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WT PDF
SECTION 1
GENERALITIES
1-1
Generalities
2-2
Generalities
ACQUISITION
SYSTEM VALIDATION
SURFACE
TESTING
EQUIPMENT
WELL TESTING
Customer requirements
SAFETY Reservoir parameters - Kh, S, P.
EQUIPMENT Where do we get the data ?
(S.S.T.T.)
FLOW RATE CONTROL
Open hole DST
Cased hole DST
Safety equipment (S.S.T.T.)
FLOW DATA
Production testing
PRESSURE DATA
Recorders
DST Real time gauges
EQUIPMENT
ACQUISITION
Hardware
D/HOLE Software
GAUGES
A.L.S.
FLUID DATA
Sampling
Surface & downhole
PVT analysis
VALIDATION / INTERPRETATION
Validating data acquired on site
Interpretation on site
3-3
Generalities
2.1 WT OPERATIONS
1
First estimation can be made during clean-up using charts
4-4
Generalities
5-5
Generalities
1. JOB PREPARATION
2. PRESSURE TESTING
3. CLEANING UP
4. MAIN TEST
5. REPORTING
6. JOB FOLLOW UP
1. JOB PREPARATION
CLIENT VISIT: by manager
• Test program
• Equipment selection
6-6
Generalities
7-7
Generalities
2. PRESSURE TESTING
The following pressure testing sequence is compulsory before any well opening.
The record of the pressure tests should be included in the final well test report. Use the
Foxboro Recorder or any other recorder available.
TESTING THE LINES (See sketch of "PRESSURE TESTING SEQUENCE")
• The different sections must be hydraulically tested at working pressure. Normally
after the well stream leaves the well head, the pressure is reduced in stages. After
the pressure is reduced, process components of lower pressure rating may be used.
The rule is: A pressure vessel should either be designed to withstand the maximum
internal pressure which can be exerted on it under any conditions, or be
protected by a pressure relieving device (safety relief valve or rupture
disc).
To determine system design pressure rating, it is necessary to show pressure-rating
boundaries on mechanical flow sheets. Each section of flow line or process
component has an assigned operating pressure e.g.:
• From the well head or flow head down to the floor choke manifold
the working pressure must be higher than the shut-in tubing
pressure. This will lead to the choice of the floor manifold assembly.
• For subsequent sections the working pressure is determined to suit
piping connection.
Note: In case of gas, if use of chicksan cannot be avoided, grease the ball bearings of
chicksan swivels and change the packing.
• The separator is provided with pressure relieving devices. All other components are
protected by making sure that pressure will always remain lower than the rated
working pressure. For all components where working pressure is lower than the
shut-in well head pressure, this protection is provided by a surface safety valve (SSV)
located on the wing valve of the well head.
• Surface safety valve.
On high-pressure tests (WHP>5000 psig) or in case of sour gas, a surface safety
valve (remotely controlled) should always be installed on the wing valve - or upstream
of the choke boxes. The flow line pressure sensors (OTIS pilot type P) should
actuate this Surface Safety Valve, and also be activation of the emergency shutdown
(E.S.D.) stations. In case of sour gas or high pressure, it is mandatory that one of
these E.S.D. stations is set-up at the separator, other stations will be set-ups
according to the customer's instructions. The pilot to shut in the SSV should be
provided on each flow line segment of different working pressure down to the
separator. When no surface safety valve is used, it is the operator's responsibility to
check and make sure that the pressure always remains lower than the working
pressure assigned to each section.
8-8
Generalities
3. CLEANING UP
• The duration is variable from a few hours to exceptionally a few days.
• Separator by passed until:
• BSW lower than 5%
• Salinity = formation water salinity
• No acid
• WHP is changing regularly (liquid has unloaded)
• Hydrocarbons are being produced
• At least volume of well has been produced
• Guide lines
• Q = max. Q compatible with equipment and formation
• Gas wells
Pi - Pwf > .25 WHP
Vf > 50 ft/sec
4. MAIN TEST
AFTER CLEAN UP
• Initial shut in to record initial reservoir pressure and temperature
PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED
• Flow rate of fluids produced: oil, gas, and water
9-9
Generalities
5. REPORTING
Must contain an accurate and complete record of:
• Test procedure / program
• Equipment used
• Well completion
• Sequence of events
6. JOB FOLLOW-UP
• Equipment rig down and packing by entire crew
• Shipping of equipment
• Debrief
10 - 10
Generalities
time
P
3
Results of a multiple rate test are presented as a plot of Pwf vs. gross liquid production rate
11 - 11
Generalities
12 - 12
Generalities
2.4.2 Pressure and flow diagrams of a gas well back pressure test
Pwi
Pwf1
Pwf2
Pwf3
Pwf4
Q4
Q3
Q2
Q1
time
13 - 13
Generalities
2.4.4 Open flow potential of a gas well determined from a back pressure test
Open Flow
£
48 / 64 Choke
£
£ 36 / 64 Choke
£ 28 / 64 Choke
The results of a backpressure test are presented as a plot of surface production rate vs.
P²s - P²wf on a log - log grid.
Open flow potential is found by extrapolation of the performance line to P²s the flow rate
which would occur when Pwf = O.
Finding Ps is made by analysis of the pressure build up curve and is covered later in this
chapter.
14 - 14
Generalities
Pwi
Pwf1 Pwf2
Pwf3
Pwf4
stabilized
Flowing
Pressure
clean initial Time
up shut in T T T T final shut in
Extended flow
Q4
Q3
Q2
Q1
Time
15 - 15
Generalities
Pwi
Pwf1
Pwf2
Pwf3 Pwf4
t t t t t t t
Time
FLOW RATE
Q4
Q3
Q
2
Q1
Time
In practice, the "true isochronal test" is often replaced by the MODIFIED ISOCHRONAL
TEST, in which the duration of the shut-in period is equal to the duration of the flowing
period, regardless if stabilized shut-in pressure has been reached or not.
16 - 16
Generalities
3
5 HR
2
1 HR
0.25 HR
6
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
Slope = 1/n
3
2
8
10
10² 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 2 3 4
10
FLOW RATE, q, STB/D
The data Q vs. P²s - P²wf taken after ¼ hr, ½ hr, 1 hr, 2 hrs etc., are plotted on log-log
paper for each flow rate. On the extended test a point is plotted for stabilized flow near
the end of the extended flow period.
Lines connecting data points for ¼ hr, ½ hr and 5 hrs will be parallel but have a slope
related to the productive capacity. A line of this slope passed through the final extended
flow data point can be extrapolated to P²s - P²wf (when Pwf = O) yielding the open flow
potential.
17 - 17
Generalities
• A packer
• A flow control valve
• Pressure recording devices
• Accessory tools (Sampling, Safety, etc.)
Results:
• Direct
Fluid type, flow rate
• Interpretation
Effective permeability, formation damage, reservoir pressure, barriers,
anomalies and relative size of the reservoir
18 - 18
Generalities
1. Initial hydrostatic
2. Set pocket
3. Start of initial flow
4. End of initial flow
5. End of initial shut-in
6. Start of final flow
7. End of final flow
8. End of final shut-in
9. Final hydrostatic
9 1
2
è
BASE LINE 3
é6 4
é
19 - 19
Generalities
20 - 20
Generalities
21 - 21
Generalities
22 - 22
Generalities
3.2.1 PACKER
The packer provides isolation of the test interval from the annulus, allowing the reservoir
to be tested, and in addition facilitates the use annulus pressure-operated test tools.
The packer are classified according to there operating mechanism and their purpose.
Hook-wall packer: for cased hole test, can be used at all depth. This type of packer can
be used up to 10.000 psi and at a maximum of 320°C (160°F). Above these values it is
recommended to use a production (permanent) packer.
Open-hole packer: conventional packer. Drill collars or perforated anchors are run under
the packer. When the string tags the bottom and start taking weight, the packer
mechanism compress the rubber components which inflate in order to assure sealing
against the bore hole.
Inflatable packer: for open or cased hole. A hydraulic pump set at the top of the packer
will be actuating by a rotation of the spring. This pump will inflate the rubber components
of the packer.
Production packer: will be run with wire-line or tubing.
Non-retrievable: will have to be drilled out
Retrievable: by picking up the string at a certain tension, shear pins will break and release
the packer.
§ Geoservices packers:
ARROW SET 1-X 10.000 psi WP
For casing of: 5” – 7” – 9 5/8”
BAKER retrievamatics 7500 psi WP
For casing of 7” – 9 5/8”
MSG packer: high pressure (15.000 psi WP), high temperature.
For casing: 7”
23 - 23
Generalities
Releasing procedures
The releasing procedures are the same whether the packer has been in tension or
compression set. Set down weight on the packer and rotate tubing ¼ turn to the right at
the packer, and then pick up holding right hand torque. The internal by-pass will open,
allowing pressure to equalize. Further pick up releases the patented releasing sequential
slip system relaxing the elements, allowing the packer to be reset or removed from the
well.
RETRIEVABLE PACKER
24 - 24
Generalities
25 - 25
Generalities
the mandrel upward until the hammer (mandrel) strikes the anvil (torque sub). This
delivers a high impact blow to the stuck tool.
When the driller slacks off on the work string, an internal valve is forced open, allowing
the oil to by-pass the piston. This allows for rapid re-cocking of the jar.
26 - 26
Generalities
27 - 27
Generalities
upper mandrel is moved up or down, the lugs rotate the ball to the open or closed
position. The splines perform several functions in the mechanism.
The assist piston allows the tool to hold pressure from above. When the pressure above
the ball exceeds the pressure below the ball, a force is generated which forces the upper
mandrel assembly up, thus maintaining a seal.
The control piston separates annulus fluid from the nitrogen. As annulus pressure is
increased, the control piston moves down opening the tool, further compressing the
nitrogen and helical spring. When annulus pressure is removed, the compressed nitrogen
and spring act on the nitrogen side of the piston shifting the tool on the closed position.
The tool can be dressed with a lock open feature. When dressed with this option, an
indexing sleeve extends through the sleeve and engages G-slots cut into the index
mandrel. As the index mandrel moves down through the indexing sleeve, the indexing
sleeve rotates. This rotation brings splines on the indexing sleeve into alignment. As the
index mandrel moves up in response to a reduction of annulus pressure, the splines
contact each other preventing further upward movement of the mandrel, thus the ball is
mechanically held open. As the index mandrel is again forced down by application of
annulus pressure, the indexing sleeve is again rotated, the splines are taken out of
alignment allowing full upward movement of index mandrel allowing the ball to be rotated
closed by the ball operating sub.
In this configuration it is recommended to use the tool in the fail-safe position as long as
wire line or coil tubing operations are not run.
When dressed without the lock open feature, the tool is held open with application of
annulus pressure and closes when annulus pressure is removed without an intermediate
pressure cycle.
28 - 28
Generalities
POTV ARTS
29 - 29
Generalities
The AORV
The AORV is a single shot-circulating valve giving unrestricted flow between tubing and
annulus. Once open, the tool is retained in this position by a lock ring and cannot be re-
closed.
The AORV is opened by applied annulus pressure bursting a rupture disc. The pressure
acts on an unbalanced piston, forcing the mandrel to the open position. The locking of a
mechanism then locks the mandrel in the open position.
30 - 30
Generalities
AORV
The MRCV
The MRCV is normally run above the POTV. The tool is cycled by the application of 2500
psi differential bias to the tubing. This forces the mandrel assembly to be pumped
downward. When the pressure is bled off, a spring forces the mandrel assembly up.
Through the mandrel’s motion, an indexing sleeve, concentric to the mandrel assembly, is
allowed to rotate. An indexing pin is located in the indexing sleeve, which follows the path
of the slots in the indexing mandrel. After four or eight pressure cycles the index pin slides
into an elongated slot, which in turn allow the entire mandrel assembly to travel an
additional 2 inches, opening the tool.
To close the valve, fluid is pumped down the work string and out the ports at a
predetermined rate, to cause a pressure drop across the flow orifices. This creates a
differential pressure between the upper mandrel seal and the connector sub seals,
pushing the mandrel assembly down and closing the tool. When a tubing pressure of
2500 psi above annular hydrostatic is reached, and the pressure bled off, the indexing
31 - 31
Generalities
sleeves rotates, moving the indexing pin into the next slot and returning the mandrel
assembly to the first closed position.
MRCV
The MRST
The multi-reverse spot tool works under the same principle than the MRST.
The main difference resides in the fact that this tool offers one more position: the
circulating mode.
A pressure of 350 psi above hydrostatic, at the tool is applied to the drill string and then
bled back to 0 psi to cycle the tool to its next position. A rate of ½ Bbls per minute at 300
psi is required to maintain circulation (spotting). Once pumping has stopped,
communication ports close. Circulation may be re-established by again starting the
pumps, as long as the pressure in the drill string has not been bled back to annulus
hydrostatic.
32 - 32
Generalities
33 - 33
Generalities
These sub-surface systems, normally landed in the BOP stack allow quickly shutting in
and controlling a well close to surface during a test. These tools can be broken into two
main groups:
• THE SUB SEA (S/S) tree for floating rigs.
• THE SUB SEA VALVE for fixed rigs.
34 - 34
Generalities
FLOWHEAD
CONTROL CONSOLE
TUBING OR DRILLPIPE
TREE LATCH
SLICK JOINT
PIPE RAMS CLOSED
FLUTED HANGER
35 - 35
Generalities
RISER DISCONNECTED
LUBRICATOR VALVE
RETAINER
VALVE
RAMS CLOSED
36 - 36
Safety procedures
SECTION 2
SAFETY PROCEDURES
1 - 22
Safety procedures
• Units grounding.
• Wind direction.
• Hammers.
• Pressure fittings.
• Repair of vessels.
2 - 22
Safety procedures
Note 2: Tanks are equipped with a flame arrestor. The sniffer pipe must be connected to the
rig flare. Moreover, manhole cover should be bolted during operation.
