GENERATION ,TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF

ELECTRICITY

Submitted by : Sumbal Anwar

Submitted to :
Degree : B.S Electrical Engineering
Semester : 4th
Session : 2017-2021
Institution: Lahore College For Women University
Company : LESCO
Internship place : 132 kv Grid station GOS Qartaba chowk ,Lhr
Date: 1-August-2019
 Generation of Electricity
There are many power plants to generate electricity which are

 Hydro power plant

 Thermal power plant ( coal, natural gas, biomass )
 Nuclear power plant (Nuclear power comes from a nuclear fission process that generates heat,
which is used to generate the steam that rotates the turbines to generate electricity)
 Wind energy
 Solar plant

But we will discuss only hydro power plant.

Hydro electric power plant

The power obtained from Energy of Falling water is Known as hydro Electric Power.

The power Plant Which generates Electrical Energy by utilizing the potential energy of water at
high level called hydro electric power plant i.e. the potential energy stored in water is converted
to kinetic energy again that Kinetic Energy is converted to Mechanical energy by allowing water
through hydraulic turbine runner & finally mechanical energy is used to run generators OR
alternator, Which coupled with turbine shaft .

Mathematically

Electric power (P) = WQHŋ x 9.81x10-3 KW

W= Sp. Weight of water in Kg/m3

Q= Rate of flow of water m3 /Sec

H= Height or head in meter

ŋ= Efficiency of power plant

Procedure of generation
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant uses a dam on a river to store water in a
reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn
activates a generator to produce electricity. But hydroelectric power doesn't necessarily require a
large dam. Some hydroelectric power plants just use a small canal to channel the river water
through a turbine.
Another type of hydroelectric power plant - called a pumped storage plant - can even store
power. The power is sent from a power grid into the electric generators. The generators then spin
the turbines backward, which causes the turbines to pump water from a river or lower reservoir
to an upper reservoir, where the power is stored. To use the power, the water is released from the
upper reservoir back down into the river or lower reservoir. This spins the turbines forward,
activating the generators to produce electricity.

Hydro electric power plant

Merits
 No fuel is required by such plant because water is the source of energy.
 It is highly reliable & cheapest & operation & maintenance
 No. Stand by loss & variable load demand can meet easily
 Good longer life & robust.
 Efficiency does not fall with age & it has neat & clean environment due to absence of
smoke & ask.
 In addition to generation of provides irrigation flood control on navigation.

In Pakistan generator generate 11kv volts.

 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
 In Pakistan during generation of electricity generator generates 11kv volts.
 11kv will be 500kv or 220 kv step up and send to grid station.
 Next 500 kv or 220 kv vots will be step down to132 kv grid station.
 Next 132 kv will be step down to 11 kv volts and transmit to local areas transformer
through transmission lines.

Types of transmission and distribution

 Primary transmission
 Secondary transmission
 Primary distribution
 Secondary distribution

Primary transmission
High voltages of the order of 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV and 400 kV are used for transmitting power
by 3 phase 3 wire overhead system. This is supplied to substations usually at the out skirts of
major distribution center or city.

Secondary transmission
The primary voltage is reduced to low values of the order of 3.3 kV, 11 kV or 33 kV for
secondary transmission.

Primary distribution
The transmission lines or inner connectors terminate at large main substations from which the
power is distributed to small secondary substations scattered throughout the load area. The
voltage may range from 11 kV to 132 kV.

Secondary distribution
This consists of the low-voltage network laid along the streets, localities and over the rural areas.
From these sources connections to individual customers are provided. The circuit used for this
purpose is 3 phase 4 wire, 440 V/220 V from which either 3 phase 440 V or single phase 220 V
supply to the consumers may be provided.
 System layout of Transmission and Distribution

Advantages of AC electric power

 Power can be generated at high voltages as there is no commutation problem.
 Ac voltages can be conveniently stepped up or stepped down.
 High voltage transmission of ac power reduces losses.

Advantages of DC electric power

 It requires only two conductors.
 There is no problem of inductance, capacitance and phase displacement which is
common in ac transmission.
 For the same load and sending end voltage, the voltage drop in dc transmission lines is
less than that in ac transmission.
 As there is no skin effect on conductors, therefore entire cross-section of conductor is
usefully utilized thereby affecting saving in material.
 For the same value of voltage insulating materials on dc lines experience less stress as
compared to those on ac transmission lines.
 A dc line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
 There is no problem of system instability so common in ac transmission.
 132 KV GRID SUB-STATION

Substation
A substation is an electrical system with high-voltage capacity and can be used to control the
apparatus, generators, electrical circuits, etc. The Substations are mainly used to convert AC
(alternating current) to DC (direct current). Some types of substations are tiny in size with an
inbuilt transformer as well as related switches. Other types of substations are very huge with
different types of transformers, equipment, circuit breakers, and switches.

