ME361A - Casting & Solidification PDF

Fundamentals of Casting and Solidification
Dr. J. Ramkumar and Vyom Sharma

Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Manufacturing Science Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur
Manufacturing Science Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Acknowledgement
Contents of this presentation are taken from the following sources and are gratefully acknowledged:
1. Manufacturing Science – Ghosh and Mallik.
2. Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials - Kalpakjian and Schmid.
3. Fundamentals of Metal Casting – Richard Flinn.
4. Metal Casting – Karl Rundman.
5. Lecture Notes – Dr. M. Law (IIT Kanpur).
6. Lecture Notes – Dr. A. Kumar (IIT Kanpur).
2
Classification of Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Processes
Subtractive Mass
Containing
Additive Joining
3 Manufacturing Science Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Classification of Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Processes
Subtractive Additive Joining Mass containing

Processes Processes Processes Processes
Ex. Milling Ex. CVD
Turning PVD Ex. Welding Ex. Casting
EDM LIGA Extrusion
ECM Lithography Soldering Drawing
USM Polymer deposition Rolling
EBM RP/RT Bonding Forging
LBM
AJM
4 Manufacturing Science Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur
Casting
What is Casting ?
It is a process in which liquefied material, such as molten metal, is poured into the cavity of a specially
designed mould and allowed to harden.
After solidification, the workpiece is removed from the die to undergo various finishing treatments or for
use as a final product.
Casting is typically used to create intricate solid shapes, and cast products are found in a wide range of
applications, including automotive components, aerospace parts, electronics, mechanical devices, and
construction supplies.
The term Casting also applies to the part made in the process.
Riser and Gating system
Components of sand
casting
5
Casting
Detailed classification of Casting process
6
Casting
Parts made using Casting process
Part made using Die casting
Parts made using Sand casting
7 Parts made using Investment casting

Casting
Different Casting Alloys and their melting temperatures
8
Casting
Advantages and Disadvantages of casting process
Advantages and Capabilities Disadvantages

Can create complex part geometries Limitation on mechanical properties
Can create both external and internal shapes Poor dimensional accuracy and surface
finish for some casting processes. Ex.
Some casting processes are net shape and sand casting
near net shape
Safety hazard to workers due to hot
molten metals
Can produce very large as well as very small
components
Environmental problems
Some casting methods are suited for mass
production
9
Casting
Different production steps in Casting
Sand Casting:
10
Sand Casting
Schematic of a typical sand mold
Kalpakian and Schmid

12
Casting
Patterns
A pattern is the replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare mold cavity. Patterns are made either of
wood or metal.
Types of Patterns
Single piece pattern Split piece pattern Match plate pattern Cope and Drag pattern
13
Casting
Moulds
A mould is an assembly of two or more metal blocks, or bonded refractory particles (sand) consisting of a
primary cavity.
Types of Moulds
Green sand mould Plastic mould Metal mould Shell mould
Investment mould
14
Casting
Green Sand Mould
Content : Sand (70-85 %)
Clay (10-20 %)
Water (3-6 %)
Additives (1-6 %) (Ex. Wood flour, dextrin, sea coal)
The success of a casting process depends upon the compressive strength, permeability, flowability,
deformability, and refractoriness of the molding sand.
Effect of WATER CONTENT on molding sand properties:
15
Casting
Melting
Gases in Metals (generally nitrogen and hydrogen)
In metal castings
Gases may be
mechanically trapped Gases may be produced due to
Gases may be generated due to chemical reactions
variation in their solubility at different
temperature and phases
Based on the solubility of hydrogen gas, metals are divided into two groups
Endothermic metals Exothermic metals
Solubility of hydrogen Solubility of hydrogen

increased with temperature. decreased with temperature.
Ex- Aluminum, Magnesium, Ex- Titanium, Zirconium
Copper, Iron, Nickel
16
Casting
Melting
Gases in Metals (generally nitrogen and hydrogen)
The expression for solubility in case of both endothermic and exothermic metals can be written as:
S = C exp (-Es/kθ)
where, S is the solubility of hydrogen gas in the metal
C and k are constants
Es is the heat of solution of 1 mol of hydrogen (+ for endothermic metals and – for exothermic metals)
θ is the absolute temperature
Sievert’s law states that the amount of hydrogen dissolved in the metal varies as:
% hydrogen present = K 𝑝𝐻2

where, 𝒑𝑯𝟐 is the partial pressure of hydrogen in the atmosphere above the liquid metal, and K is a constant which is
different for different metals. It is solubility (solid or liquid) in terms of cc/kg.
17
Casting
Melting
Furnaces
The selection of furnace depends mainly on the metal chemistry, the maximum
temperature required, and the metal delivery rate and mode.
The rate and mode of metal delivery depends mainly on the process
(batch or continuous).
Three main types of furnaces used in foundries are :
18 Induction furnace : 1750 º C Side blow convertor : 1700 º C Cupola : 1650 º C

Casting
Pouring
Gating design
Broadly, gating designs can be classified into three categories:
TOP Gating design BOTTOM Gating design PARTING LINE Gating design
Mould filling time for each gating design is different
19
Casting
Pouring
Gating design
To derive the expression for mould filling time (tf ) in case of vertical (top) and bottom gating design, let us consider the
following simplified case.
20
Casting
Gating design
Based on the principle of frictionless fluid flow.
Vertical gating design
Assuming that the mold is initially kept at an atmospheric
pressure.
The formulation is based on the integrated energy balance

equation.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and (3), we can

write:
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑣32
+ 0 + ℎ𝑡 = + +0 (ρ is density of liquid metal)
ρ𝑔 ρ𝑔 2𝑔
or,
𝑣3 = 2𝑔ℎ𝑡
Mould filling time (tf ) = (Volume of the casting) / ( 𝑨𝒈 𝒗𝟑 )
where, 𝑨𝒈 is the area of gate at point 3 (exit of sprue).
21
Casting
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and (3), we can
Gating design write:
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃3 𝑣32
Bottom gating design + 0 + ℎ𝑡 = +
ρ𝑔 ρ𝑔 2𝑔
or,
𝑝3 𝑣32 (As, 𝑝3 = 𝑃3 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = Gauge pressure; also
ℎ𝑡 = +
ρ𝑔 2𝑔 ℎ𝑡 is assumed to be constant )
Now, applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (3) and (4), we

can write:
𝑃3 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
+0+0= +0+h
ρ𝑔 ρ𝑔
(Assuming that all the kinetic energy at point 3 is lost as the

liquid metal enters the mould, and pressure at point 4 is equal to
atmospheric pressure)
Then, we can write:
𝑝3
=h
ρ𝑔
22
Casting 𝑝
On substituting ρ𝑔3 = h in the expression for ℎ𝑡 , we can
Gating design write:
Bottom gating design 𝑣3 = 𝑣𝑔 = 2𝑔(ℎ𝑡 − ℎ)
Assuming that the metal level in the mould move up through