Note 3: In some instances, due to lack of space, all the recommended distances cannot be
respected, but:
- Equipment must never be installed in the classified zone of the well head (type II zone).
- Fired heaters, burners and wireline winches must never be installed in classified zones.
- Chief Operator should inform the client and mention it in his report.
3 - 22
Safety procedures
4 - 22
Safety procedures
5 - 22
Safety procedures
NUMBER OF NUMBER OF
TURNS TURNS NUMBER OF NUMBER OF
HANDTIGHT HANDTIGHT TURNS FOR VANISH
ENGAGEMENT ENGAGEMENT WRENCH THREAD OD OF PIPE
NOMINAL NUMBER OF WIDTH OF (theoretical) (Theoretical) MAKE-UP (Practical) (Male thread)
SIZE TPI FLAT F
6 - 22
Safety procedures
For these reasons, PRESSURE TESTING of Well Testing Equipment at the base and
at the Wellsite constitutes a critical part of MAINTENANCE and PRE-JOB CHECK.
The following parameters must be evaluated before undertaking a pressure test:
• Test pressure
• Periodicity
• Pressure test fluid
• Location
• Procedure
TEST PRESSURES
Never exceed WP during a Wellsite pressure test. Never test a closed Valve
above its WP.
PRESSURE TESTING
FLUID NATURE VS STORED ENERGY
7 - 22
Safety procedures
Generally, we have two kinds of oil wells, which are the standard well, and the
corrosive well.
For both conditions some safety regulations must be respected during the job.
Medical supplies: sufficient medical supplies for first aid are normally
available on location.
• Sweet corrosion
• Sour corrosion.
8 - 22
Safety procedures
This type of corrosion causes cracks in the material, which eventually fails under
load or internal stress; failure may occur at any time during the working life of the
material even almost immediately after it is put into service.
B) EMBRITTLEMENT
The hydrogen derived from the hydrogen sulfide by chemical reaction embrittles
the material causing failure to take place within a short time, even in a matter of
hours.
C) UNIFORM CORROSION
The surface of the metal is attacked in a fairly uniform manner, with occasional
pitting.
The destruction by hydrogen occurs when the partial pressure of H2S in the gas is
higher than 0.01 ATM. Below this value, the effect declines sharply and below
0,001 ATM. there is no danger.
H2S stress corrosion occurs in steels having a hardness higher than Rc. 22 (237
Brinell). In cases where high residual stress is present, it is possible for H2S
stress corrosion to occur at hardness less than Rc. 22. Rough handling of
equipment may cause dents etc. which could have a local hardness of over Rc. 22
even if the base material is under Rc. 22. These dents have often been the cause
of failures and consequently careful handling of e.g. tubing with tubing tongs is of
vital importance.
For combating sour corrosion the use of an inhibitor may be risky, as the smallest
flaw may lead directly to a crack/destruction. Selection of suitable materials is the
best defense, be it a costly one, against this type of corrosion.
Acceptable:
§ API grade J.55, K.55, and L.80; C.75 material preferably type 2 with a
maximum hardness of Rc. 22.
§ Low-alloy steels with a maximum hardness of Rc. 22. 300 series stainless
steel in annealed condition. Maximum hardness Rc 22.
§ K-Monel, hot rolled and ages hardened. Maximum hardness Rc. 35.
§ Inconel and Inconel X, maximum hardness Rc. 35.
§ Hard facing with stellites, Colmonoy and Tungsten carbide. Base material,
maximum hardness Rc. 22.
§ 9% Cr. - 1% Mo. steels quenched and tempered with a maximum hardness
of Rc. 22.
9 - 22
Safety procedures
Not Acceptable:
As ambient temperature may be low as well, the operating temperature may fall to
minus 15°F. For this reason, the design temperature of production test equipment has
been set at minus 25°F. For arctic conditions exists a design temperature of minus
50°F.
Materials, piping and accessories used, have to be suitable for this temperature at the
specified operating pressures of the production test equipment.
As this equipment is normally rented from Service Companies, the Oil Companies
demands that adequate proof be handed to them by the Service Company, concerning
the acceptability of the test equipment.
10 - 22
Safety procedures
1. Vessels and piping shall be manufactured in accordance with ASME CODE VIII
Division 1. NACE MR 01.75
3. All welding to be made under preheat condition of 212°F with low hydrogen
electrodes (permanent-backing rings shall not be used).
4. All welding are to be stress relieved, maximum hardness Rc.22 after stresses
relieving. Inspector selected welds to be checked with a portable Vickers or
Rockwell tester. (Stress relieving has been introduced in these requirements to
ensure that fully ductile welds and heat-affected zones will be present.
Unfavorable material conditions could be present in view of high carbon contents
of many American standard materials. Preheating, low hydrogen electrodes and
stress relieving are introduced to prevent specifying low carbon content
materials, which is generally not available in the U.S.A.).
6. For sour service, all accessories (valves etc.) have to comply with appropriate
NACE specifications.
The Group Operating Company should also be provided with relevant data sheets,
material specifications and certification of chemical composition and physical
properties including hardness and charpy impact value.
Group Company Supervisors should scrutinize this data and make sure that the
following pertinent information concerning rented equipment is available prior to
production testing:
11 - 22
Safety procedures
If materials are used that are not suitable, where applicable, for low temperature
services then the equipment could be de-rated temporarily and should be replaced as
soon as possible because the capacity is then probably not in accordance with the
terms of the contract.
Such de-rating should be: for operating temperatures between 32°F and 60°F to
maximum 70% of allowed working pressures, and for operating temperatures below
32°F to maximum 50% of the allowed working pressure.
12 - 22
Safety procedures
• Warning signs, H2S detectors, H2S continuous monitors, escape sets, wind
socks, and must be included in the package test.
• One pocket size personnel detector per technician working at any place in the
operation rig up, plus two spare sets. These detectors must be equipped with a
visual and sound alarm.
• One escape mask per technician working in any places of the operation rig up,
plus two spare sets. These escape masks must be of a filtering cartridge type.
• One Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) per technician working in any
place of the operation rig up, plus two spare SCBA'S. These SCBA's are to be of
a positive pressure type.
• Two sniffer glasses tube type measuring apparatuses with sufficient supply of
graduated tubes of various ranges.
• A reanimation kit:
• Each crew conducting operations involving H2S should have at least one kit on
site. Special and efficient training must be given before starting the job.
13 - 22
Safety procedures
14 - 22
Safety procedures
Generally, the "50000" rule applies everywhere upstream of the tanks, and this
giving very low H2S contents (50 PPM at 1000 psi). It can be said that as soon as
the presence of H2S is suspected, everything upstream of the tank should be H2S
proof.
BASIC RULES:
§ Any installation, on which one component has been tampered with, is not
H2S rated any more.
§ Any equipment on which modifications have been made should have the
H2S identification removed.
§ Any piping having threaded WECO connections is certainly not H2S proof.
All such H2 S equipments are welded together.
15 - 22
Safety procedures
§ Wears escape mask around the neck - ready for use and escape
EQUIPMENT:
§ Use surge tank with gas outlet connected to low- pressure flare
1.6.1 Hazards
§ Mercury vapours max concentration 0.1 mg/m3 (0.8ppm) and is poisonous at
very low concentrations.
§ Vapour is produced at ambient temperatures in significant concentrations
§ Absorption in human body:
a) Inhaling
b) Skin, especially wounds and contaminated clothes
c) Swallowing
d) Long retention time transport / reaction with certain metals
e) Accumulates in kidneys, digestive tract and nervous system
1.6.2 Recommendations
The following are the main recommendations to be taken into account when
handling, working with mercury
§ Storage
§ Ventilation
§ Protective clothing
16 - 22
Safety procedures
Caution:
- Working clothes will include headwear (disposable cap) and special shoes.
- Handling must be done with "disposable type" gloves and breathing apparatus of
disposable mask according to time of exposure.
- Before leaving the laboratory, the employee must brush his teeth, wash hands, take a
shower and change clothes.
- Special containers must be used to store contaminated working clothes, and they will be
heated to 70°C for at least 24 hours.
- After each work session, laboratory and/or equipment will be cleaned and decontaminated
according to work done.Never try to adjust the position of the proximity switches on an
installed sensor while the drum is in motion.
17 - 22
Safety procedures
1.8 NOISE
EXPOSURE MAXIMUM SOUND LEVEL
(hours) dB(A)
8 85
4 88
2 91
1 94
1/2 97
1/4 100
EXAMPLES:
1.9 EROSION
EROSION due to the presence of solids and combined with high fluid velocity
represents a major testing hazard, particularly in the case of gas Well Testing:
• Unconsolidated sands
• Salt particles
• Post sand frac testing
If erosion is expected:
18 - 22
Safety procedures
55 mm 90 mm 80 mm 76 mm 35 mm 32 mm 114 mm 95 mm 51 mm 14 mm 100mm
5/8" 2 3/16 3 1/2 3 5/32 3" 1 3/8 1 1/4 4 1/2 3 3/4 2" 9/16 4" 3 12000
kg
19 - 22
Safety procedures
20 - 22
Safety procedures
1.11 SOME SAFETY RULES FOR THE "OIL PATCH" - 50 DO'S AND DON'T
Following is a list of 50 recommendations and rules pertaining to SAFETY in the Field.
The various points listed should be discussed and emphasized during SAFETY
MEETINGS to all your Personnel.
It is your duty and responsibility to check that these rules have been understood and
are adhered to.
1.11.1 GENERAL
1. Always wear your safety equipment i.e. boots, hard hat, overall, gloves, goggles
(no nylon clothing).
2. Do not drive without your safety belt on.
3. Do not drive recklessly.
4. Before removing a gauge or a plug from a vessel or pipe, make sure that there is
not pressure left inside.
5. Never hit vessels or pipes under pressure.
6. When working above water, wear your life jacket.
7. Prior leaving the Base, make sure your radio sets are working, spare tire(s), water
supply.
8. Make sure that you know the location of the fire extinguishers and that they are full
and you know how to operate them.
9. Make yourself sure that everybody in your crew knows what his duties are going to
be.
10. Ensure yourself that your working stations are clean and not littered.
11. Should night work be envisaged, take appropriate steps to ensure proper lighting.
12. Remember that a tired Operator is a potential danger to the rest of the crew.
13. Do not jump from platforms: use the stairs and ladders.
14. For each kind of particular work, use the appropriate tools.
15. Never do a welding job on or close by a vessel having contained hydrocarbons
without making sure it has completely degassed (steam cleaning is one of the best
ways to degas).
16. Before lifting a piece of equipment with slings, make sure the cables are in good
shape and the clamps and shackles well tightened.
1.11.2 WIRELINE
17. Always make sure that the pressure has been bled down to zero before attempting
to unscrew a quick union.
18. Never run-in a well with the winch engine stopped.
19. Do not climb or let somebody climb the lubricator whenever it is under pressure.
20. Never attempt to pull a plug before the pressures across it have been equalized.
21. When rigging up or down a lubricator, never stay below it.
22. Blowout preventer should always be tested before each job.
23. When running in for the first time always check the weight frequently.
24. It is recommended practice to run a gauge cutter (or sinker bars only) prior to
running anything else in the hole.
25. When working in H2S wells, inhibit the wire (Kontol, Norust).
26. When coming out of the hole, use the winch relief valve.
27. Always write down the length of the different components you are running in the
hole.
28. When cutting wire at the surface (rig down) make sure that neither end can "fly".
29. Always anchor the winch to the platform or deck it is installed on.
30. Always work in sight of each other.
21 - 22
Safety procedures
31. Before attempting a fishing job, check that your lubricator is long enough to handle
both lost string and fishing string.
32. When running a wireline job, always have a clear view of the stuffing box.
33. Keep track of the number of hours the wire has worked. Change it before it is too
late. Check frequently for defects or corrosion. Between each job, cut and
remove at least 10' of wire. Don't leave the cut wire on the wellsite
22 - 22
Pipes and fittings
SECTION 3
1-1
Pipes and fittings
• Flow rate
2-2
Pipes and fittings
H2S
H2S
H2S
3-3
Pipes and fittings
DEFINITION
Fittings used to join lengths of pipe to permit easy opening of a line. Weco Wing Unions
are identified by “Figure number”
SIZES
1" through 12"
RATED PRESSURES
1,000 psi through 30,000 psi.
APPLICATIONS
For suction and discharge lines carrying liquids, vapours, gas or semi-solids.
In Geoservices typical Wing Unions used are:
4-4
Pipes and fittings
Union Fig. 1002 is used on Geoservices heater, steam heat exchanger and choke
manifold.
Maximum pressure : 10000 Psi
Possible diameters (in inch): - 1 - 1.25 - 1.5 - 2 - 2.5 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6
Possible assembly : - Integral Tubing Seal - NPT Threads - Welded
Union Fig. 1502 is used on Geoservices flowhead heater and choke manifold. Maximum
pressure : 15000 Psi
Possible diameters (in inch): - 1 - 1.5 - 2 - 2.5 - 3 - 4
Possible assembly : - Integral Stainless Steel Overlaid Face - Integral Tubing Seal -
NPT Threads - Welded
SERVICE ADVANTAGES
Weco Unions make up fast and seal perfectly. They withstand tougher service in a
greater variety of installations than any other union.
MAKE UP
Weco Unions require no special tools or wrenches. Wing nut can be made up seal-tight
with an ordinary hammer.
5-5
Pipes and fittings
INTERCHANGE ABILITY
Parts of the same size and pressure rating are interchangeable so there is no difficulty
matching and mating male and female subs that are frequently made up and broken
out. This is a decided advantage on rig piping and service company operations such as
cementing, acidification, fracture job etc.
IDENTIFICATION
Distinctive colors identify Weco Unions according to pressure rating.
SEALING
Fig. 402, 602, 1002 and 1502 Unions have a resilient seal ring, in addition to the ball
and cone seat.
ORDERING
Weco Unions may be ordered by Figure number and/or pressure rating (see table
below). Nominal Pipe size must always be specified.