Substation

132 kv substation components

There are many components of 132 kv substation.

 Instrument Transformers
 Current Transformer
 Potential Transformer
 Conductors
 Insulators
 Isolators
 Busbars
 Lightning Arrestors
 Circuit Breakers
  Relays
 Capacitor Banks
 Batteries
 WaveTrapper
 SwitchYard
 Metering and Indication Instruments
 The Outgoing Feeders

Instrument transformer

The instrument transformer is a static device utilized for reduction of higher currents and
voltages for safe and practical usage which are measurable with traditional instruments such as
digital multi-meter etc. The value range is from 1A to 5A and voltages such as 110V etc.

Current transformer

A current transformer is a gadget utilized for the transformation of higher value currents into
lower values. It is utilized in an analogous manner to that of AC instruments, control apparatus,
and meters. These are having lower current ratings and are used for maintenance and installation
of current relays for protection purpose in substations.
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

The potential transformers are similar in characteristics as current transformers but are utilized
for converting high voltages to lower voltages for protection of relay system and for lower rating
metering of voltage measurements.

Conductors

Conductors are the materials which permit flow of electrons through it. The best conductors are
copper and aluminum etc. The conductors are utilized for transmission of energy from place to
place over substations.

Insulators

The insulators are the materials which do not permit flow of electrons through it. Insulators are
resisting electric property. There are numerous types of insulators such as shackle, strain type,
suspension type, and stray type etc. Insulators are used in substations for avoiding contact with
humans or short circuit.

Isolators

The isolators in substations are mechanical switches which are deployed for isolation of circuits
when there is an interruption of current. These are also known with the name of disconnected
switches operation under no-load conditions and are not fortified with arc-quenching devices.
These switches have no specific current breaking value neither these have current making value.
These are mechanically operated switches.

Busbars

The busbar is among the most important elements of the substation and is a conductor which
carries current to a point having numerous connections with it. The busbar is a kind of electrical
junction which has outgoing and incoming current paths. Whenever a fault occurs in the busbar,
entire components connected to that specific section should be tripped for giving thorough
isolation in a small time, for instance, 60ms for avoiding danger rising due to conductor’s heat.

Lightning arresters

The lightning arresters can be considered as the first ever components of a substation. These are
having a function of protecting equipment of substation from high voltages and are also limiting
the amplitude and duration of the current’s flow. These are connected amid earth and line i.e.
connected in line with equipment in the substation.
Circuit breakers

The circuit breakers are such type of switches utilized for closing or opening circuits at the time
when a fault occurs within the system. The circuit breaker has 2 mobile contacts which are in
OFF condition in normal situations. At the time when any fault occurs in the system, a relay is
sending the tripped command to the circuit breaker which moves the contacts apart, hence
avoiding any damage to the circuitry.

Relays

Relays are a dedicated component of electrical substation equipment for the protection of
system against abnormal situations e.g. faults. Relays are basically sensing gadgets which are
devoted for sensing faults and are determining its location as well as sending interruption
message of tripped command to the specific point of the circuit. A circuit breaker is falling apart
its contacts after getting the command from relays.

Capacitor banks

The capacitor bank is defined as a set of numerous identical capacitors which are connected
either in parallel or series inside an enclosure and are utilized for the correction of power factor
as well as protection of circuitry of the substation. These are acting like the source of reactive
power and are thus reducing phase difference amid current and voltage.
Batteries

Some of the important substation parts such as emergency lighting, relay system, and
automated control circuitry are operated through batteries. The size of the battery bank is
depending on the voltage required for operation of the DC circuit respectively. The storage
batteries are of two basic types i.e. acid-alkaline batteries and lead-acid batteries. The lead acid
batteries are of the most common type and used in substations in abundance as these provide
high voltages and are cheaper in cost.Every battery is of 2 volts.Total 55 batteries are used in
qrtaba grid sub-station.

Wave trapper

The wave trapper is one of the substation components which is placed on the incoming lines for
trapping of high-frequency waves. The high-frequency waves which are coming from nearby
substations or other localities are disturbing the current and voltages, hence its trapping is of
great importance. The wave trapper is basically tripping high-frequency waves and is then
diverting the waves into telecom panel.
Switch yard

The switchyards, switches, circuit breakers, and transformers for the connection and
disconnection of transformers and circuit breakers. These are also having lighting arrestors to
protect the substation or power station from strokes of natural lighting.

Metering and Indication Instruments

There are numerous instruments for metering and indication in each substation such as watt-
meters, voltmeters, ammeters, power factor meters, kWh meters, volt-ampere meters, and
KVARH meters etc. These instruments are installed at different places within substation for
controlling and maintaining values of current and voltages. For instance, 33/11KV substation
equipment will comprise digital multi-meters for various readings of currents and voltages.