a height dh in a time interval dt.
If 𝐴𝑚 and 𝐴𝑔 are the cross section areas of mould and gate

respectively, then we can write:
𝐴𝑚 dh = 𝐴𝑔 𝑣𝑔 dt
On substituting the value of 𝑣𝑔 in the above expression, we can
write:
𝑑ℎ 𝐴𝑔
= dt
2𝑔(ℎ𝑡 −ℎ) 𝐴𝑚
At t = 0, h = 0 and at t = 𝑡𝑓 (filling time), h = ℎ𝑚 . On

integrating between these limits, we have:
𝐴𝑚 1
𝑡𝑓 = 2 ( ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑚
𝐴𝑔 2𝑔
23
Casting
Pouring
Aspiration effect in mould filling
For a mould made of permeable material (e.g., sand) care should be taken to ensure that the pressure anywhere in the
liquid metal stream does not fall below the atmospheric pressure. Otherwise, gases originating from baking of the
organic compounds in the mould will enter the molten metal stream, producing porous castings. This is known as the
ASPIRATION EFFECT.
Consider the vertical gating system as shown in the figure below:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 2 and 3, we get:
𝑃2 𝑣22 𝑃3 𝑣32
+ + ℎ2 = +
ρ𝑔 2𝑔 ρ𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
If we subtract from both left and right hand side, we get:
ρ𝑔
𝑃2 −𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑣22 𝑃3 −𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑣32

+ + ℎ2 = +
ρ𝑔 2𝑔 ρ𝑔 2𝑔
If we assume that the pressure at point 3 is equal to atmospheric pressure

and 𝑣3 = 𝑣2 (from continuity equation), then,
𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = −ρ𝑚 𝑔 ℎ2 (It is a negative pressure and hence the design is not acceptable)
24
Casting
Pouring
𝑣32 𝑣22
In a limiting case, if 𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 0, then we can write: = ℎ2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝐴
Also, 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 𝑣3 = R 𝑣3 (from continuity equation)
2
𝑣32 𝑅2 𝑣32
On substituting, we get: 2𝑔
= ℎ2 + 2𝑔
2𝑔ℎ2
Or, 𝑅 2 = 1 -
𝑣32
Now, if we applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 3 with

𝑝1 = 𝑝3 = 0, and 𝑣1 = 0, we get 𝑣32 = 2gℎ𝑡 :
ℎ ℎ ℎ𝑐
Thus, 𝑅2 = 1 - ℎ2 = ℎ𝑐 or R = ℎ𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
Therefore, ideally, the sprue profile should be as shown by a solid line in

the adjacent figure. But tapered profile is easy to manufacture and is more
commonly used.
25
Casting
Pouring
Another situation where aspiration effect comes into the
picture is associated with a sudden change in flow
direction.
The liquid metal stream contracts around a sharp corner

due to the momentum effect.
In vertical gating, this has got nothing to do with the

acceleration due to gravity.
The constricted region at point 2 is called vena contracta.
To avoid the creation of vacuum around point 2, the

mould is made to fit the vena contracta. Thus, sharp
changes in flow direction must be avoided.
26
Casting
Pouring
Effects of friction and velocity distribution
The velocity distribution within the conduit depends on the shape of a conduit and nature of flow (laminar or turbulent).
The velocity of a fluid in contact with any solid surface is zero and is maximum at the axis of the conduit.
In real fluids, the frictional losses are always present, especially when there is a sudden contraction in or an enlargement
of the flow cross sections.
The energy loss due to friction in a circular conduit (per
unit mass) can be written as:
ഥ𝟐
𝑳 𝒗
𝑬𝒇𝟏 = 4 f 𝑫 𝟐
where, 𝑣ҧ is the average velocity, L, D are diameter and length of the

conduit, and f is friction factor.
Energy loss in friction due to sudden contraction or enlargement of flow area can be written as:
ഥ𝟐
𝒗
𝑬𝒇𝟐 = 𝒆𝒇 where, 𝑣ҧ is the average velocity of the fluid in the smaller cross section, and 𝑒𝑓 is the frictional loss factor
𝟐
27
Casting
Pouring
The non-uniform velocity distribution can be accounted for by modifying the kinetic energy term in the integrated
2 ഥ𝟐
𝒗
energy balance equation by replacing the 𝑣 term by , where 𝑣ҧ is the average velocity and β is a constant whose value
β
is 0.5 for laminar flow and 1 for turbulent flow (only for circular conduit).
If we write the integrated energy balance equation between points 1

and 3 for vertical gating design, taking into account frictional losses
due to sudden contraction of fluid at point 2, we get:
Energy loss in friction due to sudden contraction or enlargement of flow area

can be written as:
𝑝1 𝑝3 𝑣ത32
+ 0 + ℎ𝑡 = + + 𝐸𝑓1 + 𝐸𝑓2
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝛽𝑔
If 𝑝1 = 𝑝3 , then we get:
1 l
2ght = vത 32 ( + ef + 4 f )
β d
where, d is the diameter of the sprue and l is the length of the sprue (= ℎ2 )
28
Casting
Pouring
The new equation for velocity 𝑣3 can be written as: 𝑣ҧ 3 = 𝐶𝐷 2𝑔ℎ𝑡
1
where, 𝐶𝐷 (discharge coefficient) can be written as:
( β1 + ef + 4 f dl )
Please note that in this analysis, we have neglected the fluid velocity
(and hence the loss) between point 1 and 2.
If the sprue also has a bend or a fitting, then 𝐸𝑓1 can be written as:
l 𝐿
𝐸𝑓1 = 4f vത 32 [ d + ]
𝐷 𝑒𝑞
And the discharge coefficient 𝐶𝐷 can be written as:

1
( β1 + ef + 4 f [ dl + 𝐿
𝐷 𝑒𝑞
])
𝐿
The values of 𝐷 𝑒𝑞
for different types of fittings can be found in standard tables.
29
Why do we need Casting process ? Grain Engineering
1. The development and introduction of new engineering materials which offer a higher degree of
strength and improved volume to weight ratio has applied a significant thrust on manufacturing industry
to develop new processes for making parts out of them. Products made from such materials are light
weight, durable, economical, and multi functional.
2. These materials are usually metal alloys such as titanium alloys (VH: 830- 3420 MPa), inconel 718
(VH: 2170-4120 MPa), and tungsten alloys (VH: 3430-4600 MPa).
3. An alloy is a combination of a metal with at least one other metal or non-metal. Alloys are used
because they typically have enhanced mechanical or chemical properties.
Arrangement of atoms in a
Arrangement of atoms in a
lattice of a pure metal
lattice of an alloy
3
Grain Engineering
What is a structure of a material ?
It is the organization of atoms of that material relative to each other.
A Crystal is an arrangement of atoms in a periodic repeated array.
In Crystalline materials, atoms are arranged in periodically repeated array (Silicon).
Crystal structures in metals/alloys are usually of four types : BCC, FCC, HCP, and Tetragonal.
BCC FCC HCP TETRAGONAL
A Crystalline material consisting of many grains of different orientation is called a polycrystalline material
(Ceramics).
At microscopic level, large groups of these atomic arrangements are considered as components of a
microstructure and determines properties of that material. A typical Microstructure is determined by grain size,
3 types of phases present, description of their shape, and size distribution.
Grain Engineering
Metals have a crystalline structure - this is not usually visible but can be seen on galvanized lamp posts for
example.
When a metal solidifies from the molten state, millions of tiny crystals start to grow.
The longer the metal takes to cool the larger the crystals grow. These crystals form the grains in the solid
metal. Each grain is a distinct crystal with its own orientation. The areas between the grains are known
as grain boundaries.
Within each grain, the individual atoms form a crystalline lattice.
When the metal is cold worked by forging, stamping or rolling its shape is permanently changed
(DEFORMED).
This is only possible because of defects (DISLOCATIONS) in the grain structure which move through the
crystal structure. These dislocations or slips in the grain structure allow the overall change in shape of the
metal.
Strong materials are those that can stop the
3 movement of the dislocations
Metal alloys exhibits superior thermal (melting point, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity)
Alloys and mechanical (strength, hardness, toughness) properties as compared to pure metals.
Why ?
Alloying makes the other metal (solute) interacts with the crystal lattice of solvent material
and thereby, blocking the movement of dislocations.
33 Strength VS Density Strength VS Temperature

Microstructure Role of microstructural constituents in
engineering metallic materials
Constituent Responsible for
Hardening,
Vacancies diffusion processes
Plastic deformation,
Dislocations
recrystallization
Strengthening,
Grains
super plasticity
Grain boundaries Work hardening

Phase Controlling mechanical and
arrangement thermo-physical properties
Schematic representation of a
polycrystalline multiphase metallic material Precipitates/ Increase in strength by the
dispersoids interaction of moving
dislocations
Control of the atomic arrangement and microstructure is possible through processes such as Casting,
Powder metallurgy, Working, and Heat treatment.
34
Grain Engineering
Processing Controls Properties
Processing Temperature, Time
Microstructure Size and distribution

of grains and phases
Properties Strength and Ductility
35
Grain Engineering
Substitutional and Interstitial Solid Solutions
36
Casting solidification
Freezing of Pure Metals
Temperature VS Time profile of Pure Metals Enthalpy VS Temperature profile of Pure Metals
Freezing takes place at a constant temperature
37
Casting solidification
Freezing of Pure Metals (Concept of undercooling)
Solidification curve shown in the previous slide is an idealization.
Actual solidification curve for pure metals looks as shown below:
The transformation from liquid to solid state begins only after it has cooled below its melting point. Once the
process initiates, the latent heat that is released by the metal raises the temperature back to its melting point.
Thereafter the temperature remains constant till the solidification is complete.
When a solid forms in a pool of liquid a new surface is created. This has a finite energy. This difference in free
energy acts as the driving force for solidification. Once this is large enough for a stable nucleus of solid to form the
process of solidification begins.
Freezing of Alloys
Temperature VS Time profile of Ni-Cu Alloy Enthalpy VS Temperature profile of Ni-Cu Alloy
Freezing takes place at a range of temperature
39
Why does a liquid metal solidify?
• Essentially because the arrangement of atoms in a solid crystal is at a lower
energy* than that of the same atoms in a liquid state.
• Above the freezing point however, the liquid is more stable
• At the freezing point there is no driving force in either direction, i.e. we

have equilibrium, and no change of energy
• Hence, metals (pure) will always begin to freeze at a temperature lower

than its freezing temperature
• Because of this, it is possible to maintain liquids far below its freezing temperature under
controlled conditions (melts of Ni were shown to be stable when supercooled to -296 °C)
• Lets now quantify the forces affecting crystal nucleation (solidification)

• Two types of nucleation: homogenous and heterogeneous
40
Data taken from the slides of Dr. M. Law, IIT Kanpur
Solidification sequence of a single phase alloy
41 Data taken from the slides of Dr. M. Law, IIT Kanpur

Solidification sequence of a two phase alloy
42 Data taken from the slides of Dr. M. Law, IIT Kanpur

Driving force for nucleation (solidification)
• Gibbs energy is minimized when a system reaches equilibrium at a given pressure
and temperature, and 𝐺 is defined as:
𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆
wherein, 𝐻 – is the enthalpy, 𝑇 is the temperature, and 𝑆 is the entropy
• Taking the total differential of 𝐻:
𝑑𝐺 = 𝑑𝐻 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆
Now, digress for a review of some preliminary thermodynamics
Data taken from the slides of Dr. M. Law, IIT Kanpur 43

Digress for thermodynamics review
First law: change in internal energy Enthalpy, the constant pressure Entropy, from the 2nd
equals the heat (𝑞) and work (𝑤) that version of internal energy: and the 3rd laws:
it does, or are done by it:
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 𝑑𝑆 > 0
𝜕𝑈 = 𝜕𝑞 − 𝜕𝑤
Wherein, work is force times distance Taking the total differential of 𝐻: i.e. the entropy of an
isolated system not in
or pressure times change in volume:
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 equilibrium will tend
𝜕𝑤 = 𝑃𝜕𝑉 to increase over time,
But, since: approaching a max.
Similarly, change in temperature value at equilibrium
for a heat capacity, 𝐶, is given by: 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑞 − 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑞 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉
2nd law can be re-stated as:
𝜕𝑞 = 𝐶𝜕𝑇
Hence: 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑆 ≥
𝑇
Hence: 𝜕𝑈 = 𝐶𝜕𝑇 − 𝑃𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑞 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃
For reversible processes:
And, at constant volume: And, at constant pressure:
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑈 = 𝐶𝑣 𝜕𝑇 𝑑𝐻 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇

Driving force for nucleation (solidification)
• Gibbs energy is minimized when a system reaches equilibrium at a given pressure
and temperature, and 𝐺 is defined as:
𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆
wherein, 𝐻 – is the enthalpy, 𝑇 is the temperature, and 𝑆 is the entropy
• Taking the total differential of 𝐻: 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑑𝐻 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆
• Substituting for 𝑑𝐻 in the above expression: 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 + 𝑑𝑞 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆
• For isothermal, isobaric conditions, 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑃 = 0, hence: 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑑𝑞 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆
• Since 𝑇𝑑𝑆 ≥ 𝑑𝑞, we find that 𝑑𝐺 ≤ 0. And, for reversible changes, (𝑑𝑞 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆),
𝑑𝐺 = 0.
• Therefore, we see that 𝐺 never increases, and tends to a minimum at equilibrium