The designations, Male Sub and Female Sub refer to seating surfaces, NOT threads
(See illustration). The Female Sub has conical seating surface and Acme threads for
wing nut. The Male Sub has ball seating surface but NO Acme threads. When ordering
parts, it is important to specify correct sub to avoid errors and delays.
The Male Sub is sometimes referred to as plain sub, and Female Sub as threaded sub.
Note: carefully check all unions before proceeding to connection and correspondence
between manufacturers.
6-6
Pipes and fittings
Note: Generally WECO subs are welded and cannot be unscrewed, but it might happen,
when replacing leaking or damaged parts or to make a female-female or male-male sub,
WECO unions are removed.
Caution: Care should be taken that pairs with different pressure ratings are not mixed. Even
so, if you refer to the figure below and Table 1:
2 WECO fig. 602 and 1002 have the same thread - 3 1/16" Stub ACME with 3 threads per
inch. The OD of the thread of the female sub lies between 3.812" and 3.796" for both
figures.
A 2" WECO Fig. 1502 has a 4 1/8" Stub ACME with 3 threads per inch. The ID of the thread
of the nut lies between 3.792" and 3.808". Hence it is possible to screw a 2" WECO Fig.
1502 nut on a 2" WECO Fig. 602 or 1002 female sub, but the maximum thread overlap is
only 0.010". This is not sufficient to hold high pressure.
Note: The 3" WECO unions Fig. 602, 1002 and 1502 all have different number of thread per
inch. It is therefore not possible to mix and screw them together.
7-7
Pipes and fittings
WROUGHT NUT: with three lugs, in order to resist to the impacts and guarantee a long
playing. The nut longlife guarantees the safety of the screwing up and the sealing, for
years of assemblies and disassemblies.
MALE SUB : sub which holds the nut. Material selected according to specifications :
steel, carbon, low carbon, Inox, etc...To weld or thread.
THE SEAL : it is chosen according to the product conveyed, it acts as primary seal and
protects the spheronical seat at metal / metal range, against abrasion and corrosion. A
special shoulder guarantees its holding on the range. Seal qualities : Buna, Viton,
Teflon, etc... depending on the application.
8-8
Pipes and fittings
The CHIKSAN swivel joints have established a long track record of successful
applications whenever all-metal flexible flow lines are required instead of rubber hose.
Their main advantages are:
§ Smooth flow radii permit minimum restriction
§ Two or three rows of ball bearings handle moment, thrust and radial loads
§ Dynamic seal packing units are elastomer for temperatures to 225°F; poly-
resin for temperatures to 450°F
§ Grease retainer ring keeps ball race clean
§ 360° rotation in one, two or three planes.
9-9
Pipes and fittings
Standard chicksan swivel joints used in Geoservices are of the "TRI-RACE"" type
10.000/15.000 psi WP/TP and 3" nominal size. Other sizes can be found in the field,
particularly the 2" sizes 10.000/15.000 psi WP/TP that is lighter and easier to handle.
Widest selection in the oil-field
Chicksan swivel joints come in 3/8 to 12 inch sizes and can handle pressures to 20,000
psi. Sour gas models are limited to 15,000 psi. Eight chicksan styles or configurations
are available from stock. These styles can be combined in an unlimited variety of ways
to suit practically any installation. End connections are threaded, integral Weco wing
unions, beveled for welding or flanged. Sour gas swivel joints have Weco wing union
end connections.
Pressure tight seals protect bearings from line fluid
Chiksan swivel joints come standard equipped with nitrile packing and bonded brass
anti-extrusion ring. 6 to 12 inch sizes have stainless steel anti-extrusion ring. The anti-
extrusion ring serves as a retainer and bearing to reduce friction between the resilient
packing material and the packing chamber as the joint is turned. These dynamic seal
packing units protect ball races and bearings from line fluid through the stated pressure
range, including vacuum or suction service to 225°F. Most Longsweep models have a
secondary O-ring seal, which prevents minor leakage past the packing from contacting
the bearings. These Longsweep swivel joints also have a leak-detection port between
the packing and O-ring seal. If leakage past the packing should occur, it is forced
through the leak-detection port, signaling the need for packing replacement.
Bearings key to rotation, strength
To assure long, dependable operation, chicksan ball bearings are matched to loading
and service conditions. Although the size, type and number of bearings vary, chicksan
low-pressure, high-pressure and extra high-pressure swivel joints all have two rows of
bearings in each swivel and flame-hardened ball races. The majority of chicksan
Longsweep swivel joints have three rows of bearings in each swivel for improved load
capacities. All Longsweep swivel joints for standard service have carburized and
hardened ball races.
Smooth, round bore minimizes flow restrictions
Chiksan swivel joints have smooth round bores to minimize turbulence and keep
pressure drop low. Longsweep swivel joints have extra long radius elbows for even
better flow characteristics and reduced chance of washout when handling abrasives at
extremely high pressures.
Simple maintenance
Only occasional light greasing with a small hand-held grease gun is required to keep
chicksan swivel joints on the job. If packing, bearings or ball plugs should need
replacing because of leakage, field repair kits are available. Easy to follow instructions
come with each repair kit.
CHICKSAN LOW PRESSURE SWIVEL JOINTS
175 psi (12 bar) to 1,000 psi (70 bar) cold working pressure; 3/8 to 12 inch sizes.
Recommended service
Transfer lines, temporary flow lines, discharge lines, auxiliary flow lines, water lines and
other general-service oil-field applications.
CHIKSAN STYLES AND COMPONENT PARTS
Chiksan swivel joints are available from stock in eight basic styles or configurations.
These styles permit 360 degree rotation and movement in one, two or three planes.
They can be combined in an unlimited variety of ways to suit practically any installation.
Note: Although chicksan swivel joints can be rotated while under fluid pressure, they are not
recommended for services requiring continuous rotary motion.
All chicksan swivel joints are assembled using two or more standard pieces.
Component piece numbers are shown here with the various chicksan swivel joint styles.
10 - 10
Pipes and fittings
We would draw the attention of users of the above equipment to the fact that some
confusion may arise from the way that the working and test pressures are marked on
the following materials:
§ 3" chicksans 10000 H2S Tri Race
To conclude it is necessary to explain to users and customers that the material is made
for 10000 psi working pressure in a temperature range from -20° F to 200° F and 15000
psi test pressure. The confusion comes from incorrect marking on the union nuts.
In future after agreement from FMC, we suggest grinding out the word "TEST" and
stamping "CWP" instead.
Note: For standard service equipment (non H2S proof) further confusion may arise between
test and working pressures when reading the 1976/77 Composite Catalogue on FMC
products, which gives for a Fig. 1502 Weco "15000 psi TEST" and then "Recommended for
15000 psi NSCWP (NON SHOCK COLD WORKING PRESSURE) air, oil, water or gas.
10000 psi WP at 350°F»! !
11 - 11
Pipes and fittings
1.3.2 COFLEXIP
During a drill stem test your test line has to stand up to a lot of aggression from the
fluids - mingled with sand and sour gas - which may come rushing through it at great
velocity under high pressure.
This is when a Coflexip test line can be your best friend. It's a hose - but then again it
isn't. It's a steel pipe that flexes. Coflex is the preferred test line solution among
petroleum engineers and service contractors who know all about routing rigid pipes and
have experience of leaking swivel joints and the effects of live crude on rubber.
A Coflexip test line is one continuous, flexible route from your flow head to your choke
manifold. It gives you the strength of a rigid steel pipe with added bonuses: greater
resistance to abrasion, corrosion and shock from pressure surges. It won't "whip" or
"kick" like an ordinary hose can. There are no elbows, intermediate joints or swivels to
deteriorate and cause a leak in your system, because there are only two couplings to
connect up - one at each end. The end couplings that complete the Coflexip unit
undergo Ni-Kanigen anti-corrosion treatment. "Maintenance" is minimal - you simply
flush out with water after use! and change the WECO seal.!
These properties stem from the unique qualities built into the Coflexip structure. It is
designed to resist abrasion and corrosion from all types of hydrocarbons, H2S and CO2.
The concept of separate armor layers with independent functions makes for maximum
stability during pressure surges.
As an example of performances the 15,000 psi WP 3" ID drill stem test line has a tensile
strength in excess of 170 tons! And the range includes working pressures up to 20,000
psi.
§ Greater Strength, Stability and Reliability
§ Higher Performances and Durability
§ Easier, Faster Installation and Adaptability
§ No Maintenance
§ Three Year Limited Warranty
§ Available in any length
§ Supplied complete with any type of standard oil-field connection of your
choice
§ Improved cost efficiency
When your choke and kill lines are the only things standing between you and a blowout,
you know how important their strength and reliability are. If you're using rigid steel with
swivel joints or reinforced rubber hose, they're the weak link in the system.
Strength
Coflexip's flexible steel choke and kill lines offer the strength of rigid steel, and
resistance to shock from high pressure surges. A continuous, interlocking spiral of Z-
SECTION steel forms the flexible steel pipe (some are designed to work at pressure of
up to 20,000 psi). A seamless thermo-plastic sheath lines the internal pressure barrier
and resists abrasion and chemical attack. Cross-wound tensile armor pre-stresses each
line for maximum stability during pressure surges. Flush ID connectors are attached in
a way that maintains the integrity of the line. Because Coflexip is manufactured in
continuous lengths, there are no joints or discontinuities to weaken a Coflexip line.
Safety
Because Coflexip is flexible, there is no need for failure-prone swivels and intermediate
connections that can mean danger when you use rigid steel pipe. Coflexip is also less
subject to attack, erosion or aging from well fluids, including aromatics. A Coflexip line
is a single, integral unit. If Coflexip is damaged, it does not shear and whip, like a hose.
Low Maintenance
12 - 12
Pipes and fittings
13 - 13
Pipes and fittings
14 - 14
Pipes and fittings
15 - 15
Pipes and fittings
Internal pressure
§ Dimensional changes under pressure are very limited; typical values are:
§ Relative elongation at design pressure 0.15 to 0.25 %
§ Relative outer diameter change at design pressure < 0.25 %
The line is extremely stable under pressure. In particular, if bent it will not tend to straighten
under pressure. No significant twist would occur. It will not pulsate or whip during high flow
rate circulation.
Tensile strength
Resistance to pulling forces ranges from about 5O,OOO daN for a 2" ID to more than
100,000 daN for a 3" lD (50 to 100 tons or 100,000 to 200.000 Ibs).
Crushing
The crushing resistance of COFLEXIP flexible pipes is similar to that of an API rigid pipe of
the same design pressure.
Bending
The line is resistant to bending; including frequent or continuous flexions with the imperative
condition that the minimum-bending radius is not exceeded.
In COFLEXIP's documents, the minimum-bending radius is abbreviated as MBR.
The minimum-bending radius is an extremely important characteristic of a flexible steel line.
As a rule of thumb, the minimum-bending radius is roughly equal to:
MBR =12 x ID (ID: inner diameter of the line).
For specific DRAG CHAIN applications. the MBR for installed use is 1.1 x the storage MBR,
as defined on the relevant data sheet.
The accurate value of the MBR is part of the technical specification of the flexible line.
FAILURE MODES OF COFLEXIP FLEXIBLE LINES
COFLEXIP flexible steel lines are extremely reliable due to:
§ The design of the product;
§ The use of the highest standards applicable;
§ The COFLEXIP quality assurance system.
However, misuse might damage the line. and it is useful to identify the four mains failure
modes.
Bending
If the minimum-bending radius is exceeded, the zeta layer may open; in which case, the
inner tube is not properly supported and perforation will occur under pressure.
an optional bend stiffener is available on request to improve the pipes resistance to such
over bending.
16 - 16
Pipes and fittings
Figure 6 shows how over bending may be caused. Whether or not the line be under internal
pressure.
Aging of the inner liner
The mechanical properties of the inner liner can be affected by aging. This phenomenon
causes the degradation of the long molecules of thermoplastic
and may be due to:
§ Long exposure to high temperature, exceeding the maximum rated temperature
§ Use of incompatible chemical products through the line.
The degradation of the material could make it brittle, and the tube may break when bent with
or without internal pressure. leading to a leakage.
Corrosion of the armour wires.
If the Outer thermoplastic sheath is damaged corrosion of the steel armor wires will occur.
This will progressively reduce the thickness of the wires, causing a progressive decrease of
the burst pressure. This failure mode may cause the line to burst.
Collapse of the inner liner.
If damaged, the outer sheath may not be leak proof. For subsea lines the external
hydrostatic pressure will be applied on to the inner liner, which may collapse.
GENERAL GUIDELINES
Storage.
§ Storage in general does not require specific precautions regarding environment
or duration of storage.
§ According to its length, the best ways to store a line are either:
1. In a straight line (up to 20 ft long);
2. Coiled to its MBR, attached to a wooden pallet or crate:
3. Installed in a DRAG CHAIN prior to hook-up and start of operations.
COFLEXIP Flexible lines are shipped with protection on the connectors. A similar protection
should be reinstalled when the line is disconnected. It may consist of a metallic blind flange
that fits the connection - which is preferable or of a good wooden protection.
If stored below minimum rated temperature ensure that no handling is done before the line is
brought back to minimum rated temperature.
The inner bore of a COFLEXIP line should be thoroughly flushed with fresh water prior to
long-term storage.
17 - 17
Pipes and fittings
HANDLING
The line must never be bent below the minimum bend radius, as this may damage it.
As a rule of thumb, the minimum bend radius is equal to:
MBR = 12 X lD
The accurate value of the MBR of the line is part of the technical characteristics of the
COFLEXIP structure and can be obtained from the nearest COFLEXIP office.
The minimum bend radius (MBR) must be respected at all times, whether the line is under
pressure or not.
User should avoid bending the flexible just behind the end fitting. As a rule of thumb, a
straight length of about 2 to 3 feet ( 0.8 - 1.0 M) should be used as a safety distance (See
section - FAILURE MODES OF COFLEXIP FLEXIBLE LINES).
The use of wire ropes or chains may damage the anti-corrosion treatment of the end fitting.
