Contents

PHOTOGRAMMETRY ..................................................................................................................................... 3
 INTRODUCTION: ........................................................................................................................... 3
 APPLICATION OF ARIEAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY:................................................................................ 3
In Archaeology: ..................................................................................................................................... 4
In Urban Studies:................................................................................................................................... 5
In Climate Change: ................................................................................................................................ 5
In Other Earth Sciences: ........................................................................................................................ 5
 TERRESTRIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY: .................................................................................................. 6
 STEROSCOPY: .................................................................................................................................... 7
GPS SURVEYING TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATION: ...................................................................................... 8
 TECHNIQUES: .................................................................................................................................... 8
MEDIUM-TO-SHORT BASELINE GPS SURVEY TECHNIQUES: ................................................................. 8
KINEMATIC GPS SURVEYING: ................................................................................................................ 9
APPLICATIONS: ........................................................................................................................................ 10
TUNNEL SURVEYING: .................................................................................................................................. 10
 GYROSCOPE:.................................................................................................................................... 11
REFERENCES: ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Submitted By: Muhammad Zain Abid
Submitted to: Sir Waqas Haroon
Reg No: 186-FET/BSCE/F-18
Class: BS-CIVIL ENGINEERING
Subject: Advance Engineering Survey
Department: Civil Engineering
ASSIGNMENT: 02
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
 INTRODUCTION:
Photogrammetry is the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the environment through the process of recording,
measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant
imagery and other phenomena.

There are many variants of photogrammetry. One example is the extraction of three-
dimensional measurements from two-dimensional data (i.e. images); for example, the distance
between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the photographic image plane can be
determined by measuring their distance on the image.

PHOTOGRAMMETRY OF A LOCATION

 APPLICATION OF ARIEAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY:

Aerial photography is - as it sounds - the process of
taking photographs from the air, but there is more to it than simply using a light aircraft or
helicopter and flying up to take photographs. There are many elements to an aerial survey that
must be considered to ensure that the data is useful enough to extrapolate whatever is being
investigated. It is often difficult to see elements of the landscape on the ground, features can
easily be missed, and what might seem like an insignificant bump from ground level can
become more significant in a wider context ; some landscape types are difficult to access on
foot so aerial photographs are vital to study and map them.

They have been used as a method of landscape studies for over a century , especially in
archaeology and researchers have learnt much about the world around us; its applications
today are broad and coupled with the growing technology of GIS (geographic information
systems), the potential means that the method will not become obsolete any time soon. Aerial
photographs are taken in two basic forms and both have different uses and applications:
oblique and vertical. Even today in an age of high quality digital imaging, black and white
images are preferred - partly because they are cheaper but also partly because the contrast of
black, white and greys makes it easier to pick out features.

In Archaeology:
In archaeology aerial photography is ideal for locating lost monuments and tracking
features, especially those that are not visible at ground level, those that are under the soil and
cannot be seen on a field walk and those that can only be seen under certain conditions. They
are usually discovered through any of the following .

Crop Marks and Parch Marks:

Seen in summer, crop marks are signs of a subterranean feature that show
up as irregularities in the pattern of crops. Growth of the crop might be stunted due to extant
remains such as stone foundations, or they might be higher than the surrounding crop due to
underlying water systems such as dried up drainage channels or long-gone artificial water
features such as fishponds. Parch marks occur in areas of particularly dry summer. In some
conditions, the crop may simply be a different colour. Parch marks differ in that they are
discolourations in the crop as a result of prolonged drought. Areas where ground water dries up
quickly and areas where there may be more groundwater will show up clearly. Caution is
advised when interpreting both crop marks and parch marks as the anomalies may be
archaeological, geological, or due to variations in soil and ground water courses. Modern pipes
may also flag a false positive for features of interest.