Driving force for transformation
• For a first-order phase transformation between two phases of the same
composition, we can write:
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆
• At equilibrium, already established that, ∆𝐺 = 0, and so, ∆𝐻 = 𝑇∆𝑆
• Substituting ∆𝐻 into the first equation:
∆𝐺 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒 ∆𝑆 − 𝑇∆𝑆 = ∆𝑆(𝑇𝑒 − 𝑇)
wherein, 𝑇𝑒 is the equilibrium temperature. Assumed that ∆𝐻 and ∆𝑆 are

independent of 𝑇
• We refer to (𝑇𝑒 − 𝑇) as the supercooling ∆𝑇, i.e. the driving force for
transformation is proportional to the degree of supercooling

Homogenous nucleation of a new phase
• Consider the driving force for transformation, ∆𝐺
• Define a Gibbs energy of the old phase minus the new, ∆𝐺𝑣 , that is positive for a
natural transformation
• Consider the case of nucleation of a solid in a liquid with radius, 𝑟
• The work 𝑊 of forming the nucleus is

the balance of energy gained from the
transformation (a volume term) and the
energy required to form the surface
4
𝑊 = − 𝜋𝑟 3 ∆𝐺𝑣 + 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜎
3
wherein ∆𝐺𝑣 is the energy per unit volume,

and 𝜎 is the surface tension

Homogenous nucleation of a new phase
4 3
𝑊 = − 𝜋𝑟 ∆𝐺𝑣 + 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜎
3
There exists a critical radius of the nucleus, 𝑟 ∗

for 𝑟 > 𝑟 ∗ - the nucleus will grow;
for 𝑟 < 𝑟 ∗ - the nucleus will shrink
Can evaluate, 𝑟 ∗ , by evaluating the maxima:

𝑑𝑊 2𝜎
= 0 → 𝑟∗ =
𝑑𝑟 ∆𝐺𝑣
At 𝑟 ∗ , can evaluate 𝑊 ∗ Recalling: 𝑇 → 𝑇𝑒 ; ∆𝐺𝑣 → 0;
4 2𝜎
3
2𝜎
2
16𝜋 𝜎3 𝑟 ∗ → ∞ and 𝑊 ∗ → ∞
𝑊∗ = − 𝜋 ∆𝐺𝑣 + 4𝜋 𝜎=
3 ∆𝐺𝑣 ∆𝐺𝑣 3 ∆𝐺𝑣 2 i.e. nucleation becomes
impossible

Calculating phase fractions (lever rule)
Volume fractions: 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝐿 = 1
For a composition 𝐶: 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑆 𝑉𝑆 + 𝐶𝐿 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑆 = 1 − 𝑉𝐿
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑆 (1 − 𝑉𝐿 ) + 𝐶𝐿 𝑉𝐿
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑆 + 𝑉𝐿 (𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝑆 )
Volume 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶
Can similarly, show the volume
fraction of a 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐶 − 𝐶 𝑉𝑆 =
𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝑆
𝐿 𝑆 fraction of solid to be:
liquid:
49
Data taken from the slides of Dr. M. Law, IIT Kanpur
Calculating phase fractions (lever rule)
𝐶 − 𝐶𝑆
Volume fraction of a liquid: 𝑉𝐿 =
𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶
=
𝑉𝐿 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑆
𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶
Volume fraction of solid: 𝑉𝑆 =
𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝑆
𝑉𝑆 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑆 = 𝑉𝐿 (𝐶𝐿 − 𝐶𝑆 )
Lever rule

Freezing of Alloys
Temperature distribution in the solidifying metal alloy (when thermal properties

(thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity) are not a function of temperature)
51
Basic types of Cast Structures
(a) Columnar dendritic (b) Equiaxed dendritic (c) Equiaxed non-dendritic
52
Temperature distribution during casting solidification
Type of cast structure formed depends on the rate of heat extraction from the liquid metal
Temperature distribution in the solidifying metal alloy (when thermal properties

53 (thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity) are a function of temperature)
Freezing of Pure Metals and Alloys
54 Dendritic Solidification
Freezing of Pure Metals and Alloys
Columnar dendritic to Equiaxed grain transition

55
Solidification patters for gray cast iron and steel
Kalpakjian and Schmid

Observations on an actual sand casting
~15 in
Distance from interface, in

~7 in Green sand Centerline Start of freeze End of freeze
Metal 2
22 in
Casting size: 7 in x 7 in x 21 in
0 10 20 30 40 50
Only one-half section shown
with no risers, gates etc. Time, min
• Steel does not freeze with a smooth advancing front, but rather a start-of-freeze
wave passes from the surface to the center, followed much later, by an end-of-
freeze wave
• Between these waves, there is a mushy zone, i.e. solid + liquid Adapted from Flinn

Influence of chiller on solidification
Chill
start Centerline
Distance from interface, in

Chill
3 end
2
Sand Sand
start end
1
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time, min

Centerline feeding resistance (CFR)
time during which crystals are forming at the centerline

𝐶𝐹𝑅 = × 100
total solidification time of casting
or
end of freeze time at centerline − start of freeze time at centerline
𝐶𝐹𝑅 = × 100
total solidification time of casting
48 − 24
𝐶𝐹𝑅𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = 50%
48
10 − 8
𝐶𝐹𝑅𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑙 = = 20%
10

Casting
Different scales in Casting Solidification
Micro scale : Nucleation, Grain growth, Microstructure formation

Meso scale : Two phase solid-liquid mushy zone
Macro scale : Transport phenomena ( heat, mass, fluid flow), Motion of solid grains (multiphase flow), Shrinkage
60
Rate of solidification
Rate of Solidification
Flux laws: Diffusive transport of energy, mass, and momentum can be described through flux laws whose
fundamental forms are as follows:
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Flux = = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑋 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
The three laws describing diffusive transport are:

Energy: Flow:
ρ𝑉𝐷
Conduction: 𝑞 = 𝑘∇𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 Reynold’s number: Re =
μ
Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Convection: 𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇 0 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
Laminar/turbulent transition: 2000 < Re < 20000
Radiation: 𝑞 =∊ σ 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑛 − 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤)
Severe turbulence: Re > 20000
Mass (Species): 𝐽𝐴 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝛻𝐶𝐴 (𝐹𝑖𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤)
Turbulence is harmful to gating system as it
𝜕𝑉 𝑌
Momentum: 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −𝜇 (𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) causes air entrapment.
𝜕𝑥
The heat rejected by the liquid metal is dissipated

through the mould wall.
The heat released as a result of cooling and

solidification of liquid metal pass through different
layers.
The thermal resistances which govern the entire

solidification process are those of liquid, the
solidified metal, the metal-mould interface, the
mould, and the ambient air.
Temperature distribution in different layers in casting solidification of

pure metals
Solidification of a large casting in an insulating mould (sand or investment casting)

It is assumed that entire resistance is offered by the mould only.
Freezing time of the casting is calculated by considering only the

resistance of region 2.
Initial mould temperature is taken to be θ𝑜
The mould thickness is assumed to be extended upto infinity in x
direction.