It so required use a shackle connected through the eye of the lifting collar. Never use wire
ropes or chains directly against the stainless steel outer wrap.
If force, needs to be applied to the body of the flexible line itself, use nylon slings.
18 - 18
Pipes and fittings
19 - 19
Pipes and fittings
1.4 GYROLOK
Gyrolok is a trade name for a high-pressure pipe fitting for small diameter pipe; typically 1/2"
or 1/4". The thing that makes Gyrolok (Also "Swagelok") different to other small pipe unions
is that no flaring/crimping tools are necessary. Typical applications for testing are instrument
and pressure lines on separator, piping for Texsteam pump, etc...
ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS
1. Firmly insert the tubing
2. Finger tightens the nut. Now simply tighten the nut 1¼ turns.
REASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS
Gyrolok fittings may be assembled and disassembled repeatedly. The following
instructions should be carried out to reassemble a fitting.
1. Insert the tubing end with the previously set ferrules into the fitting body and
tighten the nut to a hand-tight condition.
2. With a wrench, tighten the nut until a sharp rise in torque is felt, then simply snug
with wrench.
TUBE SELECTION
Specific recommendations to applicable ASTM standards.
The tubing selected whether metallic or non-metallic, should be compatible with the
process fluid, temperature, and application. The wall thickness selection should be
based on the operating pressure, temperature and shock conditions. Fully annealed
tubing is recommended. Stainless steel tubing having a hardness of less than Rockwell
B90 should be used with Gyrolok fittings. Nylon and Teflon ferrules are available for use
with glass tubing.
TUBE PREPARATION
Tubing ends should be cut relatively square and burrs removed. Where practical, the
use of tubing cutter is recommended.
20 - 20
Pipes and fittings
21 - 21
Pipes and fittings
Gyrolok flareless tube fittings are used exclusively on Hoke valves for quick and easy
installation to tubing. Gyrolok ended valves are specially machined so that the fittings
are an integral part of the valve body to prevent leakage and provide low torque
installation and thanks to Gyrolok's controlled ferrule drive, the valve body end
connections are protected from damage.
22 - 22
Pipes and fittings
23 - 23
Pipes and fittings
1. Unique "Roll-in" locking action by rear ferrule. Not just sliding angles.
2. No tube rotation on make-up. No torque transmitted to tubing.
3. Controlled gripping action.
4. Minimum tubing I.D. reduction
5. Solid "Metal to Metal Make-up" leaving no voids.
6. Tubing "Butt Seal" provides a "Series Seal"
7. Full face contact and support among all components after make-up and subsequent
re-makes
8. Four point support for vibration control
9. Cannot be over tightened - "Cannot self-destruct"
24 - 24
Pipes and fittings
1.5 THREADS
The aim of the threads is to enable the linking of two parts together like tubings - valves,
etc. by means of screws or bolts for the flanges. Threads are cylindrical or taper parts
on which a helicoidally groove has been machined.
The diameter is the outside diameter of the male thread (which is the diameter of the
screw).
1.5.1 Characteristics
To perform the main functions of the threads - sealing - mechanical linking - we have
several types of threads.
A thread is characterized by:
SHAPE
Cylindrical (mechanical linking)
Taper thread (utilized in the oil industry - good tightening - good tightness.
PROFILE
S.I. Triangular - The most utilized - easy to machine - secures a
good tensile strength.
SQUARE Rapid tightening - good line up.
TRAPEZOIDAL Better tensile strength.
ROUND Difficult to machine but excellent for tensile strength.
PITCH
STANDARD Correspond to the standard of tensile strength, tightness,
tightening - line up.
FINE Better tightness and good tensile strength.
HIGH Perform an easy and rapid tightening.
25 - 25
Pipes and fittings
26 - 26
Pipes and fittings
ISO THREAD
Two faces parallel Profile at 60°. Truncation for the male part is equal H/8 at the
crest ad H/6 at the base. The female part has a truncation equal to H/4.
TRAPEZOIDAL THREAD
They are used for their great resistance and are very easy to assemble. The profile
is an isosceles trapezium with 30° angle for the non-parallel side.
WHITWORTH
Used in England for screws - bolts etc. the base section is an isosceles triangle with
an angle of 55° at the top. The truncation is H/6 at the top and at the bottom. The
angles are round.
The different whitworth threads are:
§ British standard whitworth BSW
§ British standard fine BSW
§ Gas threads
§ British standard pipe fastening BSPF
NATIONAL PIPE STRAIGHT
This is the Brigs cylindrical thread.
§ NPSI intermediate
§ NPSF fuel-oil
§ NPSC coupling
§ NPSH hose coupling
§ NPSM mechanical
§ NPSL locknut
The profile is triangular at 60°. The crests and bases are truncated the truncation is
function of the pitch.
§ At crest : 0.033 p
§ At base : 0.033 p
§ Height at thread : 0.866 p
SUCKER ROD THREAD
Used principally in pumping well and for wireline tools. API standardizes them.
The profile is equilateral triangle crests and bases truncated to H/8. H is equal to
0.86603 p. Pitch: 10 threads per inch.
27 - 27
Pipes and fittings
1.6 PIPES
1.6.1 Purpose
They are designed to allow a fluid to flow and have to withstand internal yield pressure,
tensile stress, and bursting strength, collapse strength well defined. They may also have
to resist to buckling stress.
1.6.2 Characteristics
Pipes (tubing, casings etc.) are widely used in the petroleum industry not only for the
completion of the well, but also during well testing, to connect manifolds, separators,
heaters to make flare line and so on. Then it is important to know the characteristics of
the pipes.
28 - 28
Pipes and fittings
1.7 FLANGES
1.7.1 Purpose
They are used to connect pipe sections or valves, assuring the tightness with ring or flat
gasket. They are assembled with bolts. They are characterized by their working
pressure (WP) and their nominal diameter.
1.7.2 Characteristics
Diameter Nominal diameter: diameter of the tube on which the flange is
connected
Type WN Welding neck - lap joint
SN Screwed neck - blind
Ring Gasket Type = R - RX - BX - (see dimensions of manufacturer book
Flat Gasket Made of plastic, textile, material etc. the bolts provide the
tightening. The ring gasket is utilized especially on H.P. gas
circuit for it provides a better tightness.
29 - 29
Pipes and fittings
TEST PRESSURE
The test pressure is given in the following table.
API SERIES TEST PRESSURE
WORKING NOMINAL DIAMETER
PRESSURE < 14" > 16"
6B 960 960 1450
6B 2.000 2.000 4.000 3.000
6B 3.000 3.000 6.000 4.500
6B 5.000 5.000 10000
6 BX 10.000 10.000 15000
6 BX 15.000 15.000 22500
TEST PRESSURE:
Is equal to 1.5 times the WP at 100°F to the nearest 25 psi for carbon steel, carbon
molybdenum and stainless steel.
2 kinds of gasket can be used with ASA flanges:
1. toric joint
2. flat joint
In case of flat joint the maxi WP is obtained by x 2 the series instead of 2.4 for the toric
joint.
Example: serie 400 at 100°F
§ Flat joint: 400 x 2 = 800 psi
§ Toric joint: 400 x 2.4 = 960 psi
30 - 30
Pipes and fittings
To tighten the flanges (keep the parallelism of the faces of the flanges)
§ to screw the bolts until the approach of tightening
§ tighten the bolts in respect f the following order N/2 - 1
§ (N is the total number of bolts)
31 - 31
Pipes and fittings
150 30 20
300 75 50
400 105 70
32 - 32
Pipes and fittings
Note: Hydraulic fittings not stamped or stamped "1.5 K", "3 K", "5 K", "T5K" etc. are to be
used in hydraulic piping exclusively.
DO NOT USE THEM FOR OIL SERVICE
Most of them are made of free-machining steels that are NOT ACCEPTABLE FOR H2S
SERVICE.
In addition, their safety factor is generally lower than the standard for oil service.
Note: 316 L stamped fittings are suitable for H2S, provided the threads are cut (not rolled)
and hardness is < 22 HRC.
This is quite difficult even not possible to check in the Field, but consultation of
Manufacturer's catalogue may help.
33 - 33
Pipes and fittings
c) Normal wrench tightening is 3 extra turns after hand tightening; thus a total of 7
turns is needed for the make up.
d) Vanish threads that are threads due to chamfer on die must be left outside the
female part. Table 1 gives all relevant information.
Note: Do not use NPT fittings larger than ½" nominal for 10000 psi service. Make sure also
when plugging a npt hole to use plain plugs
This is essential for 3/4" threads.
A special 4130 3/4" NPT plug has been manufactured and is available under M 819 253.
This plain plug is stamped "10000 WP - H2S".
This plug must be installed on all apparatus considered in § 5.
IN CASE OF LEAKS, bleed pressure to zero, wrench retightens the fitting. Re-
pressurize.
If leak does persist, bleed off again pressure to zero.
34 - 34
Valves
SECTION 4
VALVES
1-1
Valves
Valves are external command opening and closing devices, which control the flow of
the fluid. They are manufactured according to specifications laid down by API and the
ANSI
API Standards cover valves used in the well and on the wellhead while ANSI
specifications cover valves used in surface installations.
There are many different types of valves which are used according to criteria, which
dictates their use, e.g. pressure, temperature amount of sealing ability required, gas or
oil service etc.
1. NEEDLE VALVES 2. GATE VALVES
3. PLUG VALVES 4. BALL VALVES
5. BUTTERFLY
They have a small passage section and are used as block valves for instruments and
gauges, as purge valves, throttling small volume of air, gas or fluids, reducing pressure
pulsation’s in instrument lines. Because of the small passage section the valves are
easily blocked and also can be subject to flow cutting when using abrasive fluids.
Needle valves are built to reduce the flow of liquids, but are also very often used as
purge valves. They are subject to erosion. Their general characteristics are:
• Passage direction: the pressure must be exerted on the weakest section of the needle
• Compressible seal packing on the control stem. This packing is often composed of
• Small size
2-2
Valves
REMARKS
Often these valve seats cannot be interchanged so the valves have to be replaced as
soon as the seal is insufficient, despite the needle grinding on its seat. The main
manufactures are:
- SAPAG - OCT
- KEROTEST - ROCKWELL
These valves can be straight or at right-hand angles. Their threaded ends are F x F or
F x M. Their working pressures vary from 960 to 10,000 in ¼, 3/8", ½ and 1"
dimensions to 3,600 psi in 1¼, 1" and 1 ½ and 2" dimensions.
3-3
Valves
NEEDLE VALVES
Diameter: 1/4" - 3/8" - 1/2"
Size: 1/4" - 3/8" - 1/2"
4-4
Valves
Gate valves are manufactured in a wide variety of temperature and pressure ratings.
They are suitable for most on-off non-vibrating hydrocarbon service (vibration may
cause the gate to move up and down). They have good torque characteristics but
usually require many turns of the hand wheel to open or close them.
The type of seal affected by the valve depends on the manufacturer. FMC,
MALBRANQUE, VETCO, CAMERON TYPE F) and W.K.M. use a metal to metal seal
as the primary seal where as other manufacturers use more complex but no less
effective pressurized grease injection systems e.g. McEVOY.
They can be used as automatic shutdown valves by reversing the action of the gate
and fitting a push-pull actuator, pneumatically or hydraulically controlled.
a) McEVOY
b) W.K.M.
c) FMC
d) CAMERON
e) VETCO
f) MALBRANQUE-SEREG
§ Seat lubrication
5-5
Valves
§ Body valve filled with grease to prevent oxidation by hydrates and foreign
matters.
- No stress corrosion for internal parts, i.e. there is no mechanical stress for the
valve while in opened or closed position. Thus no embrittlement.
- Single ring stem packing avoiding condensation and electro-chemical
corrosion.
- High security features:
- Special fire safe compound injection enable in case of major emergency or fire.
- Reversible design - bi-directional sealing capability allows installation of the
valve either direction.
6-6
Valves
7-7
Valves
8-8
Valves
9-9
Valves
The assembly is lubricated through a plug in the topside of the valve. This energizes
the packing and reduces friction between the gate and seat. Another grease nipple is
located on the bonnet cap to lubricate the needle bearings.
Dismantling (Always make sure the valve is in the open position, and the line
pressure bled off).
- Unbolt and remove the top flange and assembly
- Unscrew the gate then remove the seats
- Remove the handwheel and remove the retainer bonnet cap
- Remove the top bearing, the stem to adapter pin and bottom bearing
- Unscrew the bottom adapter, which compresses the packing against the stem.
Assembling
- Assemble the valve in the reverse order to dismantling.
10 - 10
Valves
• The one piece gate construction • The stem pin protects the stem and
helps prevent line sediment from other internal parts from failure by
entering the body cavity and also shearing if a high overload torque is
• Two thrust bearings with high-load • The grease injection port permits
bearings or the stem pin while the excessive force when closing the
the stem packing inside the stuffing backed off ¼ turn after the valve is
11 - 11
Valves
12 - 12
Valves
13 - 13
Valves
1. Valve body
2. Plug or Core
3. Valve inserts
4. End connections
5. Adjusting nut
6. O-Ring seals
7. Plug seals
8. Lubrication system
9. Valve operation
14 - 14
Valves
15 - 15
Valves
stem according to the diameter and pressure, therefore when the valve is closed the
seats are not squashed. The plastic seals have a very low coefficient of friction with
stainless steel and thus the operation of the valve is smooth.
Lubrication: only the bearings are lubricated before assembly.
16 - 16
Valves
17 - 17
Valves
18 - 18
Valves
Low pressure ¼ turn valve used on separators, tanks as sample points, gauge valves,
etc. (2000 psi working pressure)
Normally 1/2" or 1/4" NPT.
Virtually no maintenance possible, i.e. they are simply replaced when leaking.
19 - 19
Valves
BUTTERFLY VALVE
20 - 20
Flow control
SECTION 5
FLOW CONTROL
1-1
Flow control
1 CHOKE MANIFOLD
1.1 THE CHOKE
A CHOKE is a device used for a number of reasons but principally to control the flow rate
Although chokes are often used downhole as safety devices for the purpose of controlling the
formation of hydrate, we will focus on the surface choke that is commonly used while testing and
during production.