Soil Marks:
Best studied in winter when no crops are growing or grasses have large died off, both
rainy and dry conditions are conducive to picking out buried features. Typically showing up as
darker areas, they can indicate underlying stonework, the outline of prehistoric features such as
barrows and cursus monuments, and ditches. The same issues above apply - they could be
natural or modern features.
In Urban Studies:
Urban development and the history of urbanism is a growing niche of landscape studies which
has a wide range of uses through history and archaeology, the history of cartography, the
history of commerce, sociology and even for modern urban planning. Town developers need to
study the impact of expansion and development of urban centres on the landscape and the
impact on the environment (19). New facilities (for example a new sports stadium) will require
a rethink of the infrastructure and the impact that the new facility will have on people living in
the area - will we need to build more houses? Upgrade the roads? Will this affect protected
areas? Aerial photography taken at low levels is vital to examining the existing infrastructure .

In Climate Change:
We all know about the effects of climate change on global temperatures. These global changes
are reflected everywhere, and societies and communities are seeing changes to their local
environment. If it isn't river beds drying up, droughts getting longer, wetter seasons getting
wetter and the reduction of inland lakes drying up completely, one of the most practical
applications is tracking of invasive species into water bodies , that just a few years ago would
not have provided an adequate environment for those species. Researchers keep vital records
in changes over seasons and years to track local effects of climate change and risks to local
ecosystems. Localised aerial photographs will highlight the die-off of certain vegetation, or the
increase of invasive species.

In Other Earth Sciences:

They can also be used to study the process of natural changes, such as variations in soil and
geology over time as well as changes to the underlying ground that leads to disasters such as
landslides (19). Not quite as useful to geologists due to the relative expense and difficulty in
interpretation compared to archaeological applications, aerial survey nevertheless has uses and
benefits and the historical record for changes to the natural landscape is vital to understanding
how the landscape may change in future. Annual rainfall, whether lower or higher than normal,
can have far-reaching consequences and it is this where geology's interests in aerial
photography are most important.
 AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY

 TERRESTRIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY:
The photo-theodolite and the terrestrial camera are little known
instruments to surveyors or photogrammetrists. Perhaps the most publicised use of the camera for
precise stereo measurements is its use in Europe for mapping the scene of motor accidents or on the
odd occasion where photogrammetry has been used for architectural purposes. These instruments can
be very valuable to the surveyor, particularly the surveyor working on engineering projects. Not only is
the terrestrial camera useful for mapping construction sites at scales as large as 5 ft. to 1 in., but the
photographs can be utilised in a suitable instrument for taking off quantities for earthworks or stock-
piles and for directly plotting tunnel profiles and other varied uses. At the other extreme the photo-
theodolite can be employed for mapping at small scales and even for extending control.

TERRESTRIAL CAMERA

 STEROSCOPY:
Stereoscopy (also called stereoscopics, or stereo imaging) is a film (non-digital)
technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for
binocular vision. Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left
and right eye of the viewer. These two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain to
give the perception of 3D depth. This technique is distinguished from 3D displays that display
an image in three full dimensions, allowing the observer to increase information about the 3-
dimensional objects being displayed by head and eye movements.
 Stereoscope used in Photogrammetry

GPS SURVEYING TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATION:

 TECHNIQUES:
The most fundamental classification system for GPS technique is based on the type of
observable that is tracked (a) Civilian Navigation / positioning receivers using C/A code and L1 frequency
(b) Military navigation / positioning receivers using the satellite P(Y) – code on both L – band frequencies
(c) Single frequency (L2) carrier phase tracking receivers (d) dual frequency carrier phase tracking
receivers.

MEDIUM-TO-SHORT BASELINE GPS SURVEY TECHNIQUES:

Accuracy at few parts per million level for baselines
typically <50Km to support control network applications with data processing being carried out
by commercial software packages.

The main weaknesses of such procedures are that the observation time is comparatively long,
the results are obtained after the field survey and the field procedures are rigid. During the late
1980s, considerable attention was paid to these issues, as they were considered to be
unnecessarily restrictive for precise GPS technology. That is, if antennas could be moving
during a GPS survey, then new application of GPS survey could be addressed. If the length of
the time required to collect phase data for a reliable solution could be shortened, then GPS
survey productivity would improve and technology would be attractive for many more
surveying applications. If the results could be obtained immediately after the measurements
have been made, then GPS could be used for time critical missions such as engineering
statement etc.