At time t = 0, the liquid metal at temperature θ𝑝 is poured into the mould.
It is assumed that metal just in contact with the mould solidifies instantaneously.
This means that the temperature of the mould face is raised to θ𝑓 (freezing
temperature of the metal) at t = 0 and is maintained at that value till the
completion of solidification.
The temperature distribution within the mould at a subsequent time t

(assuming 1 D heat conduction in x- direction) is given by:
𝑥
θ𝑥 (t) = θ𝑜 + (θ𝑓 − θ𝑜 )[1 – erf (2 )]
α𝑡
θ𝑥 (t) : temperature at a distance x from the mould face at any instant t.

𝑘
α = ρ𝑐 is the thermal diffusivity of mould material.
k is the thermal conductivity, ρ is the density, and ‘c’ is the specific heat of mould material.
2 𝑧 −𝑥 2 𝑑 2 2
erf is the error function such that erf (z) = ‫𝑒 ׬‬ dx and erf (z) = 𝑒 −𝑧 .
𝜋 0 𝑑𝑧 𝜋
Rate of solidification
• Temperature at any time and distance in the mold:
𝑥
𝑇 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑇0 + (𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇0 ) 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓
2 𝛼𝑚 𝑡
wherein, the error function expresses as a convergent series is:

2 𝑢3 𝑢5 𝑢7
𝑒𝑟 𝑓 𝑢 = 𝑢− + − +⋯
𝜋 3.1! 5.2! 7.3!
• From (a), it is evident that the temperature at 𝑥 at time 𝑡:

▪ Increases with an increase mold temp., interface temp, and thermal diffusivity, and
▪ Decreases as the distance 𝑥 from the interface increases
• To determine the rate of heat flow at the interface, the flux becomes:
𝑑𝑇
𝐽=𝐾 ቤ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0


Now the rate of heat flow through the mould face at any time instant (t) can be written as:
𝜕θ
𝑄ሶ = -k A 𝑥 ( at x = 0) where, A is the cross sectional area of the mould – metal interface.
𝜕𝑥
Using the expression for error function, we can write:

𝑘𝐴(θ𝑓 −θ𝑜 )
𝑄ሶ =
𝜋α𝑡
The total quantity of heat flow across the face of mould upto a certain time 𝑡𝑜 is:
𝑡𝑜 2𝑘𝐴(θ𝑓 − θ𝑜 )
𝑄𝑡𝑜 = න 𝑄ሶ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜
0 𝜋α
Heat rejected by liquid metal to solidify is given by: 𝑄𝑅 = ρ V [L + 𝑐𝑚 (θ𝑝 − θ𝑓 )].
where, L is the latent of liquid metal, 𝑐𝑚 is the specific heat, V is total volume
of the casting, and ρ is the density.

Total solidification time (𝑡𝑠 ) can be obtained by equating the heat rejected by the liquid metal and the total
quantity of heat through the mould.
2𝑘𝐴(θ𝑓 −θ𝑜 )
𝑡𝑠 = ρ V [L + 𝑐𝑚 (θ𝑝 − θ𝑓 )]
𝜋α
𝑉 2
Or, 𝑡𝑠 = γ where, γ is mould constant and is expressed as:
𝑆
2
ρ 𝜋α [L + 𝑐𝑚 (θ𝑝−θ𝑓 )]
γ=
2𝑘(θ𝑓 −θ𝑜 )
This is known as Chvorinov’s rule for calculating total casting solidification time
with sand mould.
Mould constant depends on mould material, thermal properties of casting
material, and pouring temperature relative to freezing point.
Mould constant does not depends on the shape and size of the casting.
Solidification of a large casting in a permanent mould (die casting)

In this type of casting process, the heat flow is controlled significantly by the thermal resistance of the mould-
metal interface.
Assuming no superheat, the temperature distribution in this case is shown in the figure below:
Case of 1D heat flow


The rate of heat flow through the interface is given by:
𝑄ሶ = ℎ𝑓 A (θ𝑓 − θ𝑜 )
where, ℎ𝑓 is the film heat transfer coefficient of the interface

and A is the surface area of the interface.
If the solidification front at this instant is at a distance δ from

the mould face, then, on solidification,
𝑑δ
rate of heat released = ρ A L .
𝑑𝑡
Now, rate of heat flow through the interface = rate of heat released.
𝑑δ ℎ𝑓 (θ𝑓 −θ𝑜 )
Then, =
𝑑𝑡 ρL
ℎ𝑓 (θ𝑓 −θ𝑜 )
Integrating the above equation with δ = 0 at t = 0, we get : δ (t) = t
ρ𝐿

To calculate the total solidification time in this type of casting:
We equate rate of heat flow through the interface = rate of heat released
ℎ𝑓 A (θ𝑓 − θ𝑜 ) 𝑡𝑠 = 𝑄𝑅 = ρ V [L + 𝑐𝑚 (θ𝑝 − θ𝑓 )]
If we substitute θ𝑝 = θ𝑓 in the above expression, we get:
ρ𝐿 𝑉
𝑡𝑠 =
ℎ𝑓 (θ𝑓 −θ𝑜 ) 𝐴
ρ𝐿
where, is the mould constant in case of die casting.
ℎ𝑓 (θ𝑓 −θ𝑜 )
Solidification with constant casting surface temperature

If a large, slab shaped casting (say, of steel) is produced in a
thin, water cooled mould made of metal (say, copper) having
much higher conductivity than the solidified casting, then the
thermal resistance provided by the solidifying metal itself is
significant. In this case, the predominant thermal resistance is
offered by region 4.
Assumptions:
1. Thermal resistance of all other regions is neglected.
2. Mould-metal interface temperature is assumed to
remain constant at its initial value θ𝑜 .
3. θ𝑓 is freezing temperature of the metal and is taken as
pouring temperature.
4. δ (t) is depth of solidification at any time instant (t).
5. Solidification time (𝑡𝑠 ) is calculated from δ (t) = h/2,
where h is the thickness of the slab being cast.
(Assumption for idealizing the problem as 1D heat flow
problem).

