec-II-4-13
2. CULVERTS.............................................................................................................Sec-II-4-15
3. BRIDGES – UPTO 40 FEET SPAN ...........................................................................Sec-II-4-17
4. CAUSEWAY ..........................................................................................................Sec-II-4-20
SEC-II-4
Third Edition
SECTION II-4: COMMUNICATION SCHEMES
1. LINK ROAD
A hill road may be defined as the one which passes through a terrain with a cross slope of
25% or more. There may be sections along hill roads with the cross slope less than 25%,
especially when the road follows a river route. Even then these sections are also referred to
as hill roads. Hence, to establish a hill road overall terrain must be taken into account.
The hilly regions generally have extremes of climatic conditions, difficult and hazardous
terrains, topography and vast high-altitude areas. The region is sparsely populated and basic
infrastructural facilities available in plain terrain are absent. Hence, a strong stable and
feasible road must be present in hilly areas for overall development of other sectors as well.
Design and Construction Problems
Design and Construction of roads in hills and mountain are more complex than in plain
terrain. It is due to several factors associated in the region. They are:
 A hilly or mountainous area is characterized by highly broken relief with vastly differing
elevations and steep slopes, deep gorges etc. which may unnecessarily increase road
length.
 The geological condition varies from place to place.
 Hill slopes stable before construction may not be as stable due to increased human
activities.
 There may be variation in hydro-geological conditions which may easily be overlooked
during design and construction.
 Due to highly broken relief construction of special structures should be done at different
places. This increases the cost of the construction.
 Variation in the climatic condition such as the change in temperature due to altitude
difference, pressure variation, precipitation increases at greater height etc.
 High-speed runoff occurs due to the presence of high cross slopes.
 Filling may overload the weak soil underneath which may trigger new slides.
 The need of design of hairpin bends to attain heights.
Special Consideration in Hill Road Design
Alignment of Hill Roads
Selecting an alignment in the hilly region is a complex task. The designer should attempt to
choose a short, easy, economical and safe comforting route.
General Considerations
When designing hill roads, the route is located along valleys, hill sides and if required over
mountain passes. Due to complex topography, the length of the route is automatically
increased. Due to harsh geological conditions, special structures also have to be provided.
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Apart from the highly broken relief which has a fixed role in determining the alignment and
location of special structures, climatic and geological conditions are also important. In
locating the alignment special consideration should be made in respect to the variations in:
A. Temperature
B. Rainfall
C. Atmospheric pressure and winds
D. Geological conditions
A. Temperature
 Air temperature is in the hills is lower than in the valley. The temperature drop being
approximately 0.5 C° per 100 m of rising.
 On slopes facing south and southwest snow disappears rapidly and rain water
evaporates quickly while on slopes facing north and northeast rain water or snow may
remain for the longer time.
 Unequal warming of slopes, sharp temperature variations and erosion by water are the
causes of slope facing south and southwest.
B. Rainfall
 Rainfall increases with increase in sea level.

 The maximum rainfall is in the zone of intensive cloud formation at 1500-2500 m above
sea level. Generally, the increase of rainfall for every 100 m of elevation averages 40 to
60 mm.
 In summer heavy storms may occur in the hills and about 15 to 25% of the annual may
occur in a single rainfall. The effects of these types of rainfall are serious and should be
considered well.
C. Atmospheric Pressure and Winds
 Atmospheric Pressure decreases with increase in elevation.

 At high altitudes, the wind velocities may reach up to 25-30 m/s and depth of frost
penetration is also 1.5 to 2 m.
 Intensive weathering of rocks because of sharp temperature variations which cause high
winds.
D. Geological Conditions
 The inclination of folds may vary from horizontal to vertical stratification of rock. These
folds often have faults. Limestone or sandstone folds may be interleaved with layers of
clay which when wetted may cause fracturing along their surface. This may result in
shear or slip fold.
 The degree of stability of hill slopes depends on types of rock, degree of strata
inclination or dip, occurrence of clay seams, the hardness of the rocks and presence of
ground water.
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Geometric Design
Geometric design deals with the design of geometric elements of a road and fixation of
standards with respect to various components such as:
1. Road cross-section.
2. Horizontal alignment.
3. Vertical alignment.
1. Road Structure
Road structure covers the entire right-of-way, which is the area, occupied by the road within
the boundary lines of private properties on two sides. Figure-1 shows complete details of a
typical road. At the time of acquiring land for the right-of-way for a new road, future
developments should be accounted for a period of about twenty to fifty years. The following
Table-1 shows recommended land widths for a village/low cost road.
Table 1: Recommended Right of way/Land Width for a village road

Plain or Rolling Area Hilly Area
Desirable Minimum Desirable Minimum
m (ft) m (ft) m (ft) m (ft)
6.5 6 5.5 4
(22) (20) (18) (14)
Figure 1: Typical Road Cross-Section (Definition of Highway Terms)
Recommended width of carriage way for a village road is 3.65 m (12 ft).
Sec-II-4-3
Third Edition
Camber
Camber is the cross-sectional slope of the road from center to the edges. It is provided
for draining the rainwater from the surface. The rougher the surface the steeper must
be the camber. Camber is provided on all straight reaches of the road and super
elevation is provided in the curved portion. Although it is difficult to provide camber on
earthen roads from construction and maintenance point of view, however, a camber of
1 in 16 to 24 from the edge to the crown is recommended.
2. Horizontal Alignment
Following points need to be taken care of while designing horizontal alignment of a road.
1. Alignment should be consistent with the topography of the area.

2. Surprise elements such as sharp curves after easy alignment should be avoided.
3. On high and long embankments, only flat curves should be used.
4. Reverse curves, which introduce abrupt reversal in the direction of the motion of
vehicle, should be avoided.
5. Curved approaches to the bridges should be avoided.
Super Elevation
Super Elevation is defined as the raising of the outer edge of the road along a curve in order
to counteract the effect of centrifugal force. Super elevation is not generally required for
earthen/gravel roads.
\Mathematical expression for calculating super elevation is given as under:
e = V2 / 224 R (MKS system)

where:
e = super elevation
V = design speed (Km/hr)
R = radius of curve (m)
Calculated values of desirable rate of super elevation subject to maximum value “e=1/15 or
0.067” for various design speeds and curve Radius are given in the following Table-2:
Table 2: Desirable Rate of Super Elevation for Various Design Speeds.

Curve Radius Design Speed (km/h)
(m) 25 30 35 40 50 60 65 80 100
30 0.067 - - - - - - - -
40 0.067 0.067 - - - - - - -
50 0.056 0.067 0.067 - - - - - -
60 0.046 0.067 0.067 0.067 - - - - -
80 0.035 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.067 - - - -
100 0.028 0.040 0.055 0.067 0.067 0.067 - - -
Sec-II-4-4
Third Edition
Curve Radius Design Speed (km/h)

(m) 25 30 35 40 50 60 65 80 100
120 0.023 0.033 0.045 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.067 - -
150 0.018 0.027 0.036 0.048 0.067 0.067 0.067 0.067 -
200 0.014 0.021 0.027 0.036 0.056 0.067 0.067 0.067 0.067
300 - 0.013 0.018 0.024 0.037 0.054 0.063 0.067 0.067
400 - - 0.014 0.018 0.028 0.040 0.047 0.067 0.067
500 - - - 0.014 0.022 0.032 0.038 0.060 0.067
600 - - - - 0.019 0.027 0.031 0.050 0.067
800 - - - - 0.014 0.020 0.024 0.038 0.056
1000 - - - - - 0.016 0.019 0.030 0.045
If design speed is 30 km/h and radius of curve is 80 m, then from the above table super
elevation required is 0.050 m (5 cm). This means the outer edge of the road along the curve
should be 5cm higher than the inner edge
Circular Curve
Road curves are provided at the turns along the alignment of the road. It is a circular arc
that connects two straight lengths of the road.
The minimum radius of curvature of the simple circular curve is calculated from the
equation:
R(min) = 0.037 V2
Recommended values of radii (simple circular curve) for low cost roads are given below:
1. For design speed of 32 km/h (20 mph) desirable value of radius of curve is 30m (100 ft)
whereas minimum value is 15 m (50 ft).
2. For design speed of 48 km/h (30 mph) desirable value of radius of curve is 300m (1000
ft) whereas minimum value is 80 m (250 ft).
3. Vertical Alignment
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall of road surface along its alignment and it is expressed
as ratio of one vertical to so many horizontal, which is the distance measured along the
road. Maximum allowable gradient for hilly roads is 1 in 7.5.
The following criteria are laid down for the vertical alignment:
1. The cuts and fills should be so adjusted as to achieve a smooth vertical alignment
consistent with economy.
2. Sudden hidden and unexpected dips are undesirable.
Sec-II-4-5
Third Edition
3. Where the length of a grade line is sufficiently large, it is preferable to provide steeper
grades at the bottom of an upgrade and go on making it milder till the top is reached,
instead of making it a sustained uniform grade.
1.1 Hilly Track
Cut Construction
Cut construction involves excavation, cutting into the ground to remove soil and relocating
it where you want it. This results in the formation of a bench or flat surface that forms the
walking track. A full cut bench track involves cutting to the full width required to construct
the track surface.
Full bench cuts:
 Are necessary when side slopes are over 25º (50%)

 Will require less maintenance on this slope.
 The batter is the excavated exposed face above the track surface and should have the
top rounded, 200 mm either side of the high point, as close as possible to the original
slope.
 Will generally provide surplus material. This can be relocated and used as fill elsewhere
on the track to even out gradients.
 Should have exposed roots on the cut batter neatly trimmed flush with the batter face.
Cut and Fill Construction
Cut and fill construction involves cutting into the uphill side slope and placing fill on the
downhill slope. Cut and fill formation results in a bench finish. An advantage of
implementing the cut and fill technique is that the volume of material moved is less and the
size of the inside batter is lower in height creating a lower visual impact. Cut and fill:
When used on side slopes between 17º - 25º (31- 47%)
 Construction only works where the side slope is less than the maximum fill batter slope
for the soil as specified in Table-3.
 Fill placed on the downslope needs to be placed on a small bench measuring 300 mm
that is sloped into the hill slightly and compacted in layers to form a stable surface.
 All fill material needs to be compacted in layers no greater than 250 mm prior to
compaction.
 Should be constructed with a ¾ bench and ¼ fill as the track walking surface.
 Needs the organic material saved, leaf litter or any topsoil, this can be used to spread
over the fill and make it look as though the track has been there for some time.
 Should have the top of the batter rounded, 200 mm either side of the high point, as
close as possible to the original slope.
Sec-II-4-6
Third Edition
When used on side slopes between 6º-17º (10 – 31%)
 ½ bench and ½ fill.

 Save the organic material, leaf litter or any topsoil, this can be used to spread over the
fill and make it look as though the track has been there for some time.
 A small bench measuring 300 mm will need to be cut down slope to provide a flat
platform for the fill material.
 Fill slope shall be a maximum as specified in Table 4.
 All fill material needs to be compacted in layers no greater than 250 mm prior to
compaction.
 Should have the top of the batter rounded, 200 mm either side of the high point, as
close as possible to the original slope.
Fill Construction
Fill construction involves the use of material placed on site to form a walking track. There is
no bench associated with this construction. Refer to Table 5 for maximum fill batter slopes.
Cut and Fill Material
The following table indicates soil types that in practical terms are suitable for track
construction.
Table 3: Soil types for track construction

Suitable for use as Fill Material Not suitable for use as Fill Material
Firm clay/silt soils Peat/ organic humus
Sands/gravels Topsoil
Boulder clay Soft clay/silt soils
Weathered rock
Checking Fill Compaction
Compaction may be checked when undertaking fill formation work. The Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer can be used to indicate the compaction of soil and/or fill materials. The
theory is that the resistance to penetration is an indication of the degree of compaction of
the fill, and in simple applications it seems to work well.
The cone is on the end of a long rod, approximately a meter long. This means a considerable
depth of soil/fill can be tested, not just the surface layer.
 If you need a large number of blows to cause the cone to penetrate a short distance the
soil/material is well compacted.
 If the cone penetrates easily with few blows the soil/material is poorly compacted or
unsuitable.
 Can indicate where soil/fill has been placed in layers which are too thick, with only the
surface being compacted.
Sec-II-4-7
Third Edition
 The results can be expressed as the number of blows for a measured length of
penetration, or alternatively, the length of penetration for a single blow, and it is normal
to plot results on a graph. This way it is possible to distinguish between different layers
of fill.
Batter Stabilization
The batter is the excavated exposed face above the track surface. Table 4 & 5 offers a guide
to maximum slopes for varying soil types. Adjustments may need to be made based on local
examples. Depending on the nature of the soil a geotechnical assessment may be required.
Table 4: Maximum Cut Batter Slope

Material Percentage Degrees Horizontal vs Vertical
Rock 90o Vertical
Firm Clay 400% 76o 0.25:1
Soft Clay 100% 45o 1:1
Pumice 90o Vertical
Ash 100% 45o 1:1
Table 5: Maximum Fill Batter Slope

Material Percentage Degrees Horizontal vs Vertical
Quarry Rock 67% 34o 1.5:1
Clay 50% 26o 2.0:1
Pumice 33% 18o 3.0:1
Ash 33% 18o 3.0:1
Formation Construction
 Ensure all alignment work has been completed and pegs are clearly marked at the level of
formation.
 Ensure the work site area is clearly marked. Disturbance can only take place within the
marked area.
 Remove all leaf litter and organic material as required and store in a suitable location for
later use.
 Where it is not practical to remove all organic material, use of a geo-textile separator
may be required.
 Excavate and relocate material as required to achieve the formation and gradient
specified. Relocation of material can help even out some grades, be used as cover over
tree roots, or fill steps and retaining walls. Surplus material should not be side cast.
 All fill material needs to be compacted in layers no greater than 250 mm (prior to
compaction).
 Install water management including side drains and drainage dips etc as formation takes
place or at the end of each day. Never leave a new formation without water management
in place.
 Shape and compact the formation surface (crown, outslope or inslope). This is necessary
even if the completed formation is the finished track surface. An un-compacted surface
Sec-II-4-8
Third Edition
will quickly become concave. Strengthening of the sub-grade, the soil on which the
pavement structure is constructed is good practice as it will help maintain track shape.
Track pavement is the collective term for the layers that combine to form protection of
the sub-grade.
 Mark the formed surface at the correct distance in preparation for aggregate.
 Shape and compact aggregate.
1.2 Brick Pavement
Brick Selection and Application Guideline
 Determine if application is pedestrian, light duty

vehicular or heavy duty vehicular.
 Pattern – Use herringbone pattern for pavements

subject to vehicular traffic.
Figure 2: Typical Section of Brick Pavement
Figure 3: Basic Components of a Concrete Pavement
 Pattern – Design flexibility into layout to accommodate field conditions.

 Drainage – Provide a minimum slope of ¼ in. per foot (2 percent grade).
 Clay Pavers – For heavy duty vehicular applications, such as streets, commercial
driveways and industrial applications, use clay pavers complying with ASTM C1272.
 Setting Bed – Use concrete sand complying with ASTM C33.
Sec-II-4-9
Third Edition
 Setting Bed – Min. ¾ in. (19 mm) to max. 1 in. (25 mm) thickness after compaction.
 Joints - Min. 1 ⁄16 in. (1.6 mm) to max. 3 ⁄16 in. (4.8 mm) wide.
 Joints - Optimum joint width for vehicular traffic is between 1 ⁄16 and ⅛ in. (1.6 and 3.2
mm).
1.3 Plain Cement Concrete Pavement
Figure 4: Typical Section of PCC Pavement
Materials used in Plain Cement Concrete
1. Cement: Ordinary Portland cement is most widely used for concrete pavements.
Sec-II-4-10
Third Edition
2. Aggregates: There are two types of aggregates are used during construction of road i.e.
fine and coarse aggregate depending upon the requirement. Max. size aggregate should
not exceed 1/4th of the thickness of the slab.
3. Water: Water used in mixing and curing of the concrete shall be clean and free from
injurious amounts of oils, salts, acid vegetable matter or other substances harmful to the
finished concrete. Potable waters generally considered satisfactory for mixing and curing
of concrete.
Equipment Used
A list of tools, equipment and appliances required for the different phases of concrete road
construction is given below;
 Three wheeled or vibrator roller for compaction purpose.