Outgoing Feeders
There are numerous outgoing feeders which are connected to that of substations. Basically, the
connection is with a bus of the substation for carrying power from the substation to service
points. The feeders can hug overhead streets, underground, underneath streets, and are carrying
electrical power to that of distribution transformers at near or farther premises.

Earth resistance tester

 For measuring soil resistivity Earth Tester is used. It is also called the “MEGGER”.

 It has a voltage source, a meter to measure Resistance in ohms, switches to change

instrument range, Wires to connect terminal to Earth Electrode and Spikes.
 It is measured by using Four Terminal Earth Tester Instrument.

Calculating soil resistivity

The measuring procedure described here uses the Wenner method and uses the formula:

ρ=2πAR
where:

ρ = the average soil resistivity to depth A in: ohm-cm.

π = 3,1416.

A = the distance between the electrodes in cm.

R = the measured resistance value in ohm from the test instrument.

Measuring soil resistance

To test soil resistivity, connect the ground tester as shown in Fig. Four earth ground stakes are
positioned in the soil in a straight line, equidistant from one another. The distance between earth
ground stakes should be at least three times greater than the stake depth. The Fluke1625 earth
ground tester generates a known current through the two outer ground stakes and the drop in
voltage potential is measured between the two inner ground stakes. The tester automatically
calculates the soil resistance using Ohm’s Law (V=IR).

Earth resistance testing figure

Hypo tester
 Hi-Pot test is a contraction for high potential HV testing.
 Hipot Test is short name of high potential (high voltage) Test and it is also known as
Dielectric Withstand Test.
 A hipot test checks for “good isolation.
 PARTS OF TRANSFORMER

Transformer

A transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is most commonly used to increase ('step
up') or decrease ('step down') voltage levels between circuits.

Working principle

The working principle of a transformer is very simple. Mutual induction between two or more
windings (also known as coils) allows for electrical energy to be transferred between circuits.

132 kv Transformer

There are many parts of transformer

 Laminated core
 HV winding
 LV winding
 Transformer oil
 Tap changer
 Oil Conservator
 Breather
 Cooling tubes
 Buchholz Relay
 Explosion vent
  Cooling fans

Core
The core acts as support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance path
to the flow of magnetic flux. It is made of laminated soft iron core in order to reduce eddy
current loss and Hysteresis loss. The composition of a transformer core depends on such as
factors voltage, current, and frequency.

HV winding
It is made of copper conductor. The number of turns made shall be the multiple of the number of
turns in the low voltage winding. The conductor used will be thinner than that of the low voltage
winding.Also known as high voltage winding.

LV winding
It consists of fewer number of turns than the high voltage winding. It is made of thick copper
conductors. This is because the current in the low voltage winding is higher than that of high
voltage winding.Also known as low voltage winding.

Conservator
The conservator conserves the transformer oil. It is an airtight, metallic, cylindrical drum that is
fitted above the transformer. The conservator tank is vented to the atmosphere at the top, and the
normal oil level is approximately in the middle of the conservator to allow the oil to expand and
contract as the temperature varies.
Breather
The breather controls the moisture level in the transformer. Moisture can arise when temperature
variations cause expansion and contraction of the insulating oil, which then causes the pressure
to change inside the conservator. Pressure changes are balanced by a flow of atmospheric air in
and out of the conservator, which is how moisture can enter the system.

Tap changer
The output voltage of transformers vary according to its input voltage and the load. During
loaded conditions, the voltage on the output terminal decreases, whereas during off-load
conditions the output voltage increases. In order to balance the voltage variations, tap changers
are used. Tap changers can be either on-load tap changers or off-load tap changers. In an on-load
tap changer, the tapping can be changed without isolating the transformer from the supply. In an
off-load tap changer, it is done after disconnecting the transformer. Automatic tap changers are
also available.

Cooling tubes
Cooling tubes are used to cool the transformer oil. The transformer oil is circulated through the cooling tubes.
The circulation of the oil may either be natural or forced. In natural circulation, when the temperature of the oil
rises the hot oil naturally rises to the top and the cold oil sinks downward. Thus the oil naturally circulates
through the tubes. In forced circulation, an external pump is used to circulate the oil.

Explosion vent
The explosion vent is used to expel boiling oil in the transformer during heavy internal faults in
order to avoid the explosion of the transformer. During heavy faults, the oil rushes out of the
vent. The level of the explosion vent is normally maintained above the level of the conservatory
tank.

Buchholz Relay
The Buchholz Relay is a protective device container housed over the connecting pipe from the
main tank to the conservator tank. It is used to sense the faults occurring inside the transformer.
It is a simple relay that is operated by the gases emitted during the decomposition of transformer
oil during internal faults. It helps in sensing and protecting the transformer from internal faults.
Cooling fans
These are used to cool down the tubes of transformer.