The temperature profile within the range 0 < x < δ (t) is given by:
θ − θ𝑠 𝑥
= erf A
θ∞ − θ𝑠 2 α𝑠 𝑡
where, α𝑠 is the thermal diffusivity of the solidified metal and

θ∞ is a constant of integration. At x = δ (t), θ = θ𝑓 . On
substituting these values in the above expression, we get:
θ𝑓 −θ𝑠 δ (t)
= erf = constant = λ=erf (ζ) B
θ∞ −θ𝑠 2 α𝑠 𝑡
Hence, δ (t) = 2ζ α𝑠 𝑡 C
Note that the depth of solidification varies as the square root of solidification of time.
Now, considering the rate of energy flow balance at the solid-liquid interface, we have:

𝜕θ 𝑑δ
𝑘𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = δ = ρ L D
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡
where, 𝑘𝑠 is the thermal conductivity of the solidified metal
and L is the latent heat of fusion of the cast metal.
From the above equation, we can write:

𝜕θ 𝑑 𝑥
= (θ∞ − θ𝑠 ) [erf ]
𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 α𝑠 𝑡
2
1 2 𝑥
= (θ∞ − θ𝑠 ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ]
2 α𝑠 𝑡 𝜋 2 α𝑠 𝑡
𝜕θ
Now, substituting the value of in D, we get:
𝜕𝑥
2
𝑘𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑δ
(θ∞ − θ𝑠 ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ]=ρL
2 α𝑠 𝑡 𝜋 2 α𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Substituting in the above expression, the values of (θ∞ − θ𝑠 ) and δ from B and C respectively, we get:

(θ𝑓 −θ𝑠 ) 1 1
𝑒 −ζ = ρ L ζ α 𝑠
2
𝑘𝑠 ρ𝑐𝑠
erf(ζ) 𝜋𝑡 𝑡
ζ2 (θ𝑓 −θ𝑠 ) 𝑐𝑠
Or, ζ𝑒 erf (ζ) =
𝜋 𝐿
The solution for the above equation for ζ can be found by trial and
error method of by plotting the graph for ζ𝑒 ζ erf (ζ) for different
2
values of ζ.
After calculating the value of ζ , solidification time (𝑡𝑠 ) can be

calculated as follows:
ℎ
2ζ α𝑠 𝑡𝑠 =
2
ℎ2
or, 𝑡𝑠 =
16ζ2 α𝑠
Solidification with predominant resistance in mould and solidified metal

If a large, slab shaped casting (say, of steel) is produced in a
thick mould without any water cooling, then the mould-metal
interface temperature can no longer be assumed to remain at its
initial value. The significant thermal resistance is offered by
region 2 and 4 and the resulting temperature profile is shown as:
For this case, the expression for solidification time (𝑡𝑠 ) is

same as that in previous case:
ℎ2
𝑡𝑠 =
16ζ2 α𝑠
However, the value of ζ is calculated from the following

expression:
(θ𝑓 −θ𝑜 ) 𝑐𝑠
ζ𝑒 ζ erf [(ζ) + ϕ] =
2
𝜋 𝐿
𝑘𝑠 ρ𝑚 𝑐𝑠
where, ϕ = = constant. (𝑘, ρ, 𝑐 are the properties of mould material)
𝑘ρ𝑐
Practice problem: A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mould. The casting itself is a steel
rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5 cm x 12.5 cm x 2.0 cm. Previous observations have indicated that the total
solidification time (T) for this casting = 1.6 min. The cylinder for the riser will have a diameter-to-height ratio=1.0.
Determine the dimensions of the riser so that it’s T = 2.0 min.
Solution: First determine the V/A ratio for the plate. Its volume V = 7.5 x 12.5 x 2.0= 187.5 cm3 , and its surface
area A= 2 (7.5 x 12.5 + 7.5 x 2.0 + 12.5 x 2.0) = 267.5 cm2 . Given that T = 1.6 min, we can determine the mould
constant C, using a value of n = 2 in the equation.
Next we must design the riser so that its total solidification time is 2.0 min, using the same value of mould constant.
The volume of the riser is given by:
Practice problem: A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mould. The casting itself is a steel
rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5 cm x 12.5 cm x 2.0 cm. Previous observations have indicated that the total
solidification time (T) for this casting = 1.6 min. The cylinder for the riser will have a diameter-to-height ratio=1.0.
Determine the dimensions of the riser so that it’s T = 2.0 min.
Solution:
Concept of Fluidity
Fluidity in casting terms is the distance to which a metal, when cast at a given temperature will flow in a given test
mould before it is solidified.
Fluidity is therefore a length measured in meters or millimeters and must not be confused with the physicists’
definition of fluidity which is a reciprocal of viscosity.
Poor Fluidity Better Fluidity Best Fluidity
Fluidity test for Aluminum

Concept of Fluidity
Consider a metal at its melting point Tm, poured in a channel of radius ‘a’ and flowing with an average velocity ‘V’.
The metal solidifies at a distance Lf in time ‘t’ by loosing the latent heat to the mould.
The rate of heat dissipation by solidifying metal is equal to the rate at which heat is transferred between mould-metal
interface. The thermal resistance at the mould-metal interface is specified by the heat transfer coefficient ‘h’.
Heat lost per unit time when the length Lf solidifies in time ‘t’ can be expressed as:
𝜋𝑎2 ρ𝑚 𝐿𝑓 Δ𝐻
= 𝜋𝑎2 ρ𝑚 𝑉Δ𝐻 A
𝑡
where, Δ𝐻 is the Enthalpy of liquid metal in kJ/kg.
Heat transferred through convection across mould-metal interface in time ‘t’ considering the resistance between mold-
metal interface only, is given by:
2𝜋 𝑎 𝐿𝑓 h (𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑜 ) B
(B) is written considering the heat from the solidified metal is convected from the curved surface area of the solidified
metal.
By equating A and B, we get:
Concept of Fluidity
ρ𝑠 𝑽Δ𝐻𝒂
𝑳𝒇 = (This expression is valid for the solidification of pure metals)
2h (𝑇𝑚 −𝑇𝑜)
Fluidity of alloys when solid grains are moving, can be expressed as:
𝐿𝑓 = 𝑓𝑠𝑐𝑟 V 𝑡𝑠
where, 𝑓𝑠𝑐𝑟 is the critical fraction of solid at which the fluid stops.
Risers
Production of sound castings requires risers to satisfy two independent requirements:
1.Riser size: Riser must freeze after the casting, i.e. the modulus (V/A) of the riser must be greater
than that of the casting
2.Riser placement should be such as to minimize the CFR, i.e. the centreline feeding resistance.
Riser design using Chvorinov’s idea

For the riser to solidify after the casting: 𝑡𝑠𝑅 > 𝑡𝑠𝐶
𝑉 2 𝑉 2
For sand castings, we can write: 𝑘𝑅 > 𝑘𝐶 OR 𝑘𝑅 𝑀 2 𝑅 > 𝑘𝐶 𝑀 2 𝐶
𝑆 𝑅 𝑆 𝐶
𝑡
The modulus (M) for some common shapes is as follows: 𝑀~
2
𝑎 w 𝑤𝑡
a 𝑀= 𝑀~ w
a 6 L t 2(𝑤 + 𝑡) L
a t
Cube Bar Plate
Risers
For a given shape of the riser, the dimensions of the riser should, however, be chosen so as to give a minimum A/V
ratio, and the minimum volume should be ensured from the shrinkage consideration.
It must be remembered that a liquid metal flows from the riser into the mould only during the early part of the
solidification process.
This necessitates the minimum volume of the riser to be approximately three times that dictated by the shrinkage
consideration alone.
To check the adequacy of the riser size for a steel casting, Caine’s relationship is normally used. The solidification time
is proportional to the square of the ratio volume/surface area.
For a given casting-riser