 Shovels, spades and sieving screens.
 Concrete mixer for mixing of concrete.
 Formwork and iron stakes.
 Water carriers and watering cans.
 Wooden hand tampers for concrete compaction.
Site Preparation
Before construction begins, the construction site must be carefully prepared. This includes
preparing the grade or road base, sub-grade and sub-base.
 First the site is graded to cut the high points and fill low areas to the desired roadway
profile elevation.
 A course of material is placed on the sub-grade to provide drainage and stability.
Construction Process
After site preparation, construction process consists of various steps, which are described
below;
1. Form Work
Wooden sheets, plywood, steel plates, angles etc. are generally used for form work.
2. Watering of base
If the base of the road is dry or construction is taking place during summer season, then
watering is done using the sprinkling process, after this concrete should be placed.
3. Construction Joints
There are three basic type of joints used in concrete pavement;
i-Contraction, ii-Construction and iii-Isolation.
Sec-II-4-11
Third Edition
Except for isolation joints, all joints provide a mean to mechanically connect slabs. Where it
is necessary to provide transverse and longitudinal joints, wooden strips shall be used and
fix on level of concrete.
4. Materials Mixing and Placing of Concrete

Mixer is used to mix the concrete using distinct amount of cement, aggregate, sand and
water. Two methods generally used in placing concrete;
 Alternate bay method – place the concrete on both side of road alternatively like as
1,3,5…. part at one side and 2,4,6…. Part other side. This method has slow process due
to road traffic problem.
 Continuous bay methods – construct one side of road regularly and after construction of
some part of first side than construct the other side. This method has fast process
without obstruction of traffic.
5. Compaction of Concrete
Purpose of concrete compaction is to pull out air from void and to make concrete harden.
Compaction done by;
 Mechanical surface vibrator

 Manual hand tampers
After compaction, trawling is done for the finishing purpose of concrete pavement to
smoothen the top surface.
6. Curing of Concrete
After completion of the finishing work, the surface of the pavement shall be entirely
covered with wet hessian cloth for curing purpose. Curing is the process of increasing the
hydration of cement, after setting, the concrete curing process shall be done for at-least 14
days.
7. Design Criteria
Design criteria for PCC link road shall be as follows:
Items Material Thickness
Base Course Undisturbed existing earth -

Gravels/Boulders (Particle Size 50
Sub-Base Course 150 mm (minimum)
mm – 75 mm)
Plain Cement Concrete (composition
Pavement 150 mm – 300 mm
as specified in CPI Manual i.e.1:2:4)
Concrete Panel size should not be
Wooden strip of size 25 mm x 50
Concrete Panel greater than 3.05 m (10 ft) in
mm
length
Sec-II-4-12
Third Edition
1.4 Earthen Roads
Low cost roads include Earthen Roads are characterized as Low-Cost roads. The total volume
of traffic and the individual weight of the vehicles likely to apply on the road have to be
given due importance. The recommended traffic volume is at the rate of 500 tons per day
including one-third bullock-carts or other slow-moving vehicles, and a truck load of 3 tons
with a maximum of 5 tons depending upon local conditions. Bridges and culverts for such
roads are recommended to be designed for 10-ton road roller.
Earthen Roads
The width of the road extends from shoulder to shoulder. A moderate camber of 1 in 24 to 1
in 16 is usually employed for drainage of water. First of all, site is cleared from all debris,
trees, vegetation etc. After clearing operation is over, grading operation is performed.
Spreading of the material for proper compaction does not need much skill. The material
should be fairly distributed over the entire area covering it in layers of equal thickness.
Compaction is done in layers of 15 to 20 cm thickness to at-least 95% AASHTO density.
Usually 6 to 8 rolls of 10-tons roller serves the purpose. It is advisable to compact loose fill
of 22.5 cm depth to compacted mass of 15 cm.
Gravel Roads
This type of road construction is usually suited where the average daily traffic expected on
road is between 350 and 400 vehicles, with a maximum weight of individual vehicle of the
order of 10 tons. Gravel for road mixtures, consists of stone particles (coarse aggregate),
sand (fine aggregate), silt and clay. Construction of gravel road is usually done in two
courses and the total thickness is divided into a base and a surface course. Since
construction of gravel roads is essentially a procedure of utilizing the available local
material, wide variations occur in size, grading and quality of gravel used. The prime
requisite of gravel for the base course is that it should contain a large percentage of coarse
pebbles to provide a stable body to the structure and to distribute the wheel load.
If screened gravel is used, for the base course, a size ranging from 40 mm to 75 mm may be
suitable and for the top surface course a size ranging from 12.5 mm to 40 mm may be
desirable. There are two methods of spreading gravel:
1. Trench spread method.

2. Feather-edge spread method.
The above two methods are shown in Figure 5. Compaction of the loose material (gravel)
can be attained by following the specifications mentioned below:
Table 6: Comparison of loose fill to compacted fill of gravel to attain desired density
Depth of Loose Fill cm (inch) Depth of Compacted Fill M (inch)
37.5 (15) 30 (12)
30 (12) 22.5 (9)
15 (6) 11.5 (4.5)
Sec-II-4-13
Third Edition
Figure 5: Feather-Edge Spreading
Sec-II-4-14
Third Edition
2. CULVERTS
Culvert is a bridge structure having a span up to 10 ft (normally) between faces of

abutments. Typical cross-section of a culvert is shown in Figure 6. For simplicity, following
Table-7 has been compiled, based on analysis for different spans of culvert subject to Class –
B light loading. This loading conforms to the design of a road bridge to take a moving load of
a 10-ton road roller passing one at a time over the bridge.
Table 7: Design data for RCC slab of culvert for different spans
Slab Main Steel Spacing of Distribution Spacing of
Span
Thickness (dia. in Main Steel Steel (dia. in Distribution Steel
(ft)
(inches) inches) (inches c/c) inches) (inches c/c)
10 11 ¾ 6.5 3/8 8
9 10.5 ¾ 7 3/8 8.5
8 10 ¾ 7 3/8 9
7 9.5 ¾ 7.5 3/8 9.5
6 9 ¾ 8 3/8 10
5 8.5 ¾ 8.5 3/8 10.5
4 8 ¾ 9 3/8 11
3 7.5 ¾ 9.5 3/8 11.5
Sec-II-4-15
Third Edition
Figure 6: Typical Cross-Section of Culvert (One Side Abutment Shown)
Sec-II-4-16
Third Edition
3. BRIDGES – UPTO 40 FEET SPAN
Bridge is a road structure used to connect sections of roads separated by rivers, nallahs, etc.
Bridge has a span more than 10 ft between faces of abutments/piers and has single or more
spans.
Given the large variation in the type of loading and the lack of control on permissible loading
particularly in rural areas, loading has been standardized as 0.34 ton per linear foot of each
traffic lane plus a knife edge load of 6 tons.
The lane of traffic has been defined as “ for road bridges it may be assumed that each line of
rolling load traffic occupies a width of 10 ft and the width of the carriage way should be a
multiple of that dimension”.
Footpaths and other parts of the floor accessible only to pedestrians and animals a loading
of 84 pounds per square foot shall be added to the load.
Bending moment due to dead load can be calculated from the following formula:
M = wL2 (foot-pound)
8
where:
w = weight of slab in pounds.

L = span length in feet.
Bending moment due to live load can be calculated from the following formula:
M = wL2 (foot-pound)
8
where:
w = live load (distributed) in pounds

Bending moment due to knife edge load can be calculated from the following formula:
M = wL (foot-pound)
4
where
w = point load in pounds

Bridge specifications give the following formula for impact factor:
Sec-II-4-17
Third Edition
65
I = ½ 45 + L(n+1)
2
where “n” is the number of traffic lanes and “L” is the loaded length of the span giving the
maximum stress in the member under consideration. Maximum value of “I” is 0.50. Live
load moment is multiplied with this factor.
To reduce workload of design engineers, Table-8 has been developed showing

reinforcement and other relevant details of T-Beams for different spans of bridge.
Moreover, 8 inch thick slab with a span of 8ft has been designed, supported by T-Beams,
placed at 8 feet centre to centre. Reinforcement details of the slab are as under and shown
in Figure 7.
Main steel = 3 / 4-inches dia. bars at 7 inches centre to centre.

Dist. Steel = 3 / 8-inches dia. bars at 9 inches centre to centre.
Table 8: Design of T-Beams placed 8 ft center to center carrying an 8-inches thick

reinforced concrete slab and a wearing coat of 3-inches thick cement concrete
Stirrups ½ inch dia. Bars
Depth Top Layer Bottom Layer
Bridge Width
of
Span of stem Spacing 6 Spacing 9 Spacing 12
stem
Bar dia. No. of Bar dia. No. of inches inches inches
(inches) bars (inches) bars
15 20 12 1 3 1 3 0 to 4ft 4 to 6 ft 6 to 7.5 ft
20 25 12 1 3 1 3 0 to 5 ft 5 to 8 ft 8 to 10 ft
25 28 14 1.25 3 1.25 3 0 to 6 ft 6 to 10 ft 10 to 12.5 ft
30 33 14 1.25 4 1.25 4 0 to 8 ft 8 to 12 ft 12 to 15 ft
35 37 16 1.25 4 1.25 5 0 to 9 ft 9 to 14 ft 14 to 17.5 ft
40 40 18 1.25 5 1.25 5 0 to 10 ft 10 to 16 ft 16 to 20 ft
Sec-II-4-18
Third Edition
Figure 7: Typical Cross-Section of Bridge Slab
Sec-II-4-19
Third Edition
4. CAUSEWAY
A cause-way is a small submersible water way in a road across a shallow drainage course
which will allow the floods to pass over it.
Cause-way is normally provided in the following circumstances:
1. Where there is non-perennial flow of stream.

2. Where there is less difference of elevation between the stream/nallah bed and the road
surface.
3. Where there is low flood.
A cause-way must not contract the stream and maintain a firm road way against damage by
floods. Figure 16 shows details of a typical cause-way.
Sec-II-4-20
Third Edition
Figure 8: Typical Cross-Section of Cause-Way
Sec-II-4-21
Third Edition
Retaining Structures
SEC-II-5
Third Edition
CONTENTS
SECTION II-5: RETAINING STRUCTURES
1. FUNCTION OF RETAINING WALL ...........................................................................Sec-II-5-1

2. TYPES OF RETAINING WALL ...................................................................................Sec-II-5-1
3. FORCES ACTING ON THE WALL..............................................................................Sec-II-5-2
4. GABION WALL ........................................................................................................Sec-II-5-9
5. STONE MASONRY WALL ......................................................................................Sec-II-5-12
6. EARTHEN EMBANKMENT WITH STONE PITCHING ..............................................Sec-II-5-13
7. CHECK DAMS .......................................................................................................Sec-II-5-16
SEC-II-5
Third Edition
SECTION II-5: RETAINING STRUCTURES
1. FUNCTION OF RETAINING WALL
Retaining walls are used to hold back masses of earth or other loose material where
conditions make it impossible to let those masses assume their natural slopes. Such
conditions occur when the width of an excavation, cut or embankment is restricted by
conditions of ownership, or economy. For example, in highway construction the width of
the right of way is fixed, and the cut or embankment must be contained within that width.
2. TYPES OF RETAINING WALL
2.1 Gravity Retaining Wall
The gravity retaining wall retains the earth entirely by its own
weight. These walls are constructed in brick masonry, stone
masonry or plain cement concrete. The wall is so proportioned
that the dead weight of the wall provides required stability
against the thrust exerted by the backfill including surcharge (if
any). The size of the wall is so kept that there is no tensile stress
developed at any section of the wall under any condition of
loading.
2.2 Cantilever Retaining Wall
When height of the wall is more than some limiting value.

Gravity wall becomes uneconomical and cantilever wall is
used. The reinforced concrete cantilever wall consists of
the vertical arm or stem that retains the earth and is held in
position and it retains the backfill by bending action and its
weight by the footing or base slab as shown in the fig:
In this case the weight of the soil on top of the heel in

addition to the weight of the wall, contributes to the
stability of the structure.
2.3 Counter Fort Retaining Wall
The stem of a cantilever retaining wall

represents a vertical cantilever its thickness
increases rapidly with the increase in height.
To reduce the bending moments in the stem
of great height counter forts are provided at a
spacing of one-half of the stem height. This
type of wall is known as counter fort retaining
wall.
Sec-II-5-1
Third Edition
Suitability of any one of the three types of retaining walls in a given case depends on a
variety of conditions, such as local availability of the construction materials, price of the
construction material and the area required for the construction of retaining wall.
In general, gravity walls are economical only for relatively low heights possibly upto about
10 ft. Cantilever walls are economical for heights from 10 to 20 ft while counter forts are
used for greater heights.
3. FORCES ACTING ON THE WALL
As shown in Figure 1, the main forces acting on gabion walls are the vertical forces from the
weight of the gabions and the lateral earth pressure acting on the back face. These forces
are used herein to illustrate the main design principles. If other forces are encountered,
such as vehicular loads or seismic loads, they must also be included in the analysis.
Figure 1: Forces acting on Retaining Walls
The weight of a unit length (one foot) of wall is simply the product of the wall cross section
and the density of the gabion fill. The latter value may be conservatively taken as 100 lb/ft
for typical material (Wg).
The lateral earth pressure is usually calculated by the Coulomb equation. Although based
on granular material, it is conservative for cohesive material. According to Coulomb theory,
the total active force of the triangular pressure distribution acting on the wall is:
Equation
Sec-II-5-2
Third Edition
Where ws is the soil density, H is the wall height, and Ka is the coefficient of active soil
pressure. The soil density is often taken as 120 lb/ft3 where a specific value is not available.
If a uniformly distributed surcharge pressure (q) is present on top of the backfill surface, it
may be treated as an equivalent layer of soil that creates a uniform pressure over the entire
height of the wall. Equation 1 is modified to:
Equation 1A
The pressure coefficient is Ka is given by:
Equation 2
Where:
a = slope angle of backfill surface
b = acute angle of back face slope with vertical (-value where as in Fig. 1A; +
value when as in Fig. 1B)
d = angle of wall friction
f = angle of internal friction of soil
Pa is inclined to a line normal to the slope of the back face by the angle d. However, because
the effect of wall friction is small, d is usually taken as zero. Typical values of f for various
soils are given in Table 1. Values of Ka for various combinations of ß, d, and a are given in
Table 2.
Table 1: Angles of Internal Friction and Unit Weights of Soil*

Soil Type Soil Condition 𝒇 (deg) Soil Density, w (lb/ft3)
Course sand, sand & Compact soil 40 140
gravel Loose 35 90
Compact soil 40 130
Medium sand
Loose 30 90
Fine silty sand, sandy Compact soil 30 130
silt Loose 25 85
Compact soil 30 135
Uniform silt
Loose 25 85
Clay-silt Soft/medium 20 90/120
Silty clay Soft/medium 15 90/120
Clay Soft/medium 0/10 90/120
*F.S. Merritt, Ed., “Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers” McGraw-Hill, 1983
Sec-II-5-3
Third Edition
Table 2: Active Pressure Coefficient, Ka