During Production the choke is located in the flow line where the fluid leaves the wellhead.
During a test a special piece of equipment is used, the CHOKE MANIFOLD, which houses the
choke bean itself, and increases the flexibility of the system when many different choke sizes have
to be selected over a short period of time.
The surface choke is also used to ensure that pressure fluctuations downstream from the wellhead
DO NOT AFFECT the performance of the well.
To achieve this condition, flow through the choke must be in CRITICAL FLOW. This is obtained
when the flow velocity is critical. For dry gas this means that the pressure drop across the choke is
sufficient to ensure that the fluid reaches sonic velocity; that velocity will be maintained within very
close limits and hence the volumetric flow rate through the choke will not change with a drop of the
downstream pressure.
For multi-phase fluids the physical interpretation of the critical flow is much more complex,
however the principle is the same.
As a rule a thumb the critical flow condition is reached when the upstream pressure is
approximately twice the downstream pressure.
The concept of critical flow is a basic one in well testing: flowing through the test equipment must
always be performed under critical flow conditions, basically to ensure that any variation of the
pressure downstream the choke (below the maximum value admitted to insure critical flow
conditions) due either to a variation of the flowing path (switching of valves, flowing to the gauge
tank, etc.) or a change of the separator pressure, will not affect the flowing rate.
2-2
Flow control
Consists of a bean with a calibrated orifice of known diameter. This is screwed into a choke box.
Care must be taken that a good seal is made when inserting the bean.
All chokes are made of special heat-treated steel to ensure long-life. In some instances, however,
chokes with ceramic linings are used to make them even more resistant to wear e.g. on gas wells
with appreciable sand production and hydrate formation limitation.
3-3
Flow control
4-4
Flow control
5-5
Flow control
A. Willis choke
A. WILLIS CHOKE is an adjustable choke with two discs; each with two holes drilled in them.
When both the holes line up, full flow through the choke occurs.
When one disc is turned relative to the other, the hole-size gets smaller until the point where the
holes do not line up and there is no flow.
B. NEEDLE VALVE types. Made by a variety of manufactures but which is basically the
same. It consists of a needle valve with a conical plug seating against a tapered seat.
6-6
Flow control
ADJUSTABLE CHOKE
7-7
Flow control
After any change of packing, bean,bean-"O"ring,stem tip, indicator sleeve must be readjusted.
1) Untighten the lock screw in order to free the indicator sleeve.
2) Unscrew the two setscrews to free up the indicator sleeve.
3) Bring the tip in contact with the bean; do not over tighten.
4) Locate the indicator sleeve so that the "O" of the indicator sleeve is just in the middle of
the window.
5) Lock the two setscrews.
The thread of the operating stem must be greased periodically by means of the grease injector.
8-8
Flow control
Figure A
9-9
Flow control
In most cases the oil company representative will know what size of choke he wants the well to
flow. Insertion of this size of choke before the flow starts is a major advantage. Clean up of the well
will almost always take place through the adjustable choke, beaning up slowly until the desired
choke size is reached then switching over to the positive choke. Refer to Fig. A
2. Open Valve D
4. Close valve C
6. Open needle valve E and bleed pressure from fixed choke side
7. Open fixed choke side and change choke bean to 48/64' fixed
11. Bleed of pressure from adjustable choke side with needle valve F.
When changing chokes, set the adjustable choke at the new choke size and switch the flow to the
adjustable one. This should be done by two operators, one to close the valve and the other to open
the other valve at the same time. Depressurize the fixed choke side and change the choke. Reverse
the flow back to the fixes choke side.
Commonly the following devices are connected to the upstream side of the manifold; or on the data
header:
− A Bourdon Tube Manometer, for a fast visual indication of the upstream pressure
10 - 10
Flow control
− A Pressure Recorder, to keep track of the well head pressure behavior during the test.
A fourth ½" NPT hole usually has a THERMOWELL installed in it so that a temperature recorder
can use. The THERMOWELL is inserted deep into the flow and thus allows more accurate
measurement the flowing temperature.
Due to more and more parameters to be measured we now always use a data header in front of the
choke manifold.
Of the downstream holes generally only two are used, to connect a thermowell and a Bourdon
manometer. Accurate measuring and recording of the choke downstream pressure is generally not
required. Furthermore, during the test the pressure downstream of the choke equals closely the
separator pressure, which is monitored on a separate chart at the separator.
The two CHOKE BOXES also have ½" NPT connections to allow 'bleeding off of pressure before
removal of the WING NUT when it is necessary to change a CHOKE BEAN.
These bleeds off are connected upstream the choke bean, and are also used to collect fluid samples.
Also, at the very beginning of the test, in case of a liquid cushion not filling the string fully, a hose
plunged in a water bucket can be used, to check if a weak blow exists.
11 - 11
Flow control
1.3 SAFETY
Choke Manifolds are safety devices. As such they must be maintained and operated by trained and
competent personnel. Do not allow anyone that is not competent, to modify or service the Choke
Manifold.
Choke manifolds are the primary method of reducing wellhead pressure to allowable pressures for
downstream equipment. As such trained personnel who are aware of the operation and the
consequences of their actions must only use them.
The opening and closing of the choke can make large pressure differences to:
− Downhole pressure
− Wellhead pressure
− Separator or surge tank pressure
− Burner Pressure
As such, good communications must be maintained with operating company personnel to avoid
over or under pressuring equipment not directly related to your individual operation.
When operating with a needle type adjustable choke, be aware that the choke may vibrate open or
closed, always lock the choke stem when you have set the choke size to the required setting.
Never use the adjustable choke as a valve.
Never flow the well through the manifold when chokes are not installed.
Adjustable chokes should only be used for a short duration, as they are prone to erosion and
washout.
Check frequently for " wash and wear " on the adjustable choke, and suspect that fixed choke beans
have been washed out, if gradually higher flow rates are measured.
Remove measuring instruments before hammering on the wing unions.
Never forget to bleed of the pressure from the choke side that has to be opened for choke changes.
Use a sand trap when sand or salt production is expected in gas wells.
Firmly anchor the choke manifold to the rig structure or other solid base
Small choke sizes, especially on adjustable needle type chokes, may become plugged with well
debris. Look for unexplained pressure increases or decreases in flow rate. Rapidly increasing and
decreasing the choke size on an adjustable choke may clear some plugs. ("Rocking the choke")
When a plug is cleared, be aware of downstream choke pressure and ensure downstream equipment
is not over pressured.
12 - 12
Flow control
13 - 13
Flow control
1.4.1 5 K Manifold.
Item. Qt. Description
1 1 Inlet Flange 3 1/8" 5000 psi - WECO 602 Female
2 1 Inlet cross 3 1/8" 5000 psi - 4 way
3 2 Spacer 3 1/8" 5000 psi
4 5 Gate valve 3 1/8" 5000 psi model B
5 1 Adjustable choke 3 1/8" 5000 psi
6 1 Positive choke 3 1/8" 5000 psi
7 2 Elbow 3 1/8" 5000 psi
8 1 Outlets cross 3 1/8" 5000 psi - 4 way.
9 1 Outlet Flange 3 1/8" 5000 psi - WECO 602 Male
10 1 Skid + 2 tool boxes + lifting lugs
14 - 14
Flow control
1.4.2 10 K Manifold
15 - 15
Flow control
1.4.4 Connections
Connection 5 Kpsi manifold 10 Kpsi manifold
Data Header Weco 3"Fig. 602 Female 3" Fig. 1502
3"Fig. 602 Male Female3"Fig. 1502
Male
Inlet Weco 3" Fig. 602 Female 3" Fig. 1502 Female
Outlet Weco 3"Fig. 602 Male 3"Fig. 1502 Male
- Ensure that the manifold is anchored to the deck/ground and grounded electrically.
- In offshore floating configuration, ensure that there is enough chicksan or Coflexip between flow
head and manifold to allow for heave/tide compensation.
- Always zero the calibration barrel of adjustable choke.
- Inspect choke tip for wear.
- Make a list of the fixed chokes available.
- With pressure upstream, never open the upstream valves against a completely closed adjustable
choke. The adjustable choke should always be slightly open to prevent pressure locks.
-Never leave gate valves in anything except the completely open or completely closed positions.
-When changing chokes, always change between chokes of the same size, and then use the
adjustable choke to in- or decrease the choke size, slowly.
-Rig up sample lines on both choke boxes.
-Always use needle valves to mount pressure gauges.
16 - 16
Flow control
INLET
V1 V2
V5
V3 V4
OUTLET
17 - 17
Flow control
600 R 5 q
Pwhf =
S2
where :
R = GLR Mcf/bbl
q = flow rate BOPD
S = choke size 64th of an inch
Pwhf = WHP, well flowing psia
From the nature of this equation, we see that for a given orifice size ad GLR, the well head pressure
plots as a straight-line function of the flow rate q.
A typical plot is shown here. Note that as the orifice size increases or the GLR decreases, the line
shifts downward.
Gilbert while checking for choke erosion in a field in California, further refined the theoretical
formula to yield more accurate pressure rmeasurements:
435R 0.546 q
Pwhf =
S 1.89
18 - 18
Flow control
The data header is an assembly used for sampling of well bore production parameters. It is usually
mounted in the production flow path upstream of the surface choke manifold. The data header is
designed with ports to provide access for measuring certain parameters of flow as it leaves the well
head. The access ports may be used for temperature probes, pressure gauges, chemical injection,
sand probes, als sensors, dead weight tester, Foxboro.
19 - 19
Flow control
The surface test tree is installed on top of the tubing and consists of an assembly of valves designed
to allow control of the well. Most surface test trees used today consist of four valves fitted to a cross
of 4 ways flow fitting, a hydraulic actuator (or pneumatic) and a heavy-duty swivel.
The master valve, swab valve and kill valve are all direct action valves, whereas the flow line valve
where fitted with an actuator is reverse action. An actuator is usually fitted to the flow line valve so
that it may be shut in quickly in an emergency.
The kill valve side is tied into the Halliburton, Dowell or mud pumps to allow
The well to be killed by pumping downs the tubing.
The swab valve is used when a wire line operation has to be conducted. It allows you to insert and
remove wire line tools from the while it is flowing or shut in at the choke manifold.
The swivel is incorporated so that the tubing string may be rotated to set a packer, open a reversed
circulating sub etc. Some swivels can turn with the full tubing weight on them; others can only turn
where the tubing weight is taken on the slips.
The hydraulic safety valve is a valve, which opens when pressure is applied to the actuator. This
pressure is normally in the region of 2000 - 3000 PSI. If a condition occurs which necessitates
shutting the well quickly, such as a downstream pressure line rupture, the pressure is bled off the
actuator and the valve closes.
A pilot system can also be introduced on to the hydraulic pneumatic) actuator whereas a well can be
shut in during an emergency from a safe, area e.g. Helideck, separator unit etc.
20 - 20
Flow control
21 - 21
Flow control
1.8.1 SAFETY
Flow heads are safety devices. As such they must be maintained and operated by trained and
competent personnel. Do not allow any unauthorized people to modify or service the flow head.
Operation of the flow head often requires personnel to perform acrobatic maneuvers far above the
rig floor. This need not be dangerous if certain guidelines are implemented and followed.
When being lifted up to the flow head by "tugger", make sure that the winch has been certified for
man lifting. Wear a proper sit harness. Make sure that the winch operator is competent and
understands your commands. Do not indulge in any horseplay or make unnecessary swinging
maneuvers that can lead to accidents.
Flow heads are heavy, and the transport and installation onto the rig floor can be hazardous. Use
corrects lifting slings and shackles. Attach the slings to the proper lifting eyes. When lifting the
flow head do not stand under it. If the flow head is being lifted up the veedoor, do not stand on the
catwalk. Do not stand in a place where you might be trapped if the flow head swings your way. Be
aware of safety hazards for yourself and others.
When servicing the flow head, and especially the hydraulic/pneumatic actuators, be aware that there
are strong springs contained in them. Use only the correct tools, and above all do not attempt to
service the flow head without prior training.
22 - 22
Flow control
23 - 23
Flow control
1.9.4 Connections
1.9.4.1 10 K Flowhead
1.9.4.2 5K Flowhead
24 - 24
Flow control
The Surface Safety Valve (SSV) Actuator is designed to be installed on a reverse-acting gate valve
remote control pressure is applied to the actuator cylinder to hold the SSV in the "down-open"
position Emergency shut down (E.S.D.) pilots, when sensing line pressure fluctuations, exhaust the
actuator cylinder pressure. The line pressure working against the actuator stem area along with
spring compression moves the valve gate to the "up-closed' position. The SSV actuator is equipped
with a spring that is loaded with sufficient compression for the SSV to be considered normally
closed.
The SSV and actuator are designed to be used as a lower master valve, wing valve, or at certain
intervals. a pipeline. The SSV has a visual indication as to position. In the "up-closed" position, the
actuator extends ¼" plus the stroke dimension above the top of the cylinder. In the "down-open"
position, that actuator stem extends ¼" above the top of the actuator cylinder.
After the SSV is installed in a flow line, pipeline or well head, control pressure from the control
system applied to the actuator cylinder above the piston. When enough pressure is applied to the
actuator cylinder to overcome line pressure friction and spring force, the piston, stem, and gate
move down to open the gate valve.
The SSV may be maintained in a "down-pen" position by control pressure, by being locked open
with the locking cap or fusible locking cap made up at the top of the cylinder, or by the use of a jack
assembly (The fusible locking cap and the opening jack assembly are available accessories.)
25 - 25
Flow control
Before installation of the Flowhead perform routine maintenance according to the procedures laid
down in the maintenance manual.
Pressure test the Flowhead according to the pressure test procedure laid down in this manual.
Install thread protectors or caps on all inlets and outlet lines.