combination, if the point
falls to the right of the
curve, the adequacy of
the riser is ensured.
Risers
Placement of risers
For a steel plate of up to 100 mm thickness, one central riser is satisfactory if the maximum feeding distance is less
than 4.5 times the plate thickness. The feeding distance should be measured from the edge of the riser.
It should be noted that, of the total distance 4.5t, the riser gradient prevails up to a distance 2t, whereas the end-wall
gradient prevails in the remaining distance 2.5t.
Thus, the maximum distance between the edges of two consecutive risers is 4t.
Plate with one central riser Maximum distance between two consecutive risers
Risers
Placement of risers
A bar of square cross-section with sides measuring 50-200 mm can be fed satisfactorily from a single riser, up to a
maximum distance of 30 √s, where s is the side of the square expressed in mm. The maximum distance between the
edges of two consecutive risers is found to be 1.2s
The presence of a chill in the mould increases the feeding distance of the riser. This is achieved by providing a
sharp thermal gradient with consequent decrease in the feeding resistance. It is obvious that the chill should be
placed at the ends if a single riser is used. For more than one riser, the chill should be placed midway between the
two risers.
Placement of risers and chill blocks

Design considerations
Gating system
Top gating design- causes turbulence Bottom gating design- prevents turbulence
Pouring basin
BAD design BETTER design BEST design

Conical basin Offset basin Offset-stepped basin
Sprue design
Runner bar and gates design

Runner bar and gates design
Defects in Castings
Defects in Castings
Next, we will discuss the causes

and remedies for each one of them
Defects in Castings
1. Shift or Mismatch
Causes:
(i) Improper alignment of upper and lower part during mould preparation.
(ii) Misalignment of flask (a flask is type of tool which is used to contain a mould in metal casting. it may be square,
round, rectangular or of any convenient shape.)
Remedies:
(i) Proper alignment of the pattern or die part, moulding boxes.
(ii) Correct mountings of pattern on pattern plates.
(iii) Check the alignment of flask.

Defects in Castings
2. Swell 3. Blowholes
Causes: Causes:
(i) Defective or improper ramming of (i) Excessive moisture in the sand.
the mould. (ii) Low Permeability of the sand.
(iii) Sand grains are too fine.
Remedies: (iv) Too hard rammed sand.
(i) The sand should be rammed properly (v) Insufficient venting is provided.
and evenly. Remedies:
(i) The moisture content in the sand must be controlled and kept at desired level.
(ii) High permeability sand should be used.
(iii) Sand of appropriate grain size should be used.
(iv) Sufficient ramming should be done.
(v) Adequate venting facility should be provided.
Defects in Castings
5. Metal penetration
4. Drop
These casting defects appear as an uneven and
Drop defect occurs when there is cracking on the upper
rough surface of the casting. When the size of sand
surface of the sand and sand pieces fall into the molten
grains is larges, the molten fuses into the sand and
metal.
solidifies giving us metal penetration defect.
Causes:
Causes:
(i) Soft ramming and low strength of sand.
(i) It is caused due to low strength, large grain size,
(ii) Insufficient fluxing of molten metal. Fluxing means
high permeability and soft ramming of sand.
addition of a substance in molten metal to remove
Because of this the molten metal penetrates in the
impurities. After fluxing the impurities from the molten
moulding sand and we get rough or uneven casting
metal can be easily removed.
surface.
(iii) Insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the
Remedies:
cope.
(ii) This defect can be eliminated by using high
Remedies:
strength, small grain size, low permeability and soft
(i) Sand of high strength should be used with proper
ramming of sand.
ramming (neither too hard nor soft).
(ii) There should be proper fluxing of molten metal, so the
impurities present in molten metal is removed easily before
pouring it into the mould.
(iii) Sufficient reinforcement of the sand projections in the
cope.
Defects in Castings
6. Pinholes
They are very small holes of about 2 mm in size which appears on the surface of the casting. This defect happens
because of the dissolution of the hydrogen gases in the molten metal. When the molten metal is poured in the mold
cavity and as it starts to solidify, the solubility of the hydrogen gas decreases and it starts escaping out the molten metal
leaves behind small number of holes called as pinholes.
Causes:
(i) Use of high moisture content sand.

(ii) Absorption of hydrogen or carbon monoxide gas by molten metal.
(iii) Pouring of steel from wet ladles or not sufficiently gasified.
Remedies:
(i) By reducing the moisture content of the moulding sand.

(ii) Good fluxing and melting practices should be used.
(iii) Increasing permeability of the sand.
(iv) By doing rapid rate of solidification.
Defects in Castings
7. Shrinkage cavity 8. Cold shut
The formation of cavity in the casting due to volumetric It is a type of surface defects and a line on the surface can be
contraction is called as shrinkage cavity. seen. When the molten metal enters into the mold from two
gates and when these two streams of molten metal meet at a
Causes: junction with low temperatures than they do not fuse with
(i) Uneven or uncontrolled solidification of molten metal. each other and solidifies creating a cold shut (appear as line
(ii) Pouring temperature is too high. on the casting). It looks like a crack with round edge.
Remedies: Causes:
(i) This defect can be removed by applying principle of (i) Poor gating system
directional solidification in mold design. (ii) Low melting temperature
(ii) Wise use of chills (a chill is an object which is used to (iii) Lack of fluidity
promote solidification in a specific portion of a metal
casting) and padding. Remedies:
(i) Improved gating system.
(ii) Proper pouring temperature.
soft ramming of sand.
Defects in Castings
9. Misrun 10. Slag inclusion
When the molten metal solidifies before completely filling This defect is caused when the molten metal containing slag
the mold cavity and leaves a space in the mold called as particles is poured in the mold cavity and it gets solidifies.
misrun.
Causes:
Causes: (i) The presence of slag in the molten metal
(i) Low fluidity of the molten metal.
(ii) Low temperature of the molten metal which decreases Remedies:
its fluidity. (i) Remove slag particles form the molten metal before
(iii) Too thin section and improper gating system. pouring it into the mold cavity.
Remedies:
(i) Increasing the pouring temperature of the molten metal
increases the fluidity.
(ii) Proper gating system
(iii) Too thin section is avoided.
Defects in Castings
11. Hot tears or hot cracks
When the metal is hot it is weak and the residual stress (tensile) in the material cause the casting fails as the molten
metal cools down. The failure of casting in this case is looks like cracks and called as hot tears or hot cracking.
Causes
(i) Improper mold design.
Remedies
(i) Proper mold design can easily eliminate these types of casting defects.
(ii) Elimination of residual stress from the material of the casting.
Economics of Castings
Miscellaneous casting processes
Dry sand mould casting
Dry sand casting is a sophisticated form of green sand process, in which the sand mold is baked at a given temperature
to make it stronger.
This process in mostly used in large foundries to produce big ferrous and non-ferrous castings like engine blocks,
construction parts, etc.
Dry sand casting ensures precise size and perfect dimensions of the metal casting products.
Advantages :
• Complicate designs required for engines and automobiles can

be designed with relative ease
• Accuracy is terms of dimensions, size, designs, is the main

benefit
• Though an expensive process, here accuracy is maintained in

every respect
• A process is favoured by large foundries.