𝒃 𝒂 𝒇 = 10 𝒇 = 15 𝒇 = 20 𝒇 = 25 𝒇 = 30 𝒇 = 35 𝒇=4
-6 0 0.68 0.56 0.45 0.37 0.29 0.23 0.18
-6 5 0.74 0.6 0.49 0.39 0.31 0.24 0.19
-6 10 0.94 0.67 0.53 0.42 0.33 0.26 0.2
-6 15 0.89 0.59 0.46 0.35 0.27 0.21
-6 20 0.82 0.52 0.39 0.29 0.22
-6 25 0.75 0.44 0.32 0.24
-6 30 0.67 0.37 0.26
-6 35 0.58 0.3
-6 40 0.49
0 0 0.7 0.59 0.49 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.22
0 5 0.77 0.63 0.52 0.43 0.35 0.28 0.23
0 10 0.97 0.7 0.57 0.46 0.37 0.3 0.24
0 15 0.93 0.64 0.5 0.4 0.32 0.25
0 20 0.88 0.57 0.44 0.34 0.27
0 25 0.82 0.5 0.38 0.29
0 30 0.75 0.44 0.32
0 35 0.67 0.37
0 40 0.59
5 0 0.73 0.62 0.52 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.25
5 5 0.8 0.67 0.56 0.47 0.39 0.32 0.26
5 10 1 0.74 0.61 0.5 0.41 0.34 0.28
5 15 0.98 0.68 0.55 0.45 0.36 0.29
5 20 0.94 0.62 0.49 0.39 0.31
5 25 0.89 0.56 0.43 0.34
5 30 0.83 0.5 0.37
5 35 0.76 0.43
5 40 0.68
10 0 0.76 0.65 0.56 0.48 0.41 0.34 0.29
10 5 0.83 0.7 0.6 0.51 0.43 0.36 0.3
10 10 1.05 0.78 0.65 0.55 0.46 0.38 0.32
10 15 1.04 0.74 0.6 0.5 0.41 0.34
10 20 1.02 0.68 0.55 0.44 0.36
10 25 0.98 0.63 0.49 0.39
10 30 0.92 0.57 0.43
10 35 0.86 0.5
10 40 0.79
15 0 0.79 0.69 0.6 0.52 0.45 0.39 0.33
15 5 0.87 0.75 0.65 0.56 0.48 0.41 0.35
15 10 1.1 0.83 0.71 0.6 0.51 0.43 0.37
15 15 1.11 0.8 0.66 0.55 0.47 0.39
15 20 1.1 0.75 0.61 0.51 0.42
15 25 1.08 0.7 0.56 0.45
15 30 1.04 0.65 0.5
15 35 0.98 0.58
15 40 0.91
Sec-II-5-4
Third Edition
The horizontal component of Pa is:
Equation 3
The vertical component of P is usually neglected in design a because it reduces the

overturning moment and increases the sliding resistance.
Overturning Moment Check
The active soil pressure forces tend to overturn the wall, and this must be properly balanced
by the resisting moment developed from the weight of the wall and other forces. Using
basic principles of statics, moments are taken about the toe of the wall to check
overturning.
This check may be expressed as
Equation 4
Where M r is the resisting moment, Mo is the overturning moment, and SFo is the safety
factor against overturning (typically 2.0). Each moment is obtained by summing the
products of each appropriate force times its perpendicular distance the toe of the wall.
Neglecting wall friction, the active earth force acts normal to the slope of the back face at a
distance H/3 above the base. When a surcharge is present, the distance of the total active
force above the toe becomes
Equation 5
The overturning moment is
Equation 6
The weight of the gabion wall (Wg) acts vertically through the centroid of its cross section
area. The horizontal distance to this point from the toe of the wall (dg) may be obtained
from the statical moment of wall areas. That is, moments of areas about the toe are taken,
then divided by the total area, as shown in Example 1.
Sec-II-5-5
Third Edition
The resisting moment is the sum of the products of vertical forces or weights per unit length
(W) and their distance (d) from the toe of the wall:
Equation 7
For the simple gravity wall, the resisting moment is provided entirely by the weight of the
wall and
Equation 7A
Sliding Resistance Check
The tendency of the active earth pressure to cause the wall to slide horizontally must be
opposed by the frictional resistance at the base of the wall. This may be expressed as
Equation 8
Where m is the coefficient of the sliding friction (tan of angle of friction of soil), Wv is the
sum of the vertical forces (W g in this case), and SFs is the safety factor against sliding
(typically 1.5).
Check Bearing Pressure
First check to determine if the resultant vertical force lies within the middle third of the
base. If B denotes the width of the base, the eccentricity, (e) of the vertical force from the
midwidth of the base is
Equation 9
For the resultant force to lie in the middle third:
Equation 10
The maximum pressure under the base, P, is then
Equation 11
Sec-II-5-6
Third Edition
The maximum pressure must not exceed the allowable soil bearing pressure, Pb:
Equation 12
The safety factor must be included in Pb.
Example 1:
Given Data (Refer to Cross Section, page 5)
Wall Height………………………. H = 9 ft
Surcharge…………………………. q = 300 psf
Backfill slope angle………………. a = 0 deg
Back Face slope engle…………. b = -6 deg
Soil friction angle………………… f = 35 deg
Soil density……………………….. ws = 120 pcf
Gabion fill density………………... wg = 100 pcf
Soil bearing pressure…………... Pb = 4000 psf
Soil bearing pressure…………... Pb
Determine if safety factors are within limits:
Pressure coefficient from Equation 2 is Ka=0.23
Active earth force, Pa, from Equation 1A is
Horizontal component from Equation 3 is
Vertical distance to Ph from Equation 5 is
Overturning moment from Equation 6 is
Sec-II-5-7
Third Edition
Weight of gabions for a 1-ft unit length is
Horizontal distance to Wg is
Resisting moment from Equation 7 is
Safety factor against overturning from Equation 4 is
OK
Safety factor against sliding from Equation 8 is
OK
Reaction eccentricity from Equation 9 is
Limit of eccentricity from Equation 10 is
OK
Sec-II-5-8
Third Edition
Maximum base pressure from Equation 11 is
OK
All safety factors are within limits. Stability checks at intermediate levels in the walls show
similar results.
4. GABION WALL
Gabion retaining walls shall be designed to the requirement of AS 5100.3. The maximum
height of a gabion wall shall be limited to 6 m. Gabion walls are not allowed under bridge
abutments, except for the purposes of facing or for scour and erosion control purposes.
4.1 Material
Gabions shall be fabricated, assembled and installed in accordance with the nominal wire
sizes and dimensions found in Table 3, using the following materials.
Wire for fabrication and assembly shall be hot dipped galvanized and of equal quality. The
wire shall have a tensile strength of 60,000 psi.
Table 3: Minimum Requirement Gabion Basket – Height 12, 18 or 36 inches

Wire PVC Total Galvanized
Mesh Size
Type of wire Diameter Coating Diameter coating
(inches)
(inches) (inches) (inches) oz./SF
Lacing Wire - 0.086 0.02 0.126 0.70
Welded Mesh 3x3 0.118 None 0.118 0.80
3x3 0.105 0.02 0.145 0.80
Spiral Binder - 0.105 0.02 0.145 0.80
Rock shall conform to the quality requirements as follows and at least 85 percent of the rock
particles by weight shall be within the predominant rock size range.
4.2 Foundation Preparation
The foundation on which the gabions are to be placed shall be cut or filled and graded to the
lines and grades as specified. Surface irregularities, loose material, vegetation, and all
foreign material shall be removed from foundation surface area. When fill is required, it
shall consist of materials conforming to the specified requirements. Gabions and bedding or
specified geo-textile shall not be placed until the foundation preparation is completed, and
the sub-grade surfaces have been inspected and approved by the engineer.
Compaction of bedding or filter material will be required per plan and specifications. The
surface of the finished material shall be to grade and free of mounds, dips and windrows.
Sec-II-5-9
Third Edition
Extra care should be taken with foundation preparations in order to ensure a level and
smooth surface.
4.3 Assembly and Placement
The assembly and placement of gabions shall be in accordance with the following
procedures;
Assembly – Rotate the gabion panels in position and join the vertical edges with fasteners
with gabion assembly. Where lacing wire is used, wrap the wire with alternating single and
double half hitches at intervals between 4 to 5 inches. Where spiral fasteners are used
crimp the ends to secure the spiral at place. Where ring type alternate fasteners are used
for basket assembly, install the fasteners at a maximum spacing of 6 inches. Use the same
fastening procedures to install interior diaphragms where they are required.
Placement – Place the empty gabions on the foundation and interconnect the adjacent
gabions along the top, bottom and vertical edges using lacing wire or spirals. Wrap the wire
with alternating single and double half hitches at intervals between 4 to 6 inches. Spiral
fasteners are commonly used for the assembly and interconnection of welded mesh
gabions.
Interconnect each layer of gabions to the underlying layer of gabions along the front, back
and sides. Stagger the vertical joints between the gabions of adjacent rows and layers by
atleast one-half of the cell length.
4.4 Filling Operation
The gabions should be carefully filled with rocks, either by machine or hand methods.
Ensuring alignment, avoiding bulges, and providing a compact mass that minimizes voids. At
no point in the filling process may rock be mechanically placed from a height of over 36
inches from machine to fill area. Machine placement will require supplementing with hand
work to ensure the desired results. The cells in any row shall be filled in stages so that the
depth of the rock placed in any one cell does not exceed the depth of rock in any adjoining
cell by more than 12 inches. Along the exposed faces the outer layer of stone shall be
carefully placed and arrange by hand to ensure a neat compact placement with a uniform
appearance.
4.5 Quick Cross-Section Design Guide
Following Figure 2 provided cross-sections for different heights, these cross-sections shall
only be applied on Gabion structures:
Sec-II-5-10
Third Edition
Figure 2: Gabion Wall Cross-Sections Design
Sec-II-5-11
Third Edition
5. STONE MASONRY WALL
5.1 Design Criteria
In design of stone masonry retaining walls, first the anticipated loads on the structure
should be considered and then evaluate the safety of the structure based on standard
criteria. The loads to be considered in the design are:
 Self-weight of the structure;

 Imposed dead loads and live loads if any;
 Earth pressures
 Seismic loads if it is to be designed for earthquakes forces
 Pore-water pressure
 Surcharge loads if any
 Special loads if any
The structure then should be evaluated for safety using following criteria:
> 2.0 for static loads

Factor of Safety against overturning
>1.5 with seismic forces
>1.5 for static loads
Factor of safety against sliding
>1.0 with seismic forces
≤ qa(allowable bearing capacity)
Maximum base pressure
≤ 1.33 qa(during earthquakes)
Minimum base pressure > 0 (zero)
Factory of safety against floatation > 1.25
> 1.5 static
for steep hills, factor of safety for slip surface
> 1.0 seismic
Notes:
1. Retaining walls are generally designed for static loads without considering seismic loads.
The reason being, the failed retaining walls are easy to repair than going for heavy and
costly walls considering seismic forces.
2. For checking overturning and sliding, live and imposed loads adding to the stability of
the structure shall not be considered.
5.2 Design Considerations
Depth of Foundation - Depth of foundation shall be at least 500 mm below the firm ground
level.
Drainage - Drainage is an important aspect of retaining wall construction. For proper

functioning of the wall, following drainage provisions shall be provided:
a. Weep holes of 100x100 mm opening shall be provided at 1.5 m interval and should be
staggered both horizontally and vertically. Alternatively pipes of equivalent area may be
used.
Sec-II-5-12
Third Edition
b. 400-500 mm width of filter media composed of good quality stones (50 mm – 100 mm)
shall be provided. And in addition to above filtration media, geo-textile or bamboo mats
are recommended.
Dip of foundation base - The dip of foundation base towards hill side increases the factor of
safety against sliding significantly and therefore it is recommended to provide a dip of 6: 1
(horizontal : vertical).
Length of Wall - A separation gap of 50-100 mm shall be provided at maximum of 10 m

length of wall. Also gaps shall be provided at bends and junctions.
Stepping of wall base - The wall base shall not be stepped except when the wall rests on
rock foundation. When foundation rests on rock, the foundation may be stepped.
Through-Stones / Bonding Element - Through stones shall be provided at every 1.0 m

interval both horizontally and vertically throughout the length and height of the wall. In the
absence of through stones, reinforced concrete blocks of 100 mmx100 mm shall be used.
The through-stones or bonding element shall be staggered both horizontally and vertically.
Cement Mortar - Cement mortar ratio of 1:5 (cement: Sand) or richer shall be provided.
Curing - When cementer mortar is used, the wall shall be properly cured for a minimum of
two weeks to attain good bonding strength.
Aesthetics - The stability and safety are of primary concerns. However, depending on site
conditions and location, retaining walls shall be aesthetically appealing as well.
6. EARTHEN EMBANKMENT WITH STONE PITCHING
Earth embankments are fills that are typically composed of onsite or imported borrow, and
could include a wide variety of materials from fine to coarse grain. The material is usually
moisture-density testable.
Earthen embankments are complex structures that must be designed and constructed with
consideration given to the following:
a) specific site and foundation conditions,

b) construction material characteristics,
c) purpose of the impoundment, and
d) hazard potential associated with the particular site and/or impoundment.
6.1 Embankment Types
The two general types are listed below:
A homogeneous embankment is composed of one kind of material (excluding slope

protection). The material used must be sufficiently impervious to provide an adequate
water barrier, and the slopes must be moderately flat for stability and ease of maintenance.
Sec-II-5-13
Third Edition
A zoned embankment contains a central impervious core, flanked by zones of more pervious
material called shells. These pervious zones or shells enclose, support, and protect the
impervious core. Typically, a zoned embankment requires an internal drain, or filter,
between the impervious zone and the downstream shell and between the shell and the
foundation.
6.2 Geotechnical Guidelines
The designer is responsible for determining which of the guidelines are applicable to the
specific project and for determining if any additional investigations are required.
A geotechnical engineering study should evaluate the stability of the proposed embankment
and should consist of
1. A site investigation - A field investigation should include the review of available soils
information and a subsurface exploration. Test borings, test pits, or both, should be used
to evaluate the foundations, abutments, borrow materials, reservoir area, embankment
design and any other pertinent geological considerations.
2. Laboratory testing - Laboratory testing should be completed to evaluate the various

soils. At a minimum, an index property test should be completed to classify the soils
following the Unified Soil Classification System. Shear strength, compressibility, and
permeability testing may be required depending upon the size and complexity of the
embankment and the nature of the site’s subsurface conditions.
3. An engineering analysis - A geotechnical engineer should do an engineering analysis and

present his findings, recommendations and comments on items such as: foundation
materials and preparation; design of interior drainage features and filters; and
geotechnical design of conduits/structures through the embankment, including seepage
and stability analyses.
6.3 Embankment Stability
An earthen embankment must be designed to be stable against any force condition or

combination of force conditions that may develop during the life of the structure. Other
than overtopping caused by inadequate spillway capacity, the three most critical conditions
that may cause failure of the embankment is:
1. Differential settlement within the embankment or its foundation due to a variation in

materials, a variation in embankment height, or compression of the foundation strata.
Differential settlement may, subsequently, cause the formation of cracks through the
embankment that are roughly parallel to the abutments. These cracks may concentrate
seepage through the dam and lead to failure by internal erosion.
2. Seepage through the embankment and foundation. This condition may cause piping
within the embankment or the foundation, or both.
Sec-II-5-14
Third Edition
3. Shearing stresses within the embankment and foundation due to the weight of the fill. If
the shearing stress force exceeds the strength of the materials, sliding of the
embankment or its foundation may occur, resulting in the displacement of large portions
of the embankment.
The stability of an embankment and its side slopes is dependent on the following: (1)
construction materials, (2) foundation conditions, (3) embankment height and cross-section
geometry, (4) normal and maximum pool levels, and (5) purpose of BMP: retention,
detention, or extended-detention. The embankment cross-section should be designed to
provide an adequate factor of safety to protect against sliding, sloughing, or rotation in the
embankment or foundation. The most important factors in determining the stability of an
embankment are:
1. Physical characteristics of the fill materials: Soil classification for engineering uses.
2. Configuration of the site: The height of the embankment may vary considerably
throughout its length, so the total settlement of any given section of the embankment
may differ from that of adjacent sections. The length of the embankment and slope of
the abutments profoundly influence the degree of differential settlement between
adjacent sections of the embankment. As the length shortens and the abutments
become steeper, differential settlement becomes more likely.
3. Foundation materials: The character and distribution of the foundation material must be
considered for its shear strength, compressibility, and permeability. Occasionally, the
shear strength of the foundation may govern the choice of embankment slopes.
Permeability and stratification of the foundation may dictate the need for a zoned
embankment. Quite often, foundations contain compressible soils that settle under the
weight of the embankment, although the shear strength of these soils is satisfactory.
When such settlement occurs in the foundation, the embankment settles. This
settlement is rarely uniform over the basal area of the embankment. Therefore, fill
materials used on such sites must be sufficiently plastic to deform without cracking.
6.4 Embankment Geometry
1. Height: The height of an earthen embankment is based upon the freeboard

requirements relative to the maximum water surface elevation during the 100-year
frequency storm event.
2. Top Width: The top of an earthen embankment should be shaped to provide positive
drainage. The top width is based on the following Table-4:
Table 4: Embankment Top Width