Lift Flowhead out of basket and place on catwalk below veedoor. Fit the necessary pup joint onto
Flowhead.
Make up as tight as possible with chain tongs.
If Coflexip hoses are being used they can be, at your discretion or according to rig procedures,
connected to the Flowhead while the flow head is on the Catwalk.
If Coflexip are made up to the flowhead, on the Catwalk, full attention must be given to adequate
support and correct lifting procedures, when lifting the Flowhead onto the rig floor.
If chicksans are to be used, ensure that they are supported by tugger lines throughout job. Do not
have weight of flowline "hanging"on chicksan elbow.
Lift the Flowhead onto the rig floor by using the lifting eyes provided on the flowhead. Do NOT lift
the Flowhead by wrapping slings around the Kill and Flow lines, as this will place undue strain on
the flanged connections. They were not designed for this purpose.
As soon as is feasible, install the rig elevators on top of the Flowhead
Fit the pneumatic line to the actuator, ensuring that the hose is supported, and not placing a strain on
the connector.
Pressure up actuator and remove transportation cap from actuator.
Fit bleed off valve on top cap. (This should not be left in place during transportation)
Fit hand wheels, ensuring that the locking pins are in place.
Lift the flowhead and lower pup joint into mouse hole.
Torque up all ACME connections to 4000 Ft-lbs minimum. Torque up pup joint according to pipe
connection.
Lift flowhead and install onto clients tubing. Torque up connection accordingly. Ensure that
swivel is operating correctly when turning tubing. Ensure that no Flowhead connections are backing
off as tubing joint is tightened. If lock subs on ACME threads have been installed, this should be
impossible.
Pneumatically open flow line valves and verify closure time. Operate all panic buttons, ensuring
each time that the actuated flowline valve closes. With no pressure in flow line this should be of the
order of 8 - 10 seconds.
Verify position of all valves in preparation for pressure test.
On floating rigs ensure that flowhead stick up is sufficient for expected heave and tide. Three to
four meters above rig floor is normal.
Operation of the valves in this case will mean the use of the riding belt. Ensure that the air tugger
being used is certified for man riding. (I.e. it is not used for any other purpose.). Ensure the tugger
operator can see you at all times. Ask one of the Geoservices crew to ensure that the tugger operator
is not distracted at any time during the operation. If the heave is bad, rig up a heave compensated
tugger line. Be very careful not to trap your feet/hands in the nooks and crannies of the flow head
while manoeuvring.
On fixed/land rigs, stick up should be just sufficient to make valve operations simple.
26 - 26
Flow control
27 - 27
Flow control
5. Manually engage the master pilot 10 and secure it with the block pin.
6. Open slowly the valve 9.
Once the surveying press is acting on the high/low sensors the pneumatic pressure of 2,5 bar will
start acting on the piston of the master pilot 10, the block pin will disengage automatically and the
system is operational.
1.13.4 Panel
All instruments as showed in the table below are mounted in a panel with the following dimensions;
600 x 520 x 230 mm
28 - 28
Flow control
29 - 29
Pressure and temperature
SECTION 6
MEASUREMENTS:
1-1
Pressure and temperature
1.1.1 Pressure
The force exerted over a unit area (e.g., pascals, pounds per square inch).
Force
Pr essure =
Surface Area
P=Pg+Po
P=absolute pressure,
Pg=gauge pressure,
Po=atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure
2- 2
Pressure and temperature
Gauge Pressure
The gauge pressure is the difference between the system and the atmospheric
pressure.
Pressure is registered in Lbs per Sq. Inches (Lbs/inch2) or psig and in Kg/cm2
Vacuum Pressure
Absolute Pressure
This is the sum of both the Atmospheric and Gauge Pressures. The unit commonly
used is the psia.
Some calculations:
Given 100 psig in a pressure system, Atmospheric Pressure being 14.7 psi, then
Absolute Pressure will be:
If a system is under vacuum, that is, the pressure is less than Atmospheric
Pressure. Say the Vacuum is 2 psiv, then Absolute Pressure will be:
Note : It is more common, and more accurate, however, to express the Vacuum in Inches of
Mercury (or mm of Hg in metric system). Hence, 14.7 psi Atmospheric Pressure at sea level
will be equal to 29.92 Inches Hg.
Head is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid. To relate pressure and head, you
must know the height of a column of fluid, the fluid’s density, and the gravitational
acceleration:
3-3
Pressure and temperature
Understanding the relationship between pressure and head is important not only in
calculating the pressure exerted by a column of fluid, but also in analyzing pump and
compressor performance.
F = ma = mg
P0
A m = V? = Ah?
F = Ah?g
h
Density ?
F Ahρg
FFluid = = = hρ g
A A
The pressure at the bottom of the column is the sum of the pressure at the top of the
fluid and the pressure exerted by the fluid:
P = P0 + PFluid = P0 + hρg
Head is measured in feet of water and is primarily used in the transmission of Fluids.
4- 4
Pressure and temperature
1.1.2 Temperature
Temperature (symbolized T) is an expression of heat energy.
Absolute
Conversions
To convert from one Scale to another the following equations are used:
9
°F = °C + 32
5
°C = (° F − 32 )
5
9
° R = ° F + 459 . 69
° K = °C + 273 . 15
5-5
Pressure and temperature
Absolute zero
of temperature è 460° 0° 273° 0°
Types of Thermometers
The most common type of thermometer is the mercury type, which involves the
expansion and contraction of a column of mercury.
− If the tube above mercury level is filled with Nitrogen under pressure, then
the Thermometer may be used up to 1000°F.
1.1.2.2 Keywords
Critical Temperature
Bubble Point
Is the temperature where the gas begins to escape from a liquid mixture at a fixed
pressure.
Dew Point
The dew point is the temperature to which the air must be cooled at constant
pressure in order for it become saturated, i.e., the relative humidity becomes
100%. Gas Dew point is very important in connection with Hydrates Formation.
Critical Point
Is the temperature where the liquid and the gaseous phases of the hydrocarbons
are indentical and can coexist.
Note: T and P may be said to work in similar directions. Lowering the T of a gas, may have
the same end result as lowering P. Increasing the T may have the same effects as
increasing gas P.
6- 6
Pressure and temperature
1.1.3 VOLUME
Gas and liquid Hydrocarbons occupy a certain space. the space of the container
they are enclosed in is their volume.
For measuring purposes, a standard Cubic Foot is used by the gas industry: under
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) and at 60°F temperature.
Molar Volume
The molar volume is the volume occupied by one mole of ideal gas at STP. Its
value is:
22.414 L mol -1
379 Cubic Feet mol -1
To calculate the moles of a certain gas at STP the formula is:
Volume
= Mole
MolarVolume
Some calculations:
7-7
Pressure and temperature
1.1.4 WEIGHT
The quality of being heavy; that property of bodies by which they tend toward the
centre of the earth; the effect of gravitational force, especially when expressed in
certain units or standards, as pounds, grams, etc.
Weight differs from gravity in being the effect of gravity, or the downward pressure
of a body under the influence of gravity; hence, it constitutes a measure of the
force of gravity, and being the resultant of all the forces exerted by gravity upon
the different particles of the body, it is proportional to the quantity of matter in the
body.
The terms atomic weight, molecular weight are all related to weight of the
substance. The molecular weight is the weight of one mole of the molecules, and
the atomic weight is the weight of one mole of the atoms
Molecular Weight
The molecular weight of a compound is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in
the molecules that form these compounds.
Molecular weight (also called "molar mass" or "gram formula mass") is measured
in units of grams/mole when referring to moles of an element. The molecular
weight of a compound is found by adding the atomic weights of all of the atoms in
the element.
8- 8
Pressure and temperature
1.1.5.1 Density
Density is a measure of how much mass is contained in a given unit volume
(density = mass/volume).
Density is expressed in kg/m3, Lbs per Ft3 or Lbs per Gallon.
Some calculations:
If the density of air is 0.076 Lbs/cuft, what volume will 6 Lbs of air occupy?
M 6
V = = = 78.95 ft 3
d 0.076
Some calculations:
What is the density of Methane at 60°F and 14.7 psia if its molecular weight is 16?
M 16
d= = = 0.04 Lbs/ft 3
V 379
Note: Density should never be confused with or used as the specific gravity of a substance.
9-9
Pressure and temperature
Find the specific gravity of methane if the density of air is 0.076 Lb/cuft under
similar conditions.
d of CH4 0. 04 Lb / ft 3
SG = = = 0. 55
d of air 0. 076 Lb / ft 3
The SG of natural gas varies according to its constituents.
When the gas composition is known the SG of the mixture can be easily found.
Some calculations:
10- 10
Pressure and temperature
141.5
°API gravity = − 131.5
SG at 60°F
1.1.6 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction
of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular
makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because
its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.
With increase of T:
a) Gas Viscosity increases
b) Liquid Viscosity decreases
The Viscosity of gases does not vary significantly with changes of pressure.
The unit of kinematic viscosity is the stoke, expressed in square centimeters per
second. The more customary unit is the centistoke (cSt) — one one-hundredth of
a stoke.
Kinematic Viscosity
1 centiStoke (cSt) = 10-2 Stoke (St) = 1 millimetre squared per second (mm2/s).
1 milliPascal second (mPa.s) = 10-3 Pascal second (Pa.s) = 10-2 Poise (P) = 1
centipoise (cP). One (1) cP is the Viscosity of water at 68.4°F.
Relationships
11 - 11
Pressure and temperature
4.5 57
4.0 54
Viscosity
E
3.5 51
3.0 48
2.5 45
2.0
1.5
1.0
D
Gravity
42
39
36
.5 33
0 30
1.1.7 HEAT
The form of energy that flows between two samples of matter due to their difference in
temperature. Usually denoted by 'Q'.
The British thermal unit (Btu) is a nonmetric unit of heat, used in the United States
and, to a certain extent, the UK. The SI unit is the joule (J), which is used by most
other countries. 1 Btu is defined by the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water from 63°F to 64°F. It is often used to describe the
heat value of fuels and heating and cooling system capacities.
12- 12
Pressure and temperature
Ph = (Ld ) / 10
where:
Ph = 0.0519dL
where:
The number 0.0519 is a conversion factor used to obtain pressure in oil industry
imperial units, as follows:
1. There are 7.48 gallons in 1.0 ft3, and 144 inches2 in 1.0 ft2
− When the density is expressed in API gravity the formula of the pressure
gradient becomes:
lb 1squarefoot psi
× =
cubicfoot 144squareinches foot
13 - 13
Pressure and temperature
d
Ph = × feet = psi
144
61.317
Ph = × feet = psi
0
API + 131.5
Pascal's Law states that the pressure at any point in a static fluid is the same in all
directions. The fluid transmits any applied pressure, undiminished by distance,
throughout the fluid.
Fluid Column
The hydrostatic pressure gradient is the variation of hydrostatic pressure per unit
of height. This value describes the pressure development in a liquid, expressed in
pressure units per depth (meters or feet):
Kgf/cm2/m or PSI/ft
Well site personnel often report the hydrostatic pressure gradient as a volumetric
mass (g/cc or ppg), to enable easy comparison of pressure to mud weight.
Metric units:
14- 14
Pressure and temperature
Ph Pv
HPG = =
L 10
where:
Ph x 10
HG = = Pv
L
where:
API units:
Ph
HPG = = 0.052 Pv
L
where:
Ph x 19.237
HG = = Pv
L
where:
15 - 15
Pressure and temperature
P = Patm + Pliquid
Some calculations:
A container is filled with a liquid and gas under pressure, what is the gauge
pressure in psi at the bottom of this container.
H 0 × 0.85 × 62.4
The Pressure at "0" is PO =
144
H W × 1 × 62.4
PW = PO +
The Pressure at "W" is 144
H × 13.6 × 62.4
PM = PW + M
The Pressure at "M" is
144
H × 0.85 × 62.4 H W × 1 × 62.4 H M × 13.6 × 62
PM = O + +
144 144 144
Pressure at the bottom of the tube is equal to the sum of the pressure of each
liquid.
Some calculations:
What is the pressure at the bottom of a well 6000 feet deep which contains 3500 ft
of mud of SG = 1.6 and 2500 ft of cement of SG = 1.9?
16- 16
Pressure and temperature
Then : PA = PB = PC
The two arms are filled to the same height whatever the position of the tube.
Some calculations:
The "U" tube used should be filled with a suitable liquid at the pressure to be
measured.
SG of alcohol : 0.700
SG of mercury : 13.6
(II) (I)
P (to be measured)
h/2 O
h/2 Pressure to be measured is applied to one
of the arms. The other hand remains free.
H
II
H
I Level in arm I descend and rises in arm II.
H II × d H I × d
At a point M, the pressure will be: PM = = +P
144 144
(H II − H I )× d
P=
144
2- 17
Pressure and temperature
Q
PA PB
P + (H × d ) = P + (H × d P − P = d (H − H )
A A B B A B B A
P
G
3 - 18
Pressure and temperature
Some calculations:
The pressure in the well 7500 ft deep is 2200 PSI and SG of oil is 0.825.
Is the well flowing? If not at what depth is the liquid level?
Hd
Well is flowing if P 〉
G 144
Hd 7500 × 0.825 × 62.4
2200psi > 2681psi Well is not
In our case = = 2681 psi flowing
144 144
4- 19
Pressure and temperature
Some calculations:
a) A well 8500 ft deep has a BHP of 5400 PSI and a SG of oil : 0.825.
1. What is the well head pressure?
2. What will be the density of the mud to be used to kill the
well?
b) During well completion, we replace mud of SG: 1.6 by oil of SG: 0.850. What
will be the maximum pressure variation reached at the wellhead? The tubing
shoe is set at 7000 ft deep.
mud
The well was full of mud and WHP=0
oil The pressure at the tubing shoe is :
H 7000 x1.6 x 62.4
P = = 4853 psi
M 144
When oil is pumped into the well, the mud is displacing and escaped through
the annular. The WHP increases as the pumping continues.