Shell mould casting
It is an expendable mold casting process that uses a resin covered sand to form the mould.
As compared to sand casting, this process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labour
requirements.
It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision.

In shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from
applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal
piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple
shell moulds.
Advantages :
• Shell moulding can be completely automated for mass
production.
• Low tooling cost, Little scrap generated.
•Very large parts and complex shapes can be produced.
•Scrap can be recycled.
•Short lead time possible.
Shell mould casting
Investment casting
Investment casting is a manufacturing process in which a wax pattern is coated with a refractory ceramic material.
Once the ceramic material is hardened its internal geometry takes the shape of the casting.
The wax is melted out and molten metal is poured into the cavity where the wax pattern was.
The metal solidifies within the ceramic mold and then the metal
casting is broken out. This manufacturing technique is also
known as the lost wax process.
Advantages :
• Can form complex shapes and fine details

•Many material options
•High strength parts
•Very good surface finish and accuracy
•Little need for secondary machining
Investment casting
Continuous casting process
Continuous casting, also known as strand casting, is
the process where a metal is heated until it liquefies.
The molten metal is then allowed to solidify until it
becomes a semi-finished slab that is later rolled in
the finishing mill. It is used to cast metals of
uninterrupted lengths.
In this process, the molten metal is continuously

supplied to the mould. The mould has an
indeterminate length. When the molten metal is cast
through a mould, it keeps travelling downward
increasing in its length as the time passes by.
The molten metal is continuously passed through the

mould, at the same rate to match the solidifying
casting. This results in casting of long strands of
metal.
The whole process of continuous casting is a

precisely deliberated process that can produce
astounding results.
Gravity die casting
Gravity Die Casting is a permanent mould casting process, where the molten metal is poured from a vessel or ladle into
the mould. The mould cavity fills with no force other than gravity, filling can be controlled by tilting the die.
The heated mould is coated with a die release agent. The release agent spray also has a secondary function in that it aids
cooling of the mould face after the previous part has been removed from the die.
Molten alloy is poured into channels of the tool to allow the material to fill all the extremities of the mould cavity. The
alloy is either hand poured using steel ladles or dosed using mechanical methods.
Advantages :
• Good dimensional accuracy.
• Smoother cast surface finish than sand casting.
• Improved mechanical properties compared to sand casting.
• Thinner walls can be cast compared to sand casting.
• Reverse draft internal pockets and forms can be cast in using

preformed sand core inserts.
• Steel pins and inserts can be cast into the part.
• Faster production times compared to other processes.

Gravity die casting
Centrifugal casting
In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously at high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is
poured.
The molten metal spreads along the inside mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a fine-
grained casting with an especially fine-grained outer diameter, due to the rapid cooling at the surface of the mold.
Lighter impurities and inclusions move towards the inside diameter and can be machined away following the casting.
Advantages :
• It provides dense metal and high mechanical properties.
• Unidirectional solidification can obtain up to a certain
thickness.
• It can use for mass production.
• No cores are required for cast hollow shapes like tubes etc.
• Gating system and runner are totally eliminated.
• All the impurity like oxide or other slag particles, segregated
at centre from where it can easily remove.
• It required lower pouring temperature thus save energy.
• Lower casting defects due to uniform solidification.
Centrifugal casting
Thank You

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Fundamentals of Casting and Solidification

Dr. J. Ramkumar and Vyom Sharma

Manufacturing Science Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

1. Manufacturing Science – Ghosh and Mallik.

2. Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials - Kalpakjian and Schmid.

3. Fundamentals of Metal Casting – Richard Flinn.

4. Metal Casting – Karl Rundman.

5. Lecture Notes – Dr. M. Law (IIT Kanpur).

6. Lecture Notes – Dr. A. Kumar (IIT Kanpur).

3 Manufacturing Science Lab, I.I.T. Kanpur

Subtractive Additive Joining Mass containing

Part made using Die casting

Parts made using Sand casting

7 Parts made using Investment casting

Advantages and Capabilities Disadvantages

Kalpakian and Schmid

Effect of WATER CONTENT on molding sand properties:

Endothermic metals Exothermic metals

Solubility of hydrogen Solubility of hydrogen

% hydrogen present = K 𝑝𝐻2

18 Induction furnace : 1750 º C Side blow convertor : 1700 º C Cupola : 1650 º C

Mould filling time for each gating design is different

The formulation is based on the integrated energy balance

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and (3), we can

Mould filling time (tf ) = (Volume of the casting) / ( 𝑨𝒈 𝒗𝟑 )

where, 𝑨𝒈 is the area of gate at point 3 (exit of sprue).

Now, applying Bernoulli’s equation at points (3) and (4), we

(Assuming that all the kinetic energy at point 3 is lost as the

Assuming that the metal level in the mould move up through

If 𝐴𝑚 and 𝐴𝑔 are the cross section areas of mould and gate

At t = 0, h = 0 and at t = 𝑡𝑓 (filling time), h = ℎ𝑚 . On

𝑃2 −𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑣22 𝑃3 −𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑣32

If we assume that the pressure at point 3 is equal to atmospheric pressure

Now, if we applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 3 with

Therefore, ideally, the sprue profile should be as shown by a solid line in

The liquid metal stream contracts around a sharp corner

In vertical gating, this has got nothing to do with the

The constricted region at point 2 is called vena contracta.

To avoid the creation of vacuum around point 2, the

where, 𝑣ҧ is the average velocity, L, D are diameter and length of the

If we write the integrated energy balance equation between points 1

Energy loss in friction due to sudden contraction or enlargement of flow area

And the discharge coefficient 𝐶𝐷 can be written as:

A Crystal is an arrangement of atoms in a periodic repeated array.

In Crystalline materials, atoms are arranged in periodically repeated array (Silicon).

Within each grain, the individual atoms form a crystalline lattice.

33 Strength VS Density Strength VS Temperature

Grain boundaries Work hardening

Processing Controls Properties

Processing Temperature, Time

Microstructure Size and distribution

Properties Strength and Ductility

Freezing takes place at a constant temperature

Freezing takes place at a range of temperature

• Above the freezing point however, the liquid is more stable

• At the freezing point there is no driving force in either direction, i.e. we

• Hence, metals (pure) will always begin to freeze at a temperature lower

• Lets now quantify the forces affecting crystal nucleation (solidification)

41 Data taken from the slides of Dr. M. Law, IIT Kanpur

42 Data taken from the slides of Dr. M. Law, IIT Kanpur

wherein, 𝐻 – is the enthalpy, 𝑇 is the temperature, and 𝑆 is the entropy

• Taking the total differential of 𝐻:

Now, digress for a review of some preliminary thermodynamics