Total Height of Embankment (ft) Minimum Top Width (ft)
14 or less 8
15 - 19 10
20 - 24 12
25 or more 15
Sec-II-5-15
Third Edition
6.5 Compacted Fill
Using the Unified Soil Classification System, as covered in the geotechnical analysis, should
specify the soil types.
The compaction requirements should include the percent of maximum dry density for the
specified density standard, allowable range of moisture content, and maximum loose lift
thickness. In general, the design of an embankment should account for approximately 10%
settlement unless otherwise specified by a geotechnical report based on the embankment
foundation and fill material. The top of the embankment must be level in order to avoid
possible overtopping in one location in cases of extreme storms.
Compaction tests should be performed regularly throughout the embankment construction;

typically, one test per 5,000 square feet on each layer of fill or as directed by the
geotechnical engineer. Generally, one of two compaction tests will be specified for
embankment construction: the Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698) or the Modified Proctor
Test (ASTM D1557). For the construction of earth dams, the Modified Proctor Test is likely
to be more appropriate.
6.6 Embankment Construction
A geotechnical or construction inspector should be on site during embankment

construction. Inspectors should be required to do more than just test fill compaction, i.e.,
observe foundation preparation, pipe installation, riser construction, filter installation, etc.
A vertical trench through the embankment material should not be allowed under any
circumstances in order to place the spillway pipe. Trench side slopes should be laid back in
steps at a 2:1 slope, minimum.
6.7 Maintenance and Safety
Embankment slopes should be no steeper than 3H:1V if possible, with a maximum

combined upstream and downstream slope of 5:1 (3:1 downstream face and 2:1 upstream
face). For embankments exceeding 15 feet in height, a 6 to 10 feet wide bench should be
provided at intervals of 10 to 15 feet of height, particularly if slopes are steeper than 3H:1V.
7. CHECK DAMS
Small barrier, grade control structure, or dam constructed across a swale, drainage ditch, or
other channelized flow of water.
7.1 Purpose
Check dams reduce scour and channel erosion by reducing flow velocity and encouraging
sediment settlement by reducing the effective slope of the channel. A check dam is a device
constructed of angular or crushed stone, crushed concrete, gravel bags, fiber rolls, or other
prefabricated products placed across a natural or man-made channel or ditch.
Sec-II-5-16
Third Edition
Runoff water runs through and spills over the top of check dams and continues along the
drainage way or swale. Check dams in a channel or ditch should be placed in series along
gradients to act like terraces. Check dams can be either temporary (during construction) or
permanent.
7.2 Location
 In temporary and permanent storm water conveyance channels draining less than ten
acres.
 Upstream of surface waters or treatment practices.
7.3 General Characteristics
 Installed in a series with spacing dependent on channel slope.

 Installed perpendicular to channel flow.
 Low point of the dam (Spillway) in the center. High point along the channel side slope.
 May be temporary or permanent.
7.4 Materials
 Materials and design can vary according to need and conditions.

 Crushed or angular aggregate (stone or crushed concrete) underlain with geotextile.
 Other materials: Gravel bags, prefabricated synthetic products.
 Do Not Use: straw bales, silt fence, logs, and similar materials which create a vertical
downstream face, as they may create a plunge pool and undercutting, leading to failure.
7.5 Design Procedure
 Install perpendicular to channel flow to ensure that water does not flow around them.
 Installed in a series. Steeper gradients require dams to be closer together. The down-
gradient toe of the dam is at the same elevation as the bottom of the spillway opening
of the next dam downstream.
 The middle of the dam should be 6-9 inches lower than the outer edges.
 Spillway should be no taller than 2 feet above the channel bottom, or the potential for
downstream scouring increases.
 Scour protection (riprap, geotextile fabric, or mulch blankets) should be installed for at
least 2 feet immediately below the check dam to dissipate energy and to prevent
scouring and undercutting.
 Aggregate size should increase with increased slope and velocity. Size may range from 4
to 15 inches. A small “bedding stone” placed under large aggregate may prevent
scouring and undercutting.
Sec-II-5-17
Third Edition
 Aggregate should extend up the banks of the channel to a point a minimum of 18 inches
above anticipated flows to avoid washouts and overflow around the dam.
 Gravel bags must be securely sealed and placed by hand in an interlocking pattern.
7.6 Construction Guidelines
 Construct concurrently with channel construction, during any time of year.

 Place aggregate material in the center of the channel to the desired center height.
 For permanent check dams, an operation and maintenance plan which includes regular
inspections of structural integrity and removal of accumulated sediment shall be
developed. It is important that the placement of permanent check dams be considered
during channel design, as check dams will decrease the capacity of the channel.
7.7 Maintenance
Check dams should be inspected weekly and after each runoff event from rain or snowmelt.
Washouts, side cutting, undercutting, scouring, and deteriorating gravel bags should be
repaired immediately. If erosion occurs between dams, install a protective channel liner
(riprap, mulch blanket, etc.), or additional check dams.
To ensure water can flow through the dam, sediment should be removed when it
accumulates to 1/2 the height of the dam, placed in an approved upland area and stabilized.
7.8 Design Equations
Use below equation, when Drainage Channel Slope is 2:1;
Q = 1.7 W H
1.5 + 2.5 H 2.5
Use below equation, when Drainage Channel Slope is greater than 2:1;
Q = 1.7 W H 1.5 + 1.26 m H 2.5

Where, m is side slope
7.9 Design Example
Drainage Channel Base Width = 1.0 meter

Side Slope = 3:1
Total Channel Depth = 0.7 meter
Flow Rate = 0.4 m3/sec
As side slope of channel is greater than 2:1, equation 2 will be used;
Assume the maximum recommended check dam height of 0.5m. This means the maximum
allowable upstream head (H) is 0.7 - 0.5 = 0.2m.
Sec-II-5-18
Third Edition
Thus the check dam crest width is:
W = (bed width of channel) + 2 x (side slope, m) x (height of check dam)
W = 1.0 + 2(3)(0.5) = 4m
Using Equation 2, the maximum allowable discharge (i.e when H = 0.2m) is:
Q = 1.7 W H 1.5 + 1.26 m H 2.5 = 1.7(4) (0.2)1.5 + 1.26(3) (0.2)2.5 = 0.68m3/s > 0.4m3/s
Therefore the available hydraulic capacity of 0.68m3/s is greater than the required hydraulic
capacity of only 0.4 m3/s, thus the check dam height will be limited to the maximum
recommended height of 0.5 m.
Sec-II-5-19
Third Edition
Sanitation and Drainage
SEC-II-6
Third Edition
CONTENTS
SECTION – II-6: SANITATION AND DRAINAGE
1. SEWERAGE ............................................................................................................ SEC-II-6-1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................... SEC-II-6-1
1.2 Types of Sewerage System ........................................................................... SEC-II-6-1
1.3 Planning of Sewerage Project ....................................................................... SEC-II-6-1
1.4 DESIGN OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM .................................................................... SEC-II-6-2
2. DISPOSAL STATION ............................................................................................... SEC-II-6-9
2.1 Screening Chamber ....................................................................................... SEC-II-6-9
2.2 Capacity/Size of Wet Well ............................................................................ SEC-II-6-9
2.3 Pumping Machinery .................................................................................... SEC-II-6-10
3. STREET PAVEMENT AND DRAINS ....................................................................... SEC-II-6-12
3.1 Brick Soling .................................................................................................. SEC-II-6-12
3.2 PCC Pavement ............................................................................................. SEC-II-6-12
3.3 Camber ........................................................................................................ SEC-II-6-13
3.4 STREET DRAINS ........................................................................................... SEC-II-6-13
4. SEWAGE TREATMENT AND REUSE ..................................................................... SEC-II-6-14
4.1 Sewage Treatment ...................................................................................... SEC-II-6-14
4.2 Types of Treatment ..................................................................................... SEC-II-6-14
4.3 Design of Septic Tank and Soak Pit ............................................................. SEC-II-6-14
4.4 Sewage Reuse ............................................................................................. SEC-II-6-17
SEC-II-6
Third Edition
SECTION – II-6: SANITATION AND DRAINAGE
1. SEWERAGE
1.1 Background
As the rural and urban settlements develop, the old methods of excreta disposal have
been replaced by the water-carried sewerage system. Even in small towns the sewerage
system is being adopted due to greater safety of health, its convenience and freedom
from nuisance.
Providing adequate sewerage facility for an area requires careful engineering. The pipes
should be adequate in size to avoid overflows, damage to property, danger to health and
nuisance. The adequacy of size requires the estimation of amount of sewage and use of
hydraulics to determine proper sizes, velocities, slopes and quantities of excavation.
1.2 Types of Sewerage System
There are principally two types of sewerage system depending upon the type of
wastewater being carried by the sewers;
1.2.1 Combined System
In combined system, all types of wastewaters (domestic, industrial and storm water) are
carried by the same set of sewers. In small towns and villages generally, combined
sewerage system is designed for ease and economy purposes.
1.2.2 Separate System
In separates system, separate sets of sewers are provided for domestic, industrial and
storm waters. These are expensive and need heavy capital investments.
1.3 Planning of Sewerage Project
Prior to the planning and designing of the sewerage system, certain preliminary
investigations and information of the area to be served are needed. The information
includes the size and general topography of the area, population to be served, under
ground services, tentative disposal points of the wastewater. On the basis of the
information gathered, an area map is developed showing all the streets and where
sewers are to be laid i.e.; layout plan.
1.3.1 Design Period
It is the number of years for which the facility is designed and executed to serve the
future population. The design period for different sewerage works are given in Table 1;
Sec-II-6-1
Third Edition
Table 5: Design Period

Facility Design Period (years)
Sewers 15
Pumping machinery / plant 10
Sewage treatment works 15
1.3.2 Design Population
The future population at the end of design period is estimated by the following formula;
Pd = Pi * (1 + n /100) N
Where
Pd = Design population at the end of design period

Pi = Present population
n = Annual growth rate (normally 3 %)
N = Number of years (Design Period)
1.4 DESIGN OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM
The design of sewerage system includes the following parameters,
1.4.1 Flow in Sewers
The sewers are mostly designed to flow under gravity and not under pressure even if
they flow full. The exceptional cases are; inverted siphons and the delivery pipes at
disposal stations.
The basis of flow calculations is given by the following formula;
Q=AxV
Where
Q = Discharge in cusecs
A = Cross Sectional Area of flow in sq.ft.
V = Velocity in ft. per second
1.4.2 Estimation of Wastewater Flows
The most convenient way of expressing the volume of wastewater, for computing
anticipated future flows in the different segments of sewerage system, is in terms of
average per capita daily flows, or the volume produced by one person in a day. Various
factors like population density, economic conditions, habits of people and adequacy of
water influence the per capita water consumption. This volume is related to wastewater
flows. About 85 % of this volume is taken as the sewage flow. The per capita water
consumption based on population density as given in Table 2 may be adopted.
Sec-II-6-2
Third Edition
Table 6: Average per Capita Water Consumption

Average per capita water
Population consumption
(gallons per day)
700 –2000 8
2000 to 5000 10
5000 to 10000 15
10000 to 25000 30
1.4.3 Flow Formulas
When water enters a pipe at a constant rate and leaves the pipe freely at the lower end,
a state of steady flow is soon reached. In sewer design steady flow may be assumed.
Water moves downward in a pipe under the force of gravity. The water will flow at such a
velocity that the available head is used in overcoming pipe friction. The amount of
friction or resistance that must be overcome is directly proportional to; the roughness of
the surface of the pipe, area of the contact surface, square of the velocity, and density of
the fluid. These relationships can be expressed by Manning’s Formula, which is widely
used for sewer design and is given below;
V = 1.486 / n * R2/3 * S1/2
Where
V = Mean Velocity in feet per second
R = Hydraulic Radius = A /P
A = Area of Pipe (sq.ft)
P = Wetted Perimeter (ft)
S = Slope of the Hydraulic Grade Line (ft / ft)
n = Roughness Coefficient
Roughness coefficient depends upon the roughness of the pipe. It affects the velocity of
water inversely as its value increases. For new RCC sewers the value of “n” is taken as
0.013 as a standard practice. Table 3 gives the values of “n” for pipes of other material.
Table 7: Values of “n” for Manning Formula

Pipe Material n
Plastic Pipe 0.009
Neat Cement – Very smooth Pipe 0.010
Cast Iron pipe of ordinary roughness 0.012
Good RCC Pipe 0.013
Riveted Steel Pipe 0.013
1.4.4 Velocity in Sewer
An important consideration in the design of sewerage system is the Velocity obtained in

sewers. The velocity should neither be too high, to avoid erosion of pipe material, nor it
should be too low to check the deposition of solid material within the pipe. A minimum
Sec-II-6-3
Third Edition
self-cleansing velocity of 2.5 feet per second is required to prevent settlement of sewage
solids. The minimum allowable slopes are those, which produce this velocity when sewer
is flowing full. The greater slopes may be used if the topography of the area permits, but
it should not be so high to give erosion problem. Table 4 below gives the recommended
design velocities.
Table 8: Design Velocity

Velocity
Condition
(ft / sec)
Minimum velocity (in difficult situation 2.0
like very flat areas)
Desirable minimum velocity 2.5
Maximum velocity (in hilly areas) 10
Table 9: Discharge Carrying Capacity and Minimum Slopes of Different Sewer Sizes
Size of Sewer Maximum Discharge Carrying Capacity Minimum Slope
(inches) (cusecs) (ft/ft)
6 0.49 0.0078
9 1.10 0.0045
12 1.96 0.0031
15 3.07 0.0023
18 4.42 0.0018
21 6.01 0.0014
24 7.85 0.0012
27 9.94 0.0010
30 12.27 0.0009
1.4.5 Infiltration
The flow of ground water into the sewers is called infiltration. Despite the use of
watertight joints, some of the infiltration is very much likely. Following infiltration
allowance is added in the computation of design flow;
 for 6 to 24 inches diameter Sewers 5% of average daily flow
 for 24 inches and above diameter Sewers 10% of average daily flow
1.4.6 Storm Water
A storm water allowance of 30% is added in average daily flow.
Qstorm = Qav x30/100
1.4.7 Peak Flow
The rate of sewage flow for any design point varies substantially depending on local
water use customs, climatic conditions, the day of the week, the hour of the day etc. The
Sec-II-6-4
Third Edition
ratio between maximum and minimum flow on any day is called Peak Factor. To account
for this variation, average daily flow is multiplied by a peak factor. The peak factor varies
inversely with population. The peak factor is usually taken as 2.5 for an average size
community. The capacity of sewers should be sufficient to carry peak flows, rather than
the average flow. The peak factors for different population sizes are given in Table 6;
For villages having limited water availability for domestic use, it is advisable to multiply
the flows during peak hours (3 to 4 hours) only with the peak factor.
Table 10: Peak Factor

Population
Peak Factor
(Persons)
1000 3.5
1001 to 2500 3.0
2501 to 4000 2.8
4001 to 10000 2.5
10001 to 25000 2.0
1.4.8 Manholes
It is an opening constructed in a sewer, so that sewer line is accessible for the purpose of
inspection, cleaning and maintenance. The manholes are supposed to be the most
important structure used in sewerage system. Manholes also help in ventilation of sewer,
they facilitate in making junction with other sewer lines with main sewer.
1.4.9 Manhole Spacing
Manholes are provided at suitable regular intervals and at points where there is change
in direction, change in pipe size or considerable change in grade. For sewers laid in a
straight line, manhole spacing as given in Table 7 is recommended. Experience indicates
that reduced center to center spacing of manholes is desirable by the community for
lateral sewers and hence reasonable variation may be adopted accordingly.
Table 11: Spacing of Manholes

Size of Sewer (inches) Spacing (feet)
6 70 to 80
9 80 to 100
12 100 to120
15 120 to 150
18 to 24 150 to 250
Sec-II-6-5
Third Edition
Figure 3: Manhole Detail