In the last decade or so new GPS surveying methods have been developed with two liberating
characteristics of (a) static antenna set up no longer having to be insisted upon (b) long
observation sessions no longer essential in order to achieve survey level accuracy. These
modern GPS surveying techniques are given a variety of names by different GPS manufacturers,
but the following generic technologies will be used here.

 Rapid static positioning technique.

 Stop-and-go technique.
 Kinematic positioning technique.

All require the use of specialized hardware and software, as well as new field procedures. GPS
receivers capable of executing these types of surveys can also be used for conventional static
GPS surveying. Although the field procedures are different from conventional static GPS
surveying, the principles of planning, quality control and network processing are very similar.

KINEMATIC GPS SURVEYING:

This is a generalization of stop and go technique. Instead of only coordinating the stationary
points and disregarding the trajectory of the roving antenna as it moves from point-to-point. The
intention of kinematic surveying is to determine the position of antenna while it is in motion. In
many respects the technique is similar to stop-and-go technique. That is, ambiguities must be
resolved before starting the survey, and ambiguities must be reinitialized during the survey when
a cycle slip occurs. However for many applications such as positioning of an aircraft or ship, it
is impractical to reinitialize the ambiguities if the roving antenna has to return to a stationary
control point. Today the `kinematic’ GPS survey is undergoing rapid improvement and OTF-AR
(on the fly – Ambiguity Resolution) is a routine procedure, making kinematic surveying
technique ideal for road centre line surveys, topographic surveys, hydrographic surveys, airborne
applications and many more.
APPLICATIONS:
GPS technology helps surveyors establish property lines and boundaries. Compared to
conventional surveying methods, GPS land surveying produces accurate results with little effort,
and also provides greater flexibility and improved efficiency than older surveying tools

GPS INSTRUMENT

TUNNEL SURVEYING:
Tunnel Survey is that branch of survey that is concern with the surveying in a tunnel.
This type of survey is required in mining works, deep tunnel sewerage works and underground
railway work.The techniques used in this type of survey is different from those used on ground.
GPS cannot be used in tunnel survey because satellite signals cannot penetrate through land.In
tunnel survey, laser total stations are used to give alignment together with gyroscopic
instrument.
  GYROSCOPE:
The gyroscope is an instrument used to determine the meridian plane
(i.e. the Geographical North). This possibility is particularly useful for obtaining a reference
bearing independent of any geodetic network or topographical traverse. Finding the North is
rather delicate and many precautions have to be taken in order to obtain an accuracy of a few

seconds. For these reasons, we have developed a completly automatic system for the
gyrotheodolite. Using the transit method, the theodolite is roughly pointed towards the North
and the difference between the left and right oscillations is a function of the angle between the
theodolite axis and the true North. A system of three phototransistors indicates the transit time
of the gyroscopic index. A cristal-controlled oscillator is used to count the time interval
between two consecutive transits. A logic control unit performs the different counting
operations, selects the differents channels , which have to be used and triggers the dig i ta l
printer which prints out t he transit times and the codes for the phototransistors between
which these times have been measured. The measurement of the transit times on the three
phototransistors permits the calculation not only of the left and right-hand differences, but also
of the osicallation amplittude which occurs in the calculation of the angle between the
telescope axis of the theodolite and Geographical North. North is found from observations of
the transit times during three complete oscillations of the gyroscope, i.e.

20 minutes at the l altitude of CERN. Any survey direction in the tunnel can be established with
a standard deviation of 25 centesimal second s by finding the North three times in succession.
Moreover, this can be done without the need for any action on the part of the operator except
for directing the gyrotheodolite roughly towards the Geographical North.
REFERENCES:
 www.weftsurv.com
 theconstructor.org
 springer.com
 .gisresources.com
 environmentalscience.org
 Quora.com