When all mud in the tubing has been replaced by oil:
7000 × 0.850 × 62.4
P = = 5878 psig
O 144
Therefore WHP is 4853 - 2578 = 2275 psig
5 - 20
Pressure and temperature
A well is 11500 feet deep and contains oil of SG =0.820. The WHP is 1400 psi.
What Amerada range do you suggest to carry out this operation knowing that -
1) The accuracy of the lower and upper 15% range of the gauge is to reliable
To avoid the 15% upper range of the gauge we would therefore choose a
pressure element with range: 0 - 7000 psi
This method consists of mixing gas with the effluent to lower its density.
The mixing takes place in the well low enough to reduce as much as possible the
weight of the column of oil.
Some calculations:
In a gas lift well, gas is injected in the well at a pressure of 1200 PSI.
After a certain time of gas injection, the effluent density of the well is reduced to 51
Lb/cuft.
1) At what depth should we set the injection valve so that the gas can enter the
tubing?
2) What will be the BHP of the well at 5200 feet deep after the installation is fully
running?
3) What conclusion can you make knowing that the formation pressure is 1700
PSI?
6- 21
Pressure and temperature
Gas + Oil
Gas Injection
h1
h2
Injection Valves
1) When starting the well gas displaces the oil in the tubing. The gas will start to
enter the tubing when the Hydrostatic Pressure of the column is overcome.
H × 51 1200 × 144
1200 = H= = 3388 feet
144 51
The valve must be set at a depth of 3388 ft
2) When the well is in operation, the gas injection will have reduced the density
of the oil to 40.5 Lb/cuft.
3388 × 40.5
Pa = = 953 psi
144
The pressure difference: 1200 - 953 = 247 PSI will allow the gas injected to
enter the tubing through the valve.
Under the valve the density of the effluent is still 51 Lb/cuft and exerts a
pressure of:
(5200 − 3388) × 51
Pb = = 642 psi
144
3) Since the formation pressure is 1700 psi the well will begin to flow.
Note: Increase of production can be obtained by increasing the quantity of gas injected,
resulting in lowering the density of oil. Another valve can be set lower down than the one
already in place. This second valve can only be in operation when the well has been started
up and gas through the first valve has already reduced the oil column pressure.
7 - 22
Pressure and temperature
2 Pumping Method
A bottom hole pump enables the height of the column of oil to be reduced so that
the well can produce again.
Let us consider a well of depth H where a pump is set at depth h1, which will lift
the oil from depth h2 to the surface.
Oil
h2
h1
h1 = Pump level
H
h2 = Fluid level
H = Well depth
(H − h2 )× d
Bottom hole pressure will be: BHP =
144
Since this value will be lower than the formation pressure, the well will flow.
Some calculations:
A well 9200 feet deep has a bottom hole pressure of 3100 psi and filled with oil of
SG = 0.950.
2) With a BHP of 3100 psi, the oil column in the well cannot be higher than
3) When the pressure is 1000 psi a the bottom of the well, the height of the oil column
is:
144 × P 144 × 1000
H= = = 2429 ft (from the bottom)
d 0.950 × 62.4
8- 23
Pressure and temperature
Then the depth is 9200 –2429 = 6771 ft. The pump will be installed at a depth of
h1 =6771+600=7371ft
9 - 24
Pressure and temperature
10- 25
Pressure and temperature
1.3.1 Accuracy
It is the overall performance of any instrument. Furthermore it is the difference
between the measured value of pressures and the absolute true value generated
by a reference standard (D.W.T.).
Expressed in: % of F.R.O (Full Range Output) or % of reading.
11 - 26
Pressure and temperature
1.3.2 Resolution
The smallest pressure variation that will result in a measurable change in
transducer (meter) output.
Expressed in:% of F.R.O. or absolute value.
OUTPUT
Resolution
Pressure Increase
1.3.3 Repeatability
Dispersion of the measurements when a gauge is repeatedly subjected to the
same pressure with all others conditions remaining constant.
Expressed in: % of F.R.O. or absolute value.
12- 27
Pressure and temperature
1.3.4 Stability
The ability of a transducer to retain its performance (mainly accuracy) throughout
its specified operating and storage life.
DRIFT is the result of lack of STABILITY
Expressed in: % of F.R.O. versus time or absolute values versus time.
13 - 28
Pressure and temperature
A. C SHAPE
A - C shape
B. HELICOIDAL FORM
14- 29
Pressure and temperature
For the other gauges considered (Manometer, Foxboro and Barton recorders) it always
exists a linkage system between Bourdon tube and index.
This system can itself introduce errors, but allows also for their corrections through
adjusting screws that are slightly modifying the lengths of the links.
In particular the linkage system can introduce a "linearity error" which should not be
confused with that of the sensing element and that can be called "linearity
misalignment". Unlike that of the sensing element, this error can be corrected through
linkages adjustments.
15 - 30
Pressure and temperature
Fig. 1
16- 31
Pressure and temperature
Fig. 2
Ideally equal variations of the variable (here the displacement) produce equal
increases in the indication over the full range (definition of LINEARITY).
In reality as illustrated in Fig. 2 the angle a is smaller than the angle ß due to the
different lengths of the arcs A2A1 and A2A3.
So when it is 50% we read on the scale a value less than 50%.
This error can be reduced by having the angle between link "a" and needle equal to
90° when the pressure applied is 50% of the full scale.
To adjust the linearity we have then to apply 50% of the f.s. pressure and adjust the
length of link to have a right angle.
This is always the first adjustment to perform when calibrating a Bourdon Tube gauge.
17 - 32
Pressure and temperature
Fig. 3
Even if this adjustment corresponds to a shift of the scale, as shown in Fig. 3. The zero
adjustment is performed rotating the index needle around its pin, because the scale is
fixed in the instrument.
18- 33
Pressure and temperature
Fig.4
To adjust the angularity we act on the length OA of the variable length linkage of the
pivoted arm. OA is the distance between the pivot O and the attachment point A of the
linkage.
19 - 34
Pressure and temperature
In Fig.5 we can see how the dimension d of the pivoted arm can be varied.
Fig. 5
20- 35
Pressure and temperature
Fig. 6
21 - 36
Pressure and temperature
small, shorten it. Remove pressure and reset the zero. Repeat these two
operations until the pressure gauge reads correctly for 0% and 100% of the
nominal pressure.
4. Check linearity. Apply 50% of the working pressure and check the reading.
If it is too high, lengthen the variable arm between the Bourdon tube and the
pivoted arm. If too small, reduce.
5. Re-adjust angularity.
6. Alternate steps 4 and 5 until the gauge reads correctly at 0%, 50% and
100% of its range.
22- 37
Pressure and temperature
1.7 FOXBORO
The Foxboro is a device that measures pressure and temperature at the well head
(before the choke manifold) on a diagram. The pressure sensor is a bourdon tube
typically 5000 and 10000 psi, the temperature sensor a fluid filled.
The Foxboro is normally connected to the choke manifold to measure WHP and
WHT.
The pressure and temperature are recorded on a chart, which is driven by a clock.
Therefore pressure and temperature are recorded versus time.
IMPORTANT POINTS
− Choose the bourdon tube range according to the expected maximum WHP.
− The clock has to be wound, and the chart changed every 24 hrs.
− Check, every now and again, that the chart is driving.
− Do not over wind the clock.
1.7.1 Description
Two different pressure ranges and one temperature range are available on a
Foxboro.
Pen Link
Bourdon tube
Pressure
23 - 38
Pressure and temperature
24- 39
Pressure and temperature
25 - 40
Pressure and temperature
1.7.3 Calibration
a) To adjust path of arcing pen:
Only one pen - the arcing pen- in a recorder traces a path that coincides exactly
with the time arc on the chart. To adjust it:
− Remove chart plate. Disconnect link from pen movement (note which hole
link is in). Replace chart plate and chart itself. Move arcing pen across chart
by hand.
− If path of pen requires adjustment, loosen left chart drive screw and hex nut at
bottom of left column.
− Adjust eccentric hex shaft until path of pen is satisfactory.
− Tighten nut and screw, and reconnect link. Check calibration.
26- 41
Pressure and temperature
c) To adjust angularity:
− Adjust the zero (without applying pressure on the Bourdon tube. Purge if
necessary).
− Apply 100% pressure on the Bourdon tube, correct the error by half with the
angularity adjustment screws.
− Return to zero, readjust it if necessary and then apply 100% pressure.
− Repeat this operation until correct angularity is obtained.
27 - 42
Pressure and temperature
d) To adjust linearity:
− Set pressure at mid range. If the pen is not at midscale, proceed as follows:
1. adjust length of link to move pen five times the amount of error in the
direction of the error.
2. then begin all the adjustment again (including the adjustment of
angularity).
As soon as calibration is finished, lock all the adjustment screws with nail varnish,
for example.
28- 43
Dead weight tester
SECTION 7
1-1
Dead weight tester
Pressure results from the application of a force, which is distributed over an area of
surface, it is defined as a force or thrust exerted over a surface divided by its area.
F
P=
A
BASIC PRINCIPLE
Practical applications of Pascal's principle are the hydraulic jack and the dead weight
tester.
Consider the piston A with a surface area of 20 cm2 and piston B with a surface area of 1
cm2. To raise the piston A (i.e. to lift the 200 kg weight) a pressure P must he applied on
to A to produce an upward force F greater than 200 kg.
2-2
Dead weight tester
Force 200 Kg
Pr essure = = = 10 Kg / cm 2
Area 20cm 2
A force of 10 kg applied on B will result in a pressure of 10 kg/cm² which will be
transmitted through the fluid to the piston A.
In a DWT the piston A has been removed and the cylinder is then connected to either:
− a closed vessel where we can vary the pressure with a pump (i.e. Bourdon tube
gauge),
The pressure on the system applied on the piston B is balanced by the pressure resulting
from a known weight on this piston of known diameter.
The weights and pistons are calibrated to give an accuracy of 1/10 of 1 % of the indicated
pressure.
3-3
Dead weight tester
Dead-Weight Testers are a source of very accurate pressures and are used for
calibration of other, less accurate, types of pressure measuring devices such as
Bourdon Tube pressure gauges. The high accuracy is obtained by balancing the force
exerted by the oil pressure on a piston of known area against weights of known mass.
The weights and pistons are calibrated in sets to give an accuracy of 1/10 of 1% of the
indicated pressure. The High Pressure Dead-Weight Tester sketch is shown on the
following page.
Before using the Tester the first time, the oil reservoir must be filled with oil through
Filler Plug using the oil supplied. A good grade of SAE 20 oil is recommended. The
Tester must be on a firm level base. (The Ac-Me Tripod forms a convenient field
support.) After removing the carrying case cover, weight rods and weights, the gauge
to be tested is connected to the gauge-connecting base using one of the adapters
supplied. The correct numbers of weights to give the pressure desired are placed on
the piston table and the oil pump operated until the piston floats, while spinning,
between the two marks just below the table. The oil pump is a screw type with
manually operated valves. When facing the Tester, with the oil pump to the right, the
far valve is in the suction line, and the near valve in the discharge line.
After the test is completed, the oil should be pumped back into the reservoir, the gauge
removed from the Tester and the connection on the Tester plugged; after which the
weights, weight rods and cover may be replaced, leaving the Tester ready for
transportation.
The Tester may be used as a Dead-Weight Gauge by using the reservoir adapter as a
reservoir to prevent gas from blowing through the piston and cylinder. The adapter
should be screwed into the gauge connector base, filled with oil, and connected to the
gas pressure through suitable tubing and a valve. After the valve is opened and
pressure is on the piston, weights are placed on the table until it floats, while spinning.
The indicated pressure is then the total of all the weights on the table, pius the table,
when balance is obtained.
The entire Tester should be kept clean, as dirt and grit will cause rapid wear. The
piston will naturally wear with use and will change size slightly, impairing the accuracy,
at which time the Tester should be recalibrated. Excessive oil leakage usually indicates
this condition. Since the piston and weights are matched sets, the entire Tester must
be returned for the recalibration.
4-4
Dead weight tester
5-5
Dead weight tester
5 - 15 WEIGHT N° lO
5 - 16 WEIGHT N° 50
5 - 17 WEIGHT N° 100
5 - 18 WEIGHT N° 500
5 - 20 WEIGHT ROD
15 - 18 KNURLED NUT
23 - 6 OIL PUMP CAP
23 - 13 PUMP SCREW WITH HANDLE
23 - 69 GAUGE CONNECTOR
36 - 38 10 FT LENGTH 1/8" STEEL TUBE W/FITTINGS
6-6
Dead weight tester
7-7
Dead weight tester
2. 2.
Damaged cylinder "O" Unscrew cap nut remove
ring. guide rod and piston. Use
wrench to unscrew cylinder
from adapter with pencil and
replace P - 62 "O" ring.
B.
Gas "bubbles" or blows Damaged cylinder adapter Disassemble as per 'A - 2'.
into oil of centre "O" ring. After unscrewing cylinder
reservoir, when adapter replace P - 63 "O"
determining unknown ring.
gas pressure
C. 1. 1.
Not sensitive to small Overtightened cylinder Unscrew cap nut. Re-retighten
weight changes, when cap nut. only until "snug".
used to determine
unknown gas pressure 2. 2.
Dirty oil. Remove oil. Wash clean with
solvent and replace with clean
oil.
3. 3.
Damaged Piston. Remove piston and cylinder as
per '2-2'. Clean with solvent. If
'binding' is evedent replace
with new 2-9 piston and
cylinder assembly.
4. 4.
Cold weather makes Replace standard oil with P-
standard oil too viscous. 1484, low temperature 'pour'
point oil.
D. 1. 1.
Pressure cannot be Air is drawn into pump Unscrew 2-7 cap and check oil
maintained, when because of insufficient oil level in reservoir. Add oil if
calibrating another in centre reservoir. necessary.
pressure gauge.
2. 2.
Damaged cylinder adapter See "B" remedy.
"O" ring.
8-8
Dead weight tester
2. 2.