Manhole cover 4" PCC(1:2:4)
4" gravel
12"
22 " internal dia
PCC(1:2:4) - 4" Thick wall
Varies
SEWER
3" PCC(1:2:4)
6" gravel
3'-0"
1.4.10 Preliminary Work
 The area is surveyed and elevations of natural surface levels (NSLs) are determined
with the help of a leveling instrument and marked on the layout plan. An L-Section is
accordingly prepared to assess the natural topography and excavation required to lay
the sewers.
 Before the computations are tabulated in the Hydraulic Statement, mark the
proposed sewers for each street on the area drawing / layout plan. Indicate the
manholes with NSLs at suitable intervals and at all turning points. Assign a manhole
number to each manhole. The distance between each manhole would indicate the
respective length of each segment of the sewer.
1.4.11 Hydraulic Statement
Hydraulic Statement is systematic way of hydraulic computations for sewerage design in

a tabular form. The parameters generally taken in the hydraulic statement and their
computations are explained in the following design example.
Design Example
Design a sewerage system for a community with a total present population of 700
persons. The different design parameters may be taken as under;
Per capita water consumption (pcpd) 10 gallons

Design Period 10 years
Population growth rate 3%
Sewage flow 85 % of pcpd
Population per household 7
Peak Factor 2.5
Sec-II-6-6
Third Edition
The hydraulic statement for the design example is given in Table 8 below, whereas the
layout plan is given at Figure 2.
Figure 4: Layout Plan for Sewer Design
To disposal station
22
95.92 94.87 9"
95.7 St. 7 95.25 St. 8
17 9" 20
21 94.54
102.66 16 100.53 94.76
96.20 15 95.88 6"
19 18 99.92
99.19 St. 6 97.33
96.55
St. 5
100.53
14 96.66
9"
100.7
97.11 13
100.7 100.7
St. 3 101.9 99.73 98.38 St. 4
100.7 97.33 12 6" 11
98.11 7 8 10 9
6"
102.53 101.62 101.9
99.53 3 St. 2 99.03 99.31
102.7 4
99.92 2 102.36 100.53 6 5 100.95
99.22 6" 100.36
99.74
.1
6"
St
1
102.9
100.31
Legend :
1 Manhole
102.9 Upper Ground Level
100.31 Upper Invert Level
Sewer
Street
6" Sewer Diameter
Sec-II-6-7
Third Edition
Table 12: Hydraulic Statement for the Design Example
LOCATION HOUSE HOLD POPULATION FLOW

Ground Ground
Street Man Man Peak Storm INVERT LEVEL
Length (HH) Present Future pcpd Avg.Flow Infiltration Total Sewer Velocity Slope Level Level
# hole hole flow allowance
On on PF
Cumulative Cumulative flow dia. Upper Lower Upper Lower
line line
From To FT Gallons Gallons cusecs inches ft/s ft/ft ft
1 1 2 50 2 2 14 22 22 10 185.40 2.5 463.50 9.27 61.80 0.001 6 2.5 0.00776 102.9 102.7 100.31 99.92
1 2 3 50 2 4 14 22 44 10 370.80 2.5 926.99 18.54 123.60 0.002 6 2.5 0.00776 102.7 102.53 99.92 99.53
1 3 4 40 2 6 14 22 65 10 556.19 2.5 1390.49 27.81 185.40 0.003 6 2.5 0.00776 102.53 102.36 99.53 99.22
1 4 12 60 3 9 21 33 98 10 834.29 2.5 2085.73 41.71 278.10 0.0045 6 2.5 0.00776 102.36 100.7 99.22 98.76
2 5 6 80 4 4 28 44 44 10 370.80 2.5 926.99 18.54 123.60 0.002 6 2.5 0.00776 102.95 100.53 100.36 99.74
2 6 11 70 3 7 21 33 76 10 648.89 2.5 1622.23 32.44 216.30 0.0035 6 2.5 0.00776 100.53 100.7 99.74 99.20
3 7 8 100 5 5 35 55 55 10 463.50 2.5 1158.74 23.17 154.50 0.0025 6 2.5 0.00776 100.7 101.9 98.11 97.33
4 9 10 80 4 4 28 44 44 10 370.80 2.5 926.99 18.54 123.60 0.002 6 2.5 0.00776 101.9 101.62 99.31 98.69
4 10 11 84 4 8 28 44 87 10 741.59 2.5 1853.98 37.08 247.20 0.004 6 2.5 0.00776 101.62 100.7 99.03 98.38
4 11 12 84 4 19 28 44 207 10 1761.28 2.5 4403.21 88.06 587.09 0.0095 6 2.5 0.00776 100.7 100.7 98.38 97.73
4 12 8 50 3 31 21 33 338 10 2873.67 2.5 7184.18 143.68 957.89 0.0154 6 2.5 0.00776 100.7 101.9 97.73 97.34
5 8 13 50 3 39 21 33 425 10 3615.26 2.5 9038.16 180.76 1205.09 0.0194 9 2.5 0.00451 101.9 100.7 97.33 97.11
5 13 14 100 5 44 35 55 480 10 4078.76 2.5 10196.9 203.94 1359.59 0.0219 9 2.5 0.00451 100.7 100.53 97.11 96.66
5 14 15 102 5 49 35 55 534 10 4542.25 2.5 11355.6 227.11 1514.08 0.0244 9 2.5 0.00451 100.53 102.66 96.66 96.20
5 15 16 70 4 53 28 44 578 10 4913.05 2.5 12282.6 245.65 1637.68 0.0264 9 2.5 0.00451 102.66 100.53 96.20 95.88
5 16 17 40 2 55 14 22 600 10 5098.45 2.5 12746.1 254.92 1699.48 0.0274 9 2.5 0.00451 100.53 95.92 95.88 95.70
6 18 19 100 5 5 35 55 55 10 463.50 2.5 1158.74 23.17 154.50 0.0025 6 2.5 0.00776 99.92 99.19 97.33 96.55
6 19 20 60 3 8 21 33 87 10 741.59 2.5 1853.98 37.08 247.20 0.004 6 2.5 0.00776 99.19 94.87 96.55 96.09
7 17 20 100 5 60 35 55 654 10 5561.94 2.5 13904.9 278.10 1853.98 0.0299 9 2.5 0.00451 95.92 94.87 95.70 95.25
7 20 21 110 6 74 42 65 807 10 6859.73 2.5 17149.3 342.99 2286.58 0.0369 9 2.5 0.00451 94.87 94.54 95.25 94.76
8 21 22 55 3 77 21 33 840 10 7137.83 2.5 17844.6 356.89 2379.28 0.0384 9 2.5 0.00451 94.54 94.23 94.76 94.51
Sec – II-6-8
Third Edition
2. DISPOSAL STATION
The wastewater in the sewers is directed towards the disposal stations for its ultimate
disposal. A disposal station essentially consists of a screening chamber called influent
chamber, a wastewater storage reservoir called wet well and the pumping arrangements.
2.1 Screening Chamber
Screening chamber receives the incoming sewers and directs the flows either to wet well
through bar screens or to overflow channels in case the wet well is not functional due to
some maintenance etc. The bar racks or screens, normally made of mild steel (MS), are
provided to remove the large suspended or floating matter carried by the wastewater. The
bar racks are installed in a manner as given below;
 Bars are inclined 45 to 60 degree from the horizontal to minimize clogging and facilitate
cleaning.
 The clear openings between the bars are kept at least 2 inches but not greater than 2.5
inches.
 Velocity of flow through bars is kept in between 1.5 to 2.5 feet per second to facilitate
the manual cleaning.
 A cleaning platform is provided for convenient hand cleaning of the screens.
2.2 Capacity/Size of Wet Well
The pumping machinery and wet well are sized together to achieve a satisfactory design.
Since flows are variable during different hours of the day, the disposal station must be able
to adjust these variations. In small disposal station the wet well is designed to meet the
peak flows, whereas during lower flows, sewage is allowed to accumulate in the wet well
until sufficient liquid is present to permit the pump to run for at least 2 minutes. In order
that the pump does not cycle too frequently, it is a standard practice to provide sufficient
storage in the wet well to ensure that the pump will not operate more than once in 5
minutes.
The capacity of wet well is calculated using the following formula;
V=QxD
Where
V = Volume of the wet well in cubic feet

Q = Design discharge in cubic feet per minute
D = Detention time in minutes (20 minutes for small communities with population less
than 5000 persons).
Example:
Design a wet well of a disposal station for an estimated designed flow of 150,000 gallons per
day. The detention time for wet well is 20 minutes.
Sec-II-6-9
Third Edition
Q = 150,000 gallons per day

= 150000 * 0.161/ (24 * 60)
= 16.7 cubic feet per minute
volume of the wet well V=QxD

= 16.7 x 20
= 335.41 cubic feet
Assuming depth of wet well d = 8 feet
Area of wet well A=V/d

= 335.41 / 8
= 41 .92 square feet
Diameter of the wet well is calculated as under
A = 3.14 / 4 * diameter2
41.92 = 3.14 / 4 * (dia) 2
diameter = 7.35 feet

Say = 8.0 feet
So
Provide 8 feet deep 8 feet diameter wet well.
2.3 Pumping Machinery
Pumps are employed in the disposal station to lift wastewater from the wet well and to
dispose it of to some drain or land. In case of pumps, the power is the rate at which work is
done and is calculated by the rate at which a known mass of water is moved against the
total resistance or total pumping head. The power required to operate not only depends
upon the weight of water moved and the distance through which it is moved vertically, but
also frictional resistance and the efficiency of the pump itself.
The power (Horse Power) required for the pump against a known resistance (head) is
calculated using the following formula;
H.P. =  xQxH
Ep*550
Where
H.P. = Horse power of the pump required

 = Specific weight of water (62.4 pounds per cubic feet)
Q = The required discharge in cubic feet per second
H = Total head in feet
Ep = Efficiency of pump (usually taken as 70 %)
Total head Ht = Hs + Hd +Hf

Hs = Suction head in feet (equal to vertical length of suction pipe)
Sec-II-6-10
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Hd = Delivery head in feet (equal to vertical length of delivery pipe)

Hf = Frictional head in feet.
The friction head consists of the loss in the pipes (HLp), as calculated by the formula given
below, plus the energy loss produced by flow due to various fittings in the piping system
(HLf).
Head loss (HLp) due to friction in pipes is calculated by the formula as given below;
HLp = 4 fLV2
2gd
Where,
f = Coefficient of friction of pipe material (0.01 to 0.013)

L = Length of pipe in feet
V = Velocity of flow in pipe in feet per second.
(Velocity in suction pipe is assumed as 5 ft per second and that in delivery
pipe is 8 ft per second)
d = Diameter of pipe in feet
g = Acceleration due to gravity (32 feet per square second)
Head loss (HLf) due to friction in pipe fittings are taken as 10% of the HLp or may be
determined by taking an equivalent straight length of pipe for the fitting as given in the
Table 9;
Table 13: Friction Losses Due to Pipe Fittings

Equivalent Length of Straight
Fittings
Pipe in Feet
Sluice valve 15
Non-return valve 20
Foot valve 20
Bend 15
Design Example:
Calculate the capacity of a pump and motor for disposing of 0.5 cusecs of wastewater from
the wet well of a disposal station. The 6 inches diameter suction pipe is 10 feet deep
whereas the delivery pipe of same diameter is 50 feet long with delivery head of 5 feet.
Efficiency of the pump is 70 % and that of motor is 90 %. Assume coefficient of pipe friction
as 0.012.
First of all, calculate the total head as under;
Total head (Ht) = Suction head (Hs) + Delivery head (Hd) + Frictional head (Hf)
Hs = 10 ft
Hd = 5 ft
Hf = head loss due to pipe friction (HLp) + head loss due to fittings (HLf)
Sec-II-6-11
Third Edition
Head loss due to friction in suction pipe is negligible. The HL in delivery pipe is calculated as;
HLp = 4 fLV2
2gd
= 4*0.012*50*8*8 / (2*32.2*0.5)
= 4.75 = 5.0 ft
HLf = 10 % of HLp
= 0.1 * 5 = 0.5 ft
Hf = 5 + 0.5 = 5.5 ft
Ht = 10 + 5 + 5.5
= 20.5 ft
Q = 0.5 cusecs
H = 20.5 ft
 = 62.4 llbs per cubic feet
Ep = 70 %
Em = 90 %
H.P. = x Q xH
Ep*550
= 62.4 * 0.5 * 20.5 / (0.7 * 550)
= 1.66 (Say 2 HP)
Break Horse Power of motor (BHP) = HP / Em

= 2 / 0.9
= 2.22 (Say 3 HP)
Hence 2 HP pump and 3 HP motor is required
3. STREET PAVEMENT AND DRAINS
Streets pavement is considered a sanitation activity as it provides a smooth and dust free
path to the street users while assisting in the effective drainage of the area. It protects
streets from ponding of water which causes various diseases in the poor neighborhoods.
The pavement is done either by brick soling or with plain cement concrete.
3.1 Brick Soling
In arid and semi arid areas, streets are paved with brick soling. In ordinary streets where,
vehicular traffic is not likely, dry bricks are laid on flat over 4 inches thick sand cushion. The
openings or joints of the laid bricks are filled with sand grouting.
In the main street where light traffic is expected, dry bricks are laid on edge over 4 inches
thick sand cushion. The openings or joints of the laid bricks are filled with sand grouting.
3.2 PCC Pavement
In humid areas where heavy rain falls are expected, streets are paved with plain cement
concrete. Over a well-compacted earth (natural surface), 6-inch-thick layer of gravel is
Sec-II-6-12
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placed and compacted. Over this, a layer of 4 inches thick 1: 2: 4 plain cement concrete is
placed and finished as top surface.
3.3 Camber
The cross-sectional slope of the pavement from center to the edges is called camber. It is
provided for the drainage of rainwater from the surface. A camber of 3% is recommended
for effective drainage. The longitudinal slopes may be provided with very light gradients
according to site requirements.
3.4 STREET DRAINS
In the absence of sewerage system, street drains are provided to carry domestic wastewater
and storm water flows. These drains are provided on both sides of the street and designed
on the same hydraulic principals as applied for the design of sewerage system as explained
earlier. The gradient of a drain is provided in such a way that there is no accumulation of
solid material. This gradient/slope is attained at a minimum self-cleansing velocity of 2.5
feet per second.
The street drains are usually rectangular in cross section. The size of the drain is determined
using the following formula;
Q=AxV
Where
Q = Discharge in cusecs
A = Cross Sectional area of the drain in square feet
V = Velocity in feet per second
In the above formula, discharge is calculated in a usual way as explained under design of
sewerage system. Velocity is taken as 2.5 feet per second. The area “A” is accordingly
determined.
Once the area has been calculated, the width of the drain is assumed from 6 to 12 inches
and depth is calculated by dividing the area by the width assumed. The width and depth
may be revised keeping in view the site conditions. A typical cross section of side drains and
street pavement is shown in the Figure 3.
Figure 5: Typical Cross Section of Side Drains and Street Pavement
Brcik Soling on edge or flat 3 % slope

Drain Section as per
hydraulic design
NSL 4" Sand
Variable
Lean concrete 1:4:8
Sec-II-6-13
Third Edition
4. SEWAGE TREATMENT AND REUSE
Sewage is the wastewater of a community. It is domestic in origin and typically composed of

human body wastes (faeces and urine) and the sewage resulting from personal washing,
laundry, food preparation and the cleaning of kitchen utensils etc. Typical sewage is
composed of some 99.9 % water and 0.1 % impurities, mainly suspended, colloidal and
dissolved solids.
4.1 Sewage Treatment
The Sewage Treatment shall be designed to treat the influent wastewaters, for bringing
their biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) and total suspended solids (TSS), within the
concentration limits of NEQS. Treatment of sewage is done primarily due to following
reasons:
 To reduce the concentration of pollutants in the sewage.
 To prevent the pollution of surface and ground waters.
4.2 Types of Treatment
Selection for the type of treatment of sewage for community-based projects shall be limited
to its cost. On the other hand, these projects are partly implemented and fully operated by
community. Considering these constraints selection and implementation of treatment type
should be done with respect to simplicity in implementation and operations.
For the treatment type selection following cases should be considered:
Case#1: Intervention will be carried out in the area in which open sewerage drains exists
and it is connected with Government Sewerage Network. In this case the open drains are
replaced by pipe sewers, so no treatment is required.
Case#2: Small community having population less than 2,000 and does not have any sanitary
network. The community is practicing open defecation or have pits at each household level.
In this case, septic tank with soak pit shall be provided for treatment.
Case#3: Community having population ≤2,000 and does not have any sanitary network. The
community is practicing open defecation or have pits at each household level. In this case,
oxidation ponds shall be provided for treatment. This treatment type shall not be applied in
the areas where weather is severe in winters e.g. Chitral, Shangla, Buner etc. for this
particular case septic tank with soak pit shall be provided for treatment.
4.3 Design of Septic Tank and Soak Pit
4.3.1 Septic Tank
The primary purpose of a septic tank is to provide suspended solids and oil/grease removal
through sedimentation and flotation. The important factor to achieving good sedimentation
is maintaining quiescent conditions. This is accomplished by providing a long residence time
Sec-II-6-14
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in the septic tank. Tank volume, geometry, and compartmentalization affect the residence
time.
Design Criteria:
Parameters Unit Range Typical Value
3
Sewage generation is less than 4.5 m /day than volume of
m3 4.5 4.5
tank
Sewage generation is greater than 4.5 m3/day retention
hrs. 24-48 36
time of sewage for determining the volume of tank
Geometry (length to width ratio) ratio ≤3:1 -
4.3.2 Soak Pit
After the septic tank the sewage flows into soak pit where it is passes from gravel media and
percolate into ground.
Design Criteria:
Parameters Unit Range Typical Value
Flow rate m3/day/m2 0.0409 to 0.0817 0.060
Gravel size mm 100-200 150
Gravel depth mm 200-400 300
Clear height above media mm - 200
Lateral distance from water source or well m - ≥30
Figure 6: Typical Plan and Section of Septic Tank and Soak Pit
Sec-II-6-15
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Design Example:
Septic Tank Design

Q (m3/day) 132
Detention time (hour) taken 36
Volume calculated (m3) (132/24) x 36 = 198
Dimensions for septic tank
Width (m) 10
Length (m) 20
Height (m) 2+0.5
(0.5 m is free board)
Soak Pit
Flow (m3/day) 132
Flow Rate (m3/day/m2) (0.0409 to 0.0817) 0.060
Area (m2) = 132 x 0.060 = 8
Width (m) 2
Length (m) 4
Gravel size (mm) 150
Gravel depth (mm) 300
Clear height above gravel (mm) 200
Lateral distance from water source or well (m) 35
4.3.3 Design of Oxidation Pond
Oxidation Ponds are large shallow earthen basins, in which sewage is treated solely by
natural processes, causing the oxidation to proceed at much slower rates and thus requiring
large retention times essentially in days.
Sec-II-6-16
Third Edition
Design Criteria:
Parameters Unit Range Adopted
Volumetric hydraulic retention time days 5-10 ≥5.0
liquid depth m 1–3 2.0
Figure 7: Typical Section of Oxidation Pond
Design Example:
Septic Tank Design

Q (m3/day) 132
Retention time taken (days) 5
Volume calculated (m3) 132 x 5 = 660
Dimensions for septic tank
Width (m) 22
Length (m) 30
Height (m) 2+0.5
(0.5 m is free board)
4.4 Sewage Reuse
The use of treated sewage for irrigation can only be done where other sources of water for
irrigation are limited or non-existent. The treated sewage is normally rich in nutrients and
therefore performs as a valuable source of fertilizer to promote the vegetable growth.
However, there are significant public health risks attached to sewage irrigation practices
especially where these crops are used uncooked for human consumption. Treated sewage
contains enormous number of faecal coliform and helminth eggs, which poses a high health
risk particularly to farmers using for irrigation. These farmers are normally more vulnerable
to gastrointestinal and diarrheal diseases and hookworm infections. However, these risks
are reduced where crops are used by the animal as a feed. The most serious problem of
using untreated or partially treated sewage is transmission of gastrointestinal disease. The
major transmission route is eating raw, uncooked vegetables without washing with clean
water. The other health effect of using raw sewage is eye and skin diseases.
It is, therefore advisable to employ appropriate treatment to reduce the pathogens in the
sewage prior to reuse for irrigation. Where treatment is not economically viable, following
measures may be adopted;
 Selection of appropriate crops to be grown. Irrigation of the root crops, to be used by

human beings, should be stopped. Untreated sewage may be used for the selected crops
Sec-II-6-17
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like grains, hay, maize, cotton and for trees, provided irrigation is done in furrows
instead of spray.
 Fodder crops grown on sewage should be stored for at least 20 days before being fed to
livestock.
 Raise awareness among the farmers to wash hands, skin, and bodies after the farm work
in order to prevent transmission of communicable diseases.
 Promote safety measures like provision of shoes and gloves for farm workers.
Sec-II-6-18
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SECTION – III
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL

MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK (ESMF)
Sec-III
Third Edition
CONTENTS
SECTION – III: ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIAL FRAMEWORK (ESMF)

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ Sec-III-1
2. ENVIRONMENTAL / SOCIAL SCREENING AND ASSESSMENTS ......................... Sec-III-1
2.1 Environmental / Social Screening............................................................. Sec-III-1
2.2 Environmental / Social Assessments ........................................................ Sec-III-1
3. DISSEMINATION AND ENFORCEMENT STRATEGIES ........................................ Sec-III-2
3.1 Dissemination Strategies .......................................................................... Sec-III-2
3.2 Enforcement Strategies ............................................................................ Sec-III-2
4. DISSEMINATION & ENFORCEMENT ACTION PLAN .......................................... Sec-III-4
4.1 Dissemination Action Plan........................................................................ Sec-III-4
4.2 Enforcement Action Plan.......................................................................... Sec-III-5
5. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS .................................................................... Sec-III-5
5.1 Establishment of an Environmental & Social Management Group ......... Sec-III-5
5.2 Appointment of ESM Professionals in POs............................................... Sec-III-6
5.3 External Monitoring/Assessment ............................................................. Sec-III-6
SEC-III
Third Edition
SECTION – III: ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIAL FRAMEWORK (ESMF)
1. INTRODUCTION
The ESMF has been prepared to set out the environmental assessment procedures required
by PPAF and its POs to assess the environmental consequences of PPAF interventions, with a
view to preventing execution of interventions with significant negative environmental and
social impacts. It also attempts at minimizing potential negative impacts by incorporating
mitigations at the design stage and implementing mitigations at the implementation stage
of the interventions.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL / SOCIAL SCREENING AND ASSESSMENTS
2.1 Environmental / Social Screening
Environmental Screening to select the type of environmental assessment for each PPAF
intervention has been conducted by applying following criteria:
(i) Instructions of the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997 (PEPA) and Pakistan
Environmental Assessment Procedures 1997 (PEAP) for the level of assessment required
for the intervention i.e. Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA);
(ii) Individual and cumulative environmental impacts of interventions in different

geographical areas;
(iii)PPAF negative lists for interventions; and
(iv) World Bank Environmental / Social Assessment requirements.
2.2 Environmental / Social Assessments
On the basis of the environmental and social screening, the ESMF proposes four types of
environmental assessments for PPAF interventions, discussed below:
 An Environmental Review (ER) for this ESMF is defined as a confirmation statement that
the intervention qualifies the minimum environmental criteria; proposed mitigations
measures and costs are made part of the proposal and implemented accordingly; and
finally the proponent verifies the same at the completion stage.
 A Social Review (SR) is defined as preliminary examination of an intervention from social

perspective and identifying any issues related to it.
 An Integrated Environmental Review (IER) for this ESMF is defined as an assessment

which is required for those interventions whose anticipated potential individualistic and
cumulative environmental impacts are more than the PPAF interventions in general and
less than the scope of initial environmental examination required under Pakistan
SEC-III-1
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Environmental Protection Act 1997. Under this assessment the proponent of the project
has to produce a confirmation statement that the proposed intervention qualifies the
minimum environmental criteria; proposed mitigations measures and costs are made
part of the proposal and implemented accordingly; and finally, the proponent verifies the
same at the completion stage.
 According to Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997, “Initial Environmental

Examination (IEE)” is a preliminary review of the reasonably foreseeable qualitative &
quantitative impacts of a proposed project on environment to determine whether it is
likely to cause an adverse effect for requiring preparation of an environmental impact
assessment.”
IEE for selected PPAF interventions will be carried out according to the standard format
contained in Pakistan Environmental Assessment Procedures 1997.
 Environmental Impact Assessment, as stated in the Pakistan Environmental Protection

Act 1997 is an environmental study comprising collection of data, prediction of
qualitative and quantitative impacts, comparison of alternatives, evaluation of
preventive, mitigation and compensatory measures, formulation of environmental
management and training plans and monitoring arrangements, and framing of
recommendations and such other components as may be prescribed.”
 Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is a study to assess social impacts of a certain

intervention and measures to ensure that all segments of society benefit with minimum
negative impact. SIA will be conducted in addition to EIA for all projects that require EIA.
But, where the project impact is low, the SIA is not expected to be a complicated one.
Categorization of different PPAF interventions by environmental / social screening protocols

is presented in Table 1.
3. DISSEMINATION AND ENFORCEMENT STRATEGIES
The ESMF will be disseminated and its compliance made mandatory, through a multi-
pronged strategic framework, as follows:
3.1 Dissemination Strategies
 Capacity building of PPAF and POs in environment and social monitoring and evaluation.
 Organize environmental dissemination and training events on the basis of proposed
action plan.
 Networking with the national and provincial environmental and social institutions.
3.2 Enforcement Strategies
Following the capability enhancement of PPAF and its POs, environmental and social
reporting and monitoring will be carried out in the framework of the following enforcement
strategies:
SEC-III-2
Third Edition
Table 1: Environmental/Social Screening by Type of PPAF Interventions

Environmental Screening Protocol
Sr. Sector of
Specific Intervention ER/ Page
No Intervention IER IEE EIA SIA
SR No.
1 Water Resources Development
Tube wells – drinking water* √ ` IER-87
Tube wells – irrigation in canal irrigated √
√ E/SR-12
areas*
Tube wells – irrigation in dry areas* √ √ IER-89
Hand pumps √ √ E/SR-14
Open well √ E/SR-16
Rain water harvesting ponds √ E/SR-18
Check dams √ E/SR-20
Delay action dams √ √ IER-91
Water tanks (O.H,O.G,U.G) √ E/SR-22
Water channels - Mountain Areas (< 2' x
√ E/SR-24
3')
Watercourse (new, rehabilitation, lining) √ E/SR-26
Karezes √ E/SR-28
Land leveling (irrigation) √ E/SR-30
2 Technological Innovation
Wind mills (i.e. coastal areas of √
√ IER-96
Balochistan and Sindh)
Micro-hydel – Less than 1 MW √ IER-99
Micro-hydel – 1 to 5 MW √ √ IEE-117
Micro-hydel- More than 5 MW √ √ EIA-120
Desalination plant (for ≤100 Households) √ √ E/SR-33
Biogas Plant (for ≤100 Households) √ √ E/SR-35
Solar energy (for ≤100 Households) √ E/SR-37
Energy efficient innovations (stoves) √ E/SR-39
3 Access/Circulation
A. Internal
Culverts √ E/SR-42
Street surfacing/lining (brick soiling, √
√ E/SR-44
concrete or local material)
B. External
Bridges √ √ IER-101
Cause ways √ √ E/SR-47
Retaining walls √ √ E/SR-49
Link roads – plain areas √ √ E/SR-51
Link roads- mountain areas √ √ IER-103
4 Wastewater Management
Sanitation schemes (latrines, T-Chambers, √
√ IER-107
drains, and oxidation pond)
5 Other Projects
Solid waste management (for ≤100 √
√ E/SR-54
Households)
NRM project (Natural Resource √
√ E/SR-56
Management)
Security lights √ E/SR-58
√
Jetty √ E/SR-60
SEC-III-3
Third Edition
Environmental Screening Protocol

Sr. Sector of
Specific Intervention ER/ Page
No Intervention IER IEE EIA SIA
SR No.
6 Integrated Projects
Area up-grading √ √ IER-111
Drought mitigation & preparedness √ √ EIA-120
7 Social Sector Development
School √ √ E/SR-63
Basic health unit/dispensary √ √ E/SR-65
8 MF Interventions
Agriculture/cropping* √ E/SR-68
Livestock/poultry/ fish farming* √ E/SR-70
Commerce/ retailing/ petty trading √ E/SR-72
Handicrafts/ cottage √ E/SR-74
Food / agricultural processing* √ E/SR-76
Commodity/agricultural trading √ E/SR-78
Manufacturing / light engineering/ √
√ E/SR-80
workshop*
Micro-enterprise √ E/SR-82
The prescribed environmental screening protocols assume that the project proponents and
appraisers have taken cognizance of the pre and post project accumulative situation in
terms of ground water depletion, soil and water contamination and air pollution. Where the
mitigation measures required under these protocols fall short of reversing such situations or
maintaining the status quo, the project should not be approved. The cumulative effects if
various interventions will be assessed as a part of the annual environmental reviews and
area specific guide lines formulated for future reference
 Start an enhanced environmental / social reporting regime

 Periodic internal monitoring by PPAF Units and ESMG.
 Outsource the annual ESMF monitoring to an eminent environmental and social
development organization.
4. DISSEMINATION & ENFORCEMENT ACTION PLAN
4.1 Dissemination Action Plan
The ESMF will be disseminated among all stakeholders, through carefully planned events,
including seminars, workshops and roundtable discussion. An annual dissemination action
plan will encompass: (a) One seminar on the environmental selected topic, one national
workshop on ESMF compliance and presentation of success stories, and one roundtable, (b)
One workshop in each province on the selected issues in collaboration with Provincial POs
Networks or a leading PO, and (c) POs to organize two internal environmental workshops;
environmental focal persons trained in the regional training workshops will serve as the
master trainers.
Invitation to these events will be extended to all major stakeholders, and their proceedings
will be circulated to all the invitees. Again, a number of leaflets will be published on specific
SEC-III-4
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environmental and social issues and a culture of e-alerts will be created throughout the
network of POs.
4.2 Enforcement Action Plan
Developed in line with the enforcement strategies presented above, the Enforcement
Action Plan is outlined as follows:
(a) Establishing an Environmental/Social Reporting Regime
This will involve reminding the POs that ESMF compliance is mandatory, and asking them to
submit ESMF compliance reports according to the prescribed format. Based on these
reports, ESMG will prepare consolidated quarterly reports on monitoring and environmental
events.
(b) Regular Internal Monitoring by PPAF
Based on quarterly internal monitoring report by different Units, ESMG will prepare
consolidated compliance quarterly reports on ESMF compliance.
(c) Annual Environmental/Social Management Report
An annual Environmental & Social Monitoring and Auditing of ESMF will be prepared by an
external organization, which will be published and distributed to all the POs and other stake
holders.
5. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Three types of institutional arrangements / actions are essential for the effective
Implementation of ESMF. These are discussed as follows:
5.1 Establishment of an Environmental & Social Management Group (ESMG)
The ESMF will be enforced through a fully committed and well-staffed, Environmental &
Social Management Group, (ESMG), suitably placed in PPAF. Key responsibilities of ESMG
will include:
 Implement the ‘Dissemination & Enforcement Strategy, and Action Plan’,

 Ensure that environmental mitigations given in ESMF are part of the PO proposals.
 Carry out physical verification of the claimed ESMF compliance.
 Prepare quarterly ESMF compliance report and Annual Environmental Report.
 Maintain environmental database and integrate it with existing GIS.
 Coordinate with all PPAF Units for the effective compliance of ESMF.
 Coordinate with the external environmental monitor for the annual external monitoring.
SEC-III-5
Third Edition
5.2 Appointment of Environmental/Social Management Professionals in POs
It will be mandatory to have one post of Environmental Managers/Assistant Managers/Focal

Persons in the large and medium POs. Small POs will nominate existing CPI coordinator as
Environmental Focal Person. The environmental personnel in POs will be responsible for
incorporating ESMF requirements in the project proposal, ensure that agreed environmental
mitigation presented in the proposal have been implemented, conduct periodic
environmental monitoring, and submit the monitoring reports to ESMG.
5.3 External Monitoring/Assessment
ESMG will outsource the Annual Environmental and Social Monitoring/Assessment to a

renowned and competent environmental organization. Based on detailed desk and field
investigations the ESMA will present recommendations for improvements in the
environmental and social management regimes and the design and contents of ESMF.
The complete environmental and social management framework and reference manual and
user guidelines are attached as Annexure-5.
SEC-III-6
Third Edition
SECTION – IV
COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

QUALITY CONTROL MANAGEMENT
SEC-IV
Third Edition
CONTENT
SECTION – IV: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE QUALITY

CONTROL MANAGEMENT
1. Concrete Testing ..................................................................................................... SEC-IV-1

1.1 Schmidt Hammer ............................................................................................ SEC-IV-1
2. Curing of Concrete .................................................................................................. SEC-IV-2
3. Role and Responsibility of Field Engineer (Quality Control Staff) .......................... SEC-IV-2
3.1 The Field Engineer (Quality Control Staff) ...................................................... SEC-IV-2
4. Phases of Inspection ............................................................................................... SEC-IV-2
4.1 Initial Inspections ............................................................................................ SEC-IV-2
4.2 Follow-Up Inspections .................................................................................... SEC-IV-2
SEC-IV
Third Edition
SECTION – IV: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

QUALITY CONTROL MANAGEMENT
The Partner Organization shall perform specified or required tests to verify the control
measures are adequate to provide a product which conforms to contract requirements. The
Field Engineer of Partner Organization shall perform the following activities in close
coordination with laboratories and Community organization.
1. CONCRETE TESTING
Concrete Mixer should be used only of mixing of concrete as per approved ratio mentioned
in Project proposal to attain required strength. Hand mixing is only allowed in special cases
due unavailability of mixer machine and try pour the concrete in one go if possible.
1.1 Schmidt Hammer
A Schmidt hammer, also known as a Swiss hammer or a rebound hammer, is a device to

measure the elastic properties or strength of concrete or rock, mainly surface hardness and
penetration resistance.
The hammer measures the rebound of a spring-loaded mass impacting against the surface
of the sample. The test hammer will hit the concrete at a defined energy. Its rebound is
dependent on the hardness of the concrete and is measured by the test equipment. By
reference to the conversion chart, the rebound value can be used to determine
the compressive strength. When conducting the test the hammer should be held at right
angles to the surface which in turn should be flat and smooth. The rebound reading will be
affected by the orientation of the hammer, when used in a vertical position (on the
underside of a suspended slab for example) gravity will increase the rebound distance of the
mass and vice versa for a test conducted on a floor slab. The Schmidt hammer is an arbitrary
scale ranging from 10 to 100. Schmidt hammers are available from their original
manufacturers in several different energy ranges.
The test is also sensitive to other factors:
Local variation in the sample. To minimize this it is recommended to take a selection of

readings and take an average value. Water content of the sample, a saturated material will
give different results from a dry one.
Prior to testing, the Schmidt hammer should be calibrated using a calibration test. 12
readings should be taken, dropping the highest and lowest, and then take the average of the
ten remaining. Using this method of testing is classed as indirect as it does not give a direct
measurement of the strength of the material. It simply gives an indication based on surface
properties, it is only suitable for making comparisons between samples.
This test method for testing concrete is governed by ASTM C805. ASTM D5873 describes the
procedure for testing of rock.
SEC-IV-1
Third Edition
2. CURING OF CONCRETE
Curing of concrete is defined as the process of maintaining the moisture and temperature
conditions of concrete for hydration reaction to normally so that concrete develops
hardened properties over time. The main components which needs to be taken care are
moisture, heat and time during curing process. Minimum 15 Days curing is recommended.
3. ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITY OF FIELD ENGINEER (Quality Control Staff)
3.1 The Field Engineer (Quality Control Staff)
The Quality Control (QC) Engineer is responsible for overseeing the onsite project activities,
conducting all project testing, inspections and reporting matters.
Duties:
1. Verification of materials as per project plans and specifications.

2. Oversee means and methods to store and protect materials.
3. Maintain documentation of inspection status of materials.
4. Maintain documentation for material and administrative approvals.
4. PHASES OF INSPECTION
4.1 Initial Inspections
Initial Inspections are performed at the beginning of any Definable Feature of Work and
must be repeated at any time new workmen or new crews are assigned to the work or if the
required standard of work is not being met. The following is accomplished:
1. Verify that the work complies with the proposal.

2. Resolve all differences.
3. Verify adequacy of inspection and testing.
4. Establish a level of workmanship and verify that it meets the requirements.
5. Provide documentation of the previous inspection of the work area.
6. Re-examine the work area for compliance.
4.2 Follow-Up Inspections
Follow-Up Inspections are performed daily to ensure that the control established during
Initial Inspection continues to provide a product that conforms to the contractual
requirements.
1. Construction daily activities are inspected by Quality Control in accordance with Quality
Control Procedures.
2. Installation and testing activities which do not comply with the requirements are
documented.
SEC-IV-2
Third Edition
Checklist for Quality Plan
Sr. No Test Name Performed or Not (Yes/NO)
1 Concrete Test (Schmidt Hammer)

2 Curing of Concrete
3 Any other Test Recommended By PPAF
SEC-IV-3
Third Edition
ANNEXURES
ANNEXURE – 1: FORMAT FOR FEASIBILITY PROPOSAL

ANNEXURE – 2: IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS
ANNEXURE – 3: DISCHARGE OF WATER
ANNEXURE – 4: QUANTITIES ESTIMATION
ANNEXURE – 5: SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES
ANNEXURE – 6: ESMF USER’S GUIDELINES
Third Edition
ANNEXURE - 1: FORMAT FOR FEASIBILITY PROPOSAL
1.1 LOCATION MAP
1.2 PROJECT SUMMARY (One Page)
 Project Location and Description

 Description of the area
 Cost Estimates (Total cost, CO/VO and PPAF contributions)
 Project Justification (Benefits, NPV, B/C Ratio, IRR)
1.3 INTRODUCTION
 Project Location and Description

 Project Identification
 Objective of the Project
 Social Organization
 Socio-Economic Setup
1.4 DESIGN AND COST ESTIMATES
 Design
 Quantities & Cost Estimates
 O & M Plan
 Minutes of meeting with CO/VO
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
1.6 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
1.7 PROJECT MANAGEMENT
1.8 COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
 Project Costs
 Project Benefits
 Measures of Project Worth
List of Tables
Table-1 Capital Cost

Table-2 Summary of Costs
Table-3 Net Present Value
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Third Edition
ANNEXURE - 2: IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS
Design capacity of the irrigation channel depends upon the quantity of water required for
growing crops, forest, orchard etc. on the land to the irrigated by the channel i.e. command
area of the channel. Therefore, estimation of Irrigation Water Requirements is essential.
Quantity of water required for irrigation depends upon the crop water requirements and
losses in the system. Sum of these two is termed as Irrigation Water Requirements. Crop
water requirement for each crop vary from region to region depending upon the climatic
conditions such as air temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind speed etc. and soil type
Losses in the system mainly depend upon the climate and types of channel bed material.
There are various methods of estimating water requirements, but the simplest one that can
be easily used by the engineers is explained below.
DELTA METHOD
The depth of water required in inches by a crop to reach its maturity is called “Delta”
Knowing the area under a crop and its delta, we can find out the amount of water in
“cusecs” that must have been applied on that area till maturity of the crop. Normally depth
of watering is from 2.5 to 4 inches depending on the type of crop.
Below are given the average deltas for some of the crops:
Table-1: Deltas of Main Crops

S. No. Crop Delta (in)
1 Rice 48
2 Sugarcane 48
3 Tobacco 30
4 Vegetables 18
5 Wheat 15
6 Maize 18
7 Fodder 9
8 Pulses 12
9 Orchard 24
A useful term with “Delta” is “Duty”. Duty is defined as “irrigating capacity of unit volume of
water and is expressed as acre(s)/cusec”. Duty helps in designing the irrigation projects.
Knowing the amount of water available and overall Duty (Duty of mixed crops), we can work
out the area that can be irrigated from the available water. Average Duties of main crops
are tabulated as under:
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Third Edition

Average Duty Normal Watering
S. No. Crop
(Acre/cusec) Intervals (Days)
1 Rice 80-100 10-12
2 Sugarcane 40-45 10-12
3 Tobacco 80-100 10-12
4 Vegetables 50 10-12
5 Wheat 120-150 20-30
6 Maize 120-150 20-30
7 Fodder 60-70 15-20
8 Pulses 120-150 20-30
9 Orchard 80-100 10-12
Thus from Duty or Delta, we can estimate the amount of water required by the crops on the
basis of prevailing cropping pattern.
EXAMPLE
Let it be required to irrigate an area of 1000 acres. We are required to work out the
discharge of the channel. Assume the cropping pattern as you deem fit.
Intensity of Irrigation = 100%

Crop Area = 1000 acres
Table-3: Assumed Cropping Pattern

%age of Annual Base Period
S. No. Crop Crop Period Area
Irrigation (Months)
1 Wheat Rabbi 35 350 5
2 Maize Kharif 20 200 4
3 Vegetable Kharif/Rabbi 5 50 9
4 Fodder Kharif/Rabbi 5 50 12
5 Pulses Kharif 5 50 5
6 Tobacco Kharif 5 50 4
7 Orchard Kharif/Rabbi 5 50 12
8 Sugarcane Kharif/Rabbi 15 150 12
9 Rice Kharif/Rabbi 5 50 4
Note: 1 cusec = 2 Acre-ft (It means that 1 cusec of water flowing for 24 hours sill irrigate 2
acres of land to a depth of 1 ft).
With the help of delta of each crop and assumed cropping pattern, discharge required for
each crop is estimated as follows:
WHEAT
Area = 350 acres
Delta = 15 = 1.2ft
Base Period = 5 months or 150 days
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Third Edition
Volume of water required = 350 * 1.25 = 437.5 Acre-ft

Discharge required = 437.5/2 = 218.75 cusecs
= 218.75 / 150 = 1.45 cusec (discharge per day)
MAIZE
Area = 200 acres
Delta = 18 in = 1.5ft
Volume of water required = 200 * 1.5 = 300 Acre-ft
Discharge required = 300/2 = 150 cusecs
= 150 / 120 = 1.25 cusec (discharge per day)
VEGETABLE
Area = 50 acres
Discharge required = 2(75)/2 = 75 cusecs
FODDER
Area = 50 acres
Volume of water required = 50 * 0.75 = 37.5 Acre-ft
Discharge required = 2(37.5)/2 = 37.5 cusecs
PULSES
Area = 50 acres
Delta = 12 in = 1ft
Volume of water required = 50 * 1 = 50 Acre-ft
Discharge required = 50/2 = 25 cusecs
TOBACCO
Area = 50 acres
Discharge required = 125/2 = 62.5 cusecs
ORCHARD
Area = 50 acres
Delta = 24 in = 2ft
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SUGARCANE
Area = 150 acres
Delta = 48 in = 4ft
RICE
Area = 50 acres
Delta = 48 in = 4ft
Volume of water required = 50* 4 = 200 Acre-ft

S. No. Crop Crop Period Discharge (cusecs)
1 Wheat Rabbi 1.45
2 Maize Kharif 1.25
3 Vegetables Kharif/Rabbi 0.28
4 Fodder Kharif/Rabbi 0.10
5 Pulses Kharif 0.17
6 Tobacco Kharif 0.52
7 Orchard Kharif/Rabbi 0.27
8 Sugarcane Kharif/Rabbi 1.64
9 Rice Kharif/Rabbi 1.67
TOTAL 7.35
Total Discharge = 7.35 cusecs

Add losses = 40%
Discharge, after considering losses, comes out to be 10.3 cusecs.
Losses comprise of Conveyance and Field Application Losses and are usually taken as 40%
for normal temperature zones and 50%-60% for areas where temperature is too high and
terrain is sandy.
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Now we work out the water requirements with the help of Duty of crops given in Table-2.
Here it is to be pointed out that in the following calculations we'll consider higher acreage
values (inclusive of losses) for the crops as given in the Table.
WHEAT
Duty (average) = 150 Acres/cusec. (Given in Table-2)
Area under cultivation = 50 Acres
Discharge = 1 ∗ 350
150
= 2.33 cusec
MAIZE
150
= 1.33 cusec
VEGETABLE
50
= 1.00 cusec
FODDER
70
= 0.714 cusec
PULSES
150
= 0.333 cusec
TOBACCO
100
= 0.50 cusec
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ORCHARD
100
= 0.50 cusec
SUGARCANE
45
= 3.33 cusec
RICE
100
= 0.50 cusec
Table-5: Water Requirement of Crops by Duty Method (as calculated)

S.
Crop Crop Period Discharge (cusecs)
No.
1 Wheat Rabbi 2.33
2 Maize Kharif 1.33
3 Vegetables Kharif/Rabbi 1.00
4 Fodder Kharif/Rabbi 0.71
5 Pulses Kharif 0.33
6 Tobacco Kharif 0.50
7 Orchard Kharif/Rabbi 0.50
8 Sugarcane Kharif/Rabbi 3.33
9 Rice Kharif/Rabbi 0.50
Total discharge required for crops calculated by Delta Method, including losses, is 10.3
cusecs whereas the discharge calculated by Duty method is 10.50 cusecs. Hence both the
methods give almost the same result.
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Third Edition
ANNEXURE - 3: DISCHARGE OF WATER
Drinking water supply schemes in rural areas are generally designed to provide water to the
households from different sources such as natural springs, streams, ground water etc. In the
design of water supply schemes, no treatment facility is provided due to extra costs
involved. Ground water is generally safe for drinking, but surface water from springs and
streams may contain suspended sediments as well as certain infectious bacteria that may be
dangerous for health. It is therefore, imperative that such water should be treated to certain
extent in order to avoid water borne diseases.
The most objectable and harmful constituent of water is “pathogenic bacteria”. An excess
number of harmless bacteria is also not desirable in water. So disinfection of killing of
pathogens is required. Water is more prone to contamination during distribution, especially
in an intermittent system of supply where the pipes remain empty for long periods. The
negative impacts can be reduced if the sitting of source is correct and community is given
training on the negative aspects of contaminated water. The following simple disinfection
methods should be used in all drinking water supply schemes.
Among disinfection, “Chlorination” is most practical, effective, cheapest and convenient

method for public water supplies. Chlorine is very active agent and reacts quickly with
organic matter present in water. It is very effective against the bacteria commonly
associated with water borne diseases and control of algae & other plant life, Chlorine
eliminates taste, odor and color of water.
Chlorine content of 23.2% in water is supposed to be sufficient to kill typhoid, cholera and
gastroenteritis germs.
For disinfection alone, a dosage of 10 mg to 20 mg per 100 liters of water may be required
for good quality groundwater and 50 mg to 150 mg per 100 liters of water for surface water.
A dosage of 100 mg per 100 liters of water will destroy most of the germs. In case of highly
polluted waters the requirement of chlorine may be as high as 300 mg per 100 liters of
water giving a residual of 100 mg per 100 liters of water in 20 minutes. In case of epidemics,
under rural conditions, and for small supplies, the residual chlorine is kept at 50 mg per 100
liters of water.
After chlorination, the water must be allowed to stand for at-least 20 minutes before use.
Bleaching Powder
Bleaching powder is “Hypo-chlorite” of lime or “chlorinated lime”. It is whitish grey powder

and is employed for temporary or emergency chlorination in case of highly polluted water. It
contains about 25% to 30% of active chlorine when fresh but loses its chlorine content with
age and exposure to air.
Dose varies from 150 to 400 mg per 100 liters of water. 24 hours settlement time should be
allowed. Bleaching powder should be used in case of emergency only.
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Third Edition
Iodine
Iodine is a very good disinfecting agent. Tincture of iodine can be used to disinfect water.
Normally 3 drops of 2% tincture of iodine are sufficient for 1 liter of water.
Caustic Lime or Quick Lime
A dose of about 150 mg to 200 mg per liter of water has a bactericidal effect. It is suitable
for small quantities. Water is filtered after reaction. It is only used when filtration facility is
provided in the scheme.
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Third Edition
ANNEXURE - 4: QUANTITIES ESTIMATION
After design of a project, the next step is to calculate quantities of different material to be
used. Working out quantities is a quite tedious job and needs appreciable attention,
concentration and time. In this context, the following tables have been developed which
may ease the work of engineers.
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Third Edition
Table-1: Material Schedule of Work

Course
Bricks Cement Sand Stone Water GCI Sheet Timber
Sr. No. Particulars Aggregate
(Nos.) (Bags) (Cft) (Nos.) (Liter) (Sq.Ft) (Cft)
(Cft)
1 100 cft Brick Masonry (9"x4.5"x3")
a in 1:3 C/S Mortar 1350 6 23.3 - - - - -
b in 1:4 C/S Mortar 1350 4.8 24 - - - - -
c in 1:5 C/S Mortar 1350 4 25 - - - - -
d in 1:6 C/S Mortar 1350 3.4 26 - - - - -
2 100 cft Stone Masonry
a in 1:3 C/S Mortar - 9 33.75 100 - - - -
b in 1:4 C/S Mortar - 7.4 37 100 - - - -
c in 1:6 C/S Mortar - 5.3 39.5 100 - - - -
3 100 Sq.ft Plaster
a 1/2” thick in C/S mortar 1:3 0.9 2.6 - - - - -
b 3/4" thick in C / S mortar 1:3 1.35 5.2 - - - - -
c 3/8" thick in C/S mortar 1:3 0.66 2.5 - - - - -
d 1/2” thick in C/S mortar 1:4 0.75 3.6 - - - - -
e 3/4" thick in C/S mortar 1:4 1.2 5.5 - - - - -
f 3/8" thick in C/S mortar 1:4 0.6 3 - - - - -
4 100 Sq.ft Pointing in C / S Mortar
a in 1:2 C/S Mortar 0.75 1.8 - - - - -
b in 1:3 C/S Mortar 0.54 2 - - - - -
c in 1:4 C/S Mortar 0.2 1.03 - - - - -
5 100 Sq.ft deep struck Pointing on walls
a in 1:2 C/S Mortar 0.75 1.8 - - - - -
b in 1:3 C/S Mortar 0.54 2 - - - - -
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Third Edition
Course
Bricks Cement Sand Stone Water GCI Sheet Timber
Sr. No. Particulars Aggregate
(Nos.) (Bags) (Cft) (Nos.) (Liter) (Sq.Ft) (Cft)
(Cft)
6 100 cft Cement Concrete
a in 1:1:2 - 31 38.5 - 77 868 - -
b in 1:1.5:3 - 22.5 42 - 84 - -
c in 1:2:3 - 21 51.33 - 77 560 - -
d in 1:2:4 - 17.5 44 - 88 476 - -
e in 1:3:6 - 12.5 46.2 - 92.4 336 - -
f in 1:4:8 - 10 47.38 - 94.77 280 - -
g in 1:5:10 - 8 48.12 - 96.25 224 - -
h in 1:6:12 - 6.5 48.63 - 97.26 168 - -
7 100 Sq.ft Brick Soling
a Brick on edge (9"x3"x4.5") 525 - 12 - - - - -
b Brick on flat (9"x4.5"x3") 360 - 8 - - - - -
8 100 sq.ft D.P.C.
a 3/4" thick in C /S 1:2 - 2.5 6 - - - - -
b 1" thick in C.C 1:1.5:3 - 2.3 4 - 8 - - -
100 sq.ft G.C.I (Galvanized Corrugated
9 - - - - - - 128 -
Iron) sheet Roof
100 sq.ft FT A.C. (Asbestos Cement)
10 - - - - - - 115 -
sheet for roof
Timber for paneled door shutter 1
11 - - - - - - 15
1/2" thick (100 sq.ft)
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Third Edition
Table-2: Labor Schedule of Work
Per man day Out Put

Sr. No. Item Unit
Skilled Un-skilled
1 Excavation
a In ordinary Soil upto 5' Cft 110-150
b In hard soil Cft 70-80
c In soft rock Cft 35-40
d In hard rock Cft 20-25
e In hard rock by drilling, blasting etc in hilly area Cft 45-50
f In well upto 25' Cft 50-55
g In well upto 50' Cft 40-45
h In well upto 100' Cft 30-35
i In well upto 160' Cft 17-20
2 Disposal of surplus earth lead upto 100' Cft 100-110
3 Forming embankments, watering and ramming in layers Cft 140-160
4 Refilling excavated earth in foundation, plinth etc. in layers of 6" Cft 180-200
5 boulder filling dry hand packed / pitching Cft 100 100
6 Random rubble stone masonry dry in walls Cft 40-45 20-25
7 R.R stone Masonry in C/ S Motor Cft 35-40 20-25
8 Ashlar masonry in super structure in C / S motor Cft 15-20 8.5-10
9 Brick Masonry in foundation and plinth Cft 45-50 20-30
10 Brick Masonry in supper structure in 1:4 cement motor Cft 45-50 20-30
11 Brick Masonry in Ground Floor Cft 45-50 20-30
12 Brick Masonry in other than buildings Cft 60-65 25-30
13 Dry Brick Pavement flat type 3" Sq.ft 140-150 60-70
14 Dry Brick Pavement on edge 4.5" Sq.ft 140-150 60-70
15 Brick flat floor (3") in C / S Motor Sq.ft 80 45
16 Brick on flat for water course bed Sq.ft 103 72
17 Brick on edge for water course bed Sq.ft 82 58
18 G.I. wire netting 6"x6" c/c Sq.ft 215
19 Laying PCC Cft 140-150 40-50
20 Laying RCC Cft 100-110 25-30
21 1.5" thick cement concrete flooring Sq.ft 85-90 70-80
22 2" thick cement concrete flooring Sq.ft 85-90 60-70
24 Plastering
a Plastering 1/2" thick Sq.ft 140-145 90-100
b Plastering 3/4" thick Sq.ft 120-125 90-100
c Plastering 3/8" thick Sq.ft 140-145 90-100
27 White wash 3 Coats Sq.ft 500-600 700-800
28 Two coats of painting on wood / steel Sq.ft 150-175 150-175
29 steel fabrication in foundation and super structure Kg 150-200 150-200
30 Centering & shuttering Cft 25-30 25-30
31 Pointing in C/ S Mortar Sq.ft 80-100 70-90
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Per man day Out Put

Sr. No. Item Unit
Skilled Un-skilled
32 Tile roofing including fixing of Girder and T-iron Sq.ft 35-40 20-25
33 1/2" thick mud plaster on walls Sq.ft 594 205
34 1" thick mud plaster on walls Sq.ft 508 122
35 Mud Plaster on floor 1/2" thick Sq.ft 668 199
36 Mud Walling 25
Providing and laying of DPC 1:2:4 1 1/2" & 2" thick with two coats of
37 Sq.ft 225-230 65-70
bitumen
38 Laying and fixing of G.I pipe in trenches
a 1/2" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
b 3/4" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
c 1" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
d 1 1/2" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
e 2" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
f 3" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
g 4" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
h 5" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
i 6" dia pipe Rft 80-90 40-50
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Third Edition
15
Third Edition
ANNEXURE - 5: SETTING OUT CIRCULAR CURVES
Review
Road curves are provided at the turns along the alignment of road. It is a circular arc that
connects two straight lengths of the road. The point at which the curve starts is called the
“point of curvature” whereas end of the curve known as “point of tangency”. A curve is
designated by its radius (in feet or meters), or by the number of degrees of the central angle
covered by a 100 ft length of the chord of the curve. For practical purposes the length of the
chord and the arc is taken as the same. Thus a 1-degree curve is one in which a chord of 100
ft is subtended by a central angle of 1 degree. It is called Degree of Curvature.
Setting out Curves
Curves of small radii should be set out in chords not exceeding 1/20 th of the radius. Chord
length for different degrees of curve are given as under;
100 ft chord for up to 5 degrees

50 ft chord for 5 to 15 degrees
25 chord for 15 to 30 degrees
For setting out circular curves, a simple method, generally known as Middle Ordinate
Method is discussed here with the help of following figure;
In the above figure two straight length ZA & BY are to be joined by a curve.
According to Middle Ordinate Method;

AB 2
CD =
8 ∗ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
and
CD
EF =
4
AC = √𝐶𝐷2 + 𝐴𝐷2
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Third Edition
𝐴𝐶
CE =
2
Let AB = 500ft
Radius of curve can be worked out from the equations;
R(min) = 0.037 V2 (where ‘V’ is design sped in Kmph)
For simplicity the radius of curve is obtained Table-1. For this example, minimum radius for
assumed design speed of 30 Kmph is 262.5 ft (80 m) from the said table.
Table-1: Minimum free-board requirement

S. No. Type of Channel Min. Free-Board Requirement
1 1/3 of design flow depth or 15 cm,
Earthen channels
whichever is greater
2 Rectangular lined channels 10 cm
3 Trapezoidal lined channels 7.5 cm
Putting values in the above formulae we get;
AB 2
CD =
8 ∗ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
250000
=
8 ∗ 262.5
= 119ft
AC = √𝐶𝐷2 + 𝐴𝐷2
AC = √(119)2 + (250)2
= 277ft
CD
EF =
4
119
=
4
= 29.75ft
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Third Edition
AC
CE =
2
277
=
2
= 138.5ft
First of all, point D is located at a distance of 250 ft (half of AB) from A or B. Then point C is
marked at a distance of 119 ft from point D at right angle to AB. The next step is to locate
point E at center of the lines AC and BC respectively. Then point F is marked at 29.75 ft from
E (on both sides) at right angle to AC & BC respectively. Finally, A, F, C, F & B are joined.
Thus, the curve AFCFB has joined the end points of the two straight lengths ZA & BY of the
road.
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Third Edition
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Third Edition
ANNEXURE - 6: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT

FRAMEWORK (ESMF) USER’S GUIDELINES
(Document will be available upon request)
20
Third Edition
21
Third Edition
REFERENCES
1. On Farm Water Management – Filed Manual, Volume-IV by Federal Water Management

Cell, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Live Stock, Government of Pakistan
2. Guidelines for Predicting Crop Water Requirements by T. Doorenbos & W.O. Pruitt
(Third Edition), FAO Irrigation & Drainage Paper 24.
3. Environmental Management Frame Work Guidelines for PPAF Funded Projects (Volume
– I & II)
4. Irrigation & Water Power Engineering (Second Edition) by Dr. B.C. Punmia & Dr. B.B. Lal.
5. Water Supply & Sanitary Engineering (Third Edition) by A.K. Chatterjee.
6. Highway Engineering & Air Ports (Third Edition) by K.L. Bhanot & S.B. Sehgal.
7. Irrigation Engineering (Volume – I & II) by K.R. Sharma.
8. The Fundamental Principles of Irrigation Engineering (Fourth Edition) by V.P. Priyani.
9. Pumping & Irrigation (A Frame-Electric Handbook), Published by The Electricity Council,

Farmelectric Centre, National Agriculture Centre, Stonelegh, Kenilworth, Warwickshire,
U.K.
10. Elementary Reinforced Concrete Design (Second Edition) by W. Morgan.
11. Indian Practical Civil Engineer’s Hand Book (Eight Edition) by P.N. Khanna.
12. Water Supply and Sewerage (Fifth Edition) by E.W. Steel and Terence J. Meghee.
13. Water Supply, Waste Disposal and Environmental Pollution Engineering (Fifth Edition),
by A.K. Chatterjee.
14. Indian Practical Civil Engineer’s Hand Book (Eight Edition) by P.N. Khanna.
15. Community Physical Infrastructure Project Manual (Second Edition), by Raza M.Farukh,
Muhammad Nadeem and Kamal Afridi, Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF),
Islamabad.
16. Appropriate Design Standards and Construction Specifications for Tertiary Sewerage
Systems, by S.M. Khatib Alam and Jonathan Parkinson, Faisalabad Area Up Grading
Project (FAUP), Faisalabad.
17. Sewage Treatment in Hot Climates by Duncan Mara.
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Third Edition
18. Health Risks of Irrigation with Untreated Urban Wastewater in the Southern Punjab,
Pakistan. By Sabiena Feenstra, Raheela Hussain and Wim Van der Hoek, International
Water Management Institute (IWMI), Lahore.
19. Design Criteria for Sanitary Sewers, Sewage Pup Stations, Water Distribution System,
Storm Drainage For Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA), Lahore Development
Authority.
20. Design Criteria for Water Supply, Sewerage & Drainage Schemes (1998), Punjab Public
Health Engineering Department.
21. Wastewater Reuse for Agriculture and Aquaculture in Hanoi, Vietnam.

http://www.ruaf.org/conference/.
22. Wastewater Stabilization Ponds-Principals of Planning & Practice- By World Health

Organization.
23. Domestic wastewater treatment in developing countries by Duncan Mara, 2003.
24. Onsite wastewater treatment systems manual, USEPA, EPA/625/R-00/008, February

2002.
25. Mechanical wing of Water Resources Department, Mechanical Organisation,

Government of Maharashtra, India.
26. Modular Gabion Systems, A division of C.E. Shepherd Company.
27. Concrete Industry Management Technology, New Jersey’s Science and Technology
University.
28. Strickland Construction, South Homestead, USA.
29. Community Water Supply, The Hand Pump Option, The World Bank 1987.
23
CPI MANUAL CONTRIBUTIONS
First & Second Edition

 Raza M. Farrukh – PPAF
 M. Nadeem – PPAF
 M. Kamal Afridi – PPAF
Third Edition:
 M. Tariq Rafiq Bhatti – Senior Manager PPAF
 Asadullah Saleem – Senior Manager PPAF
 Zaheer ud Din Taj – Assistant Manager PPAF
 Sakhi Marjan – Assistant Manager PPAF
Reviewed and Finalized By:

 M. Nadeem – Senior General Manager PPAF
 National Engineering Consultants’ Team
Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund

Plot 14, Street 12, Mauve Area, G-8/1, Islamabad
T: (+92-51) 843 9450-79 | F: (+92-51) 843 1041
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CPI Manual Updated 24jan2019

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Community

Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF)

Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF)

SECTION – I: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE - PROJECT PROCESS

SECTION – II: DESIGN OF COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

II-1. FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

SECTION – III: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK (ESMF)

SECTION – IV: SECTION – IV: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE QUALITY

IV-1 CONCRETE TEST

Qazi Azmat Isa

Established by the Government of Pakistan as an autonomous not-for-profit company, PPAF

The objectives of the Physical Infrastructure component are:

 To increase the incomes of the poor.

The above-mentioned objectives shall be achieved through the following mechanism:

Conditions for IAUPs:

 Local level flood management measures such as reinforcement of river embankments,

This manual (3rd Edition) is divided into four sections:

Section-II includes design guidelines for various types of CPI projects.

Section-IV gives guidelines for Community Physical Infrastructure Quality Control

COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

SECTION – I: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT PROCESS

1. IDENTIFICATION ................................................................................................. Sec-I-1

SECTION – I: COMMUNITY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT PROCESS

The main features of the report shall include;

 Assessment of priority need of the community.

3.1 Technical Survey

3.2 Environmental Assessment

3.3 Design and Estimates

3.4 Project Proposal

5.1 Terms of Partnership

5.2 Formation of Committees

5.2.1 Project Committee

5.2.2 Audit Committee

5.2.3 Maintenance Committee

6. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT

6.1 Construction Management

6.2 Financial Management

7. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O&M)

PROCESS FLOW OF CPI PROJECT

 Baseline Survey Project

 Technical Survey Preparation

 Terms of Partnership Initiation of Project

 Construction Management Project

Completion Operation &

DESIGN OF COMMUNITY PHYSICAL

SEC-II-1 FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Flow Measurement Techniques

SECTION – II-1: FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

1. FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL (GRAVITY FLOW) .................................................. Sec II-1-1

SECTION – II-1: FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

1. FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL (GRAVITY FLOW)

1.1 Calculating Flow for a known Head

1.2 Calculating Slope at known Discharge

Rectangular weir may be constructed with or without end contraction.

Whereas head on weir at known discharge can be calculated as;

Whereas the head on weir can be calculated using

2.2 Velocity Area Streamflow Method

2.3 Bucket Method (Volumetric Streamflow Method)

Flow rate will be calculated from the following formula:

Drinking Water Supply Scheme

SECTION – II-2: DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

1. WATER DEMAND ........................................................................................... Sec II-2-1

SECTION – II-2: DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SCHEME