Oil too "ligh". Check and remove fluid in
reservoir if it is shock absorber
or brake fluid. Replace with
SAE 20 Oil.
3. 3.
"Worn" piston and cylinder Replace with new 2-9 piston
assy. and cylinder assy.
F.
Not sensitive and/or Water emulsifying with Best - use P-1169 synthetic
poor operation during tester oil. fluid instead of standard oil.
hydrostatic (water)
testing.
Satisfactory - use 2-71 oil
water separator.
9-9
Separators and separation
SECTION 8
1-1
Separators and separation
Gq 1
= = 0.05
G1 20 95 % of separation takes place within a few seconds
G1
= 0.75
Gq Separation requires a few minutes
1.2 SEPARATOR
For safety reasons, because the well head pressure is still not at atmospheric pressure
(Eruptive well) and the temperature is still elevated, it is necessary to free the oil of
both dissolved and free gas before putting it in storage tank (Atmospheric conditions).
Therefore the separation occurs of the gas from free liquids such as crude oil,
hydrocarbon condensate, water and entrained solids.
1. Control and dissipate the energy of the well stream as it enters the separator.
2. Ensure that the gas and liquid flow rates are low enough so that gravity segregation
and vapor liquid equilibrium can occur.
3. Eliminate re-drive of the separated gas and liquid.
4. Provide an outlet for gases with suitable control to maintain preset operating
pressure.
5. Provide outlet of liquids with suitable liquid level controls.
6. Provide clean out ports at points where solids may accumulate.
7. Provide relief for excessive pressures in case the gas or liquid should be plugged.
8. Provide equipment such as pressure gauges, thermometers, and liquid sight glass
assemblies.
2-2
Separators and separation
The gas outlet is fitted with a special valve to maintain a fixed backpressure. The oil
outlet with a valve, controlled by a float, ensures that the level remains in the middle
of the separator. Thus the oil remains in the separator for a certain period of time,
depending on the affluent flow rate. Let's say the oil contained in the separator is 1
m3 and the separator is treating 60 m3/hour, so the oil will be replace every 1/60
hours for each minute. during this period, the oil is maintained at a constant
pressure and bubbles of gas produced in the oil are raised into the gas space above
the liquid level. Therefore, the oil leaving the separator is almost free of entrained
gas; the amount remaining depends on pressure, temperature, viscosity, the nature
of the oil, retention time etc.
Vertical
Vertical is used on low to intermediate gas/oil ratio well streams. It can be fitted
with a false cone bottom to handle sand production. (As an offshore platform
where space is an important consideration).
However, because the natural upward flow of gas in a vertical vessel opposes the
falling droplets of liquid, a vertical separator is more expensive than horizontal
units for the same capacity.
An inlet diverter spread the inlet fluid against the vertical separator shell in a thin
film and at the same time imparts a centrifugal motion to the fluid. This provides
the desired momentum reduction and allows the gas to escape from the thin oil
film. The gas rises to the top of the vessel and the liquid falls to the bottom. Some
small particles will be swept upward with the rising gas stream and these particles
are separated by a centrifugal baffle arrangement below the gas outlet connection.
Horizontal
The horizontal separator is less expensive than the vertical separator for equal
capacities. It has a much greater gas /liquid interface area, consisting of a large,
long baffled gas separation section which permits higher gas velocities. They are
always used for high gas/oil ratio well and for foaming well streams. It is equipped
3-3
Separators and separation
with a flow breaker (i.e. a series of steel plates designed to capture the oil
particles), a horizontal baffle to prevent waves and finally a series of deflectors at
the gas outlet.
Three phase horizontal separators are used for well testing and from time to time
where free water readily separates form the oil or condensate. They are identical
to two-phase separators except for a water compartment and an extra level control
and dump valve.
Incoming free liquid is 'immediately drained away from the upper section into the
lower section. The upper part is filled with baffles and the gas flows straight
through and at higher velocities.
The separators used are characterized by their flow (gas + liquid) and by their
nominal pressure printed on the manufacturers plate. The nominal pressure is the
maximum pressure at which the separator can be used.
Manufacturers provide models whose nominal pressure is between 40 and 3500 psi.
A separator must never be operated above the nominal pressure. Moreover, this
would not be possible as, in general, two safety devices are installed to avoid excess
pressure.
2. A rupture disc designed to break at pressure equal to 1009 bar of the nominal
pressure.
To ensure that separators withstand their nominal pressure without any leaks or risk
of rupturing, they are tested to a higher pressure.
The test pressure is nominal pressure increased by 50 % (e.g. for 600 psi nominal
pressure, the test pressure will be 900 psi). The regulations demand that a hydraulic
test is carried out every 2 years.
4-4
Separators and separation
Diagram of separator
5-5
Separators and separation
6-6
Separators and separation
- Daniel Orifice up
- This means that as soon as the flow goes into the separator, the wizard
valve will begin to open. This means you cannot accidentally over-
pressure the separator. This is particularly important in high
volume/pressure gas wells. Similarly the level troll valve will begin to open
as soon as the level touches the float.
METHOD A
The by-pass is open, inlet closed. (Which by-pass will depend on whether it is a
gas or an oil well.) Slowly open the inlet, and close the by-pass. (SLOWLY!)
As you do this, you should observe the wizard valve beginning to open.
If it does not, STOP, close the inlet opens the by-pass again and checks the
operation of the wizard.
Except in low pressure/volume wells, you should have an assistant watching the
level/pressure in the separator as you perform this task.
7-7
Separators and separation
Gradually bring the separator pressure and level up to required levels. Remember
that separator pressure should never be greater that 1/3 of WHP, or below a
pressure that creates liquid carry over problems. Also if flowing directly to the
burners, you will need sufficient pressure to attain efficient burning. In very low-
pressure wells it may be necessary to flow to a tank first.
The level chosen will depend upon the oil/gas capacity of the well. The client will
often dictate the parameters.
METHOD B
This method has more application in high volume/GOR wells. Open the inlet to the
separator, LEAVE THE BY-PASS OPEN, bring the pressure and level up, when the
separator is running smoothly, slowly close the bypass. This method means that
you reduce the risk of over-pressuring the separator. (Blow safety valves, rupture
discs!)
2. Open main by-pass, close inlet valve and gas main valve.
Note: Daniel Orifice should always be lifted if anything is done which upsets the balance of
the separator, i.e. changing chokes, etc..
8-8
Separators and separation
9-9
Separators and separation
10 - 10
Separators and separation
Foaming
11 - 11
Separators and separation
2.
High liquid level which reduces vapor space. Check liquid level. Clean glass. Lower level.
12 - 12
Separators and separation
14.
Wave action causing float to move. Check condition of baffle/weir.
13 - 13
Separators and separation
16. A.
Float in oil/water interface is totally immersed in Check for emulsion by draining fluid from
emulsion. separator.
B.
Drain emulsions or introduce de-emulsifier at
choke.
AII above-mentioned points should be been checked prior to the test. They will be
covered during the procedure if it has been written out meticulously.
14 - 14
Separators and separation
− Silicon additives are the most efficient ones (e.g. RHODORSTL 427, DOW
CORNING 200)
Note: STRAIGHTENING VANES - Be aware that ½" NPT plug upstream holds straightening
vanes in place. This plug should never be removed during normal operations.
15 - 15
Separators and separation
Note: SIGHTGLASS VALVES - If during a well test operation, the window of a liquid level
breaks, there is a Ball Safety Valve automatically closing under the differential pressure
existing between the inside of the Separator.
In this case the normal reaction could be to close manually the isolating valve of the liquid
level. Doing so, the internal pressure of the separator is redirected to atmosphere this until
this valve rests on its seat, since it has a plunger pushing back the ball in the open position.
So, if a liquid level window breaks, the safe solution for repair is to by-pass the separator
before bleeding its pressure to zero, then to close the isolation valves of the liquid level and
to proceed to window replacement. During repair, the separator must be restarted.
If this solution is not possible, either wait for the completion of the test or start repairing - but
IN NO CASE, THE ISOLATING VALVES OF THE LIQUID LEVEL SHOULD BE CLOSED.
This precludes that the Ball Safety Valve does its job perfectly.
16 - 16
Separators and separation
17 - 17
Separators and separation
1.5 Safety
- THE EQUIPMENT USED IN WELL TESTING OPERATES AT HIGH
PRESSURES WITH INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS.
- Check calibration of safety valve has been performed within the last 3 months.
- Ensure all members of the crew are competent in the operation of the
separator.
- This is because in normal operations, gas is vented from the flapper nozzle
systems of the controllers.
- On H2S jobs, all vent lines (Daniel bleed down, sight glasses etc) should be
piped to a safe area. Particular attention should be taken when sampling,
operating shrinkage tester etc.
- On H2S jobs operate the "buddy" system whereby no operator works on his
own without supervision from another area.
- All well testing equipment should be electrically grounded with an earth strap
(minimum area 1 sq. cm). Offshore this should be welded or bolted to an
unpainted part of the deck. Onshore earth stakes (minimum length 1 meter)
should be used. Earth stakes should be kept damp.
18 - 18
Safety valves & Rupture disc
SECTION 9
DISCS
1-1
Safety valves & Rupture disc
1.1.1 Role
The role of the safety valve is to automatically reduce an overpressure in the separator by
venting off a certain amount of gas. The safety valve is normally set at 90 % of Working
Pressure of the Separator (e.g. a 1440 psi separator shall have the safety valve set at
1296 psi).
1.1.2 Description
The valve consists of :
− the cone (3)
− the perfectly ground flat closing disc. This is the top sealing face (4)
− the guide which isolates the body and casing (8)
− the Balan seal bellows which counteract the effect of hack pressure and isolates the
safety valve internals i.e. spring, spring stop etc. from the vented fluid/gas (28)
− the tapered disc carrier which diverts the force of the vented fluid away from the
guide
− the blow down ring which is used to make the disc rise more quickly after the set
pressure has been reached (7)
− a hand operated level to test the function of the valve. (Only on certain safety
valves.)
2-2
Safety valves & Rupture disc
3-3
Safety valves & Rupture disc
1.1.3 Operation
The valve opens violently when the upward force exerted on the seat face by the
separator pressure overcomes the force exerted downwards by the spring.
F = P×S
Where F = force exerted by the spring
P = Separator Pressure
S = Area of the Valve Seat.
For compressible fluids (air, gas, vapour) the full opening occurs at less than 3% above
the adjustment pressure and the closure at less than 51% below it.
For non-compressible fluids (Liquids) the use of the spring causes hammering. The
spring is therefore inactivated by winding it right down. In this case the full opening occurs
at 10% to 15% of the adjustment pressure.
Setting the blow down ring
The spring is adjusted according to the relief valve pressure setting.
It is screwed into the nozzle and has around its perimeter a serrated edge which positions
it in the nozzle. A set screw which makes contact with the serrated edge holds it in
position. For liquids the spring is not required and so it is screwed right down.
Fig. 1
4-4
Safety valves & Rupture disc
With the disc in position, put the ring in contact with the disc holder (Figure 2, Position 1).
Referring to the following table, lower the ring by a number of teeth corresponding to the
pressure setting (Figure 2, Position 2).
Fig. 2
5-5
Safety valves & Rupture disc
2600 SERIES
Up to
P D P D
1 2 15,8 20
2,8 4 19 25
4,6 6 25,5 30
6 8 31,5 40
7,7 10 38,5 50
9,5 12 42 60
10,2 14 47,5 70
12,4 16 48 80
13,4 18 70 90
These specifications apply to all types of valve complete with a blow down ring and to any
part.
6-6
Safety valves & Rupture disc
As already briefly described this type of valve does not use a spring or a weight to
keep the disc closed but uses the pressure of the process fluid.
In fact this valve confines a certain quantity of process fluid in a chamber called
"DOME" above the disc called "PISTON".
The production of the pressure of the process fluid in the area of the dome is
generally 20 % higher than the piston seat. This generates a force sufficient to
oppose the static force of the fluid. this configuration permits a much higher set
pressure with larger orifices than could be obtained with conventional or balanced
valves, because of the much larger spring forces required for these valves.
From this fact, both opposing sides of the piston are pressurized at a same value.
But because of the larger area (20 % ore) on the topside of the piston, the net
force is greater than the static force of the process fluid on the bottom side of the
piston.
Once the set pressure is reached the pilot opens and depressurizes the dome of
the main valve, causing it so relieve as there is no longer any force acting on the
top of the piston.
Once the pressure decreases, the pilot closes and re-establishes the pressure in
the dome of the main valve, which will also close.
Taking an average valve of 1.2/1 (most common) that means that the top area of
the piston is 1.2 times the area of the bottom area. Taking also a pressure of 10
bar upstream of the piston and an area of 10 cm² that gives:
By this example, it is shown that for the main value to open, the pilot must
depressurize the dome by at the least a pressure equal to 20 % of the inlet
pressure.
When that occurs the forces in opposition are balanced and the valve is then on
the threshold of opening.
8-8
Safety valves & Rupture disc
9-9
Safety valves & Rupture disc
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
The process pressure increasing, the piston will lift immediately, and the valve will
remain open all the time the pressure remains constant. The pressure decreasing,
10 - 10
Safety valves & Rupture disc
the pilot will close and re-pressurise the dome of the main valve at the same
pressure as that of the inlet of the valve as shown on the curve of the figure 4.
For a pilot operated valve, the full lift occurs at set pressure and is maintained until
the reseat also occurs. As no further force must be overcome as in a spring-
operated valve, the full lift is achieved without overpressure.
The dome (pressure chamber) must be perfectly pressure sealed fro the
downstream side of the valve.
That is for minimizing the pressure drop, which could occur, and also to prevent an
eventual backpressure from entering. Because of this fact the lift characteristics of
the valve are not affected.
Indeed this is only valid for a backpressure not exceeding the inlet pressure.
The sealing is generally made by means of rings in elastomer or plastics, but if the
backpressure is greater than the inlet pressure (process), then it will cause the
main valve to open as shown in Fig. 5 and consequently the flow will go
backwards.
In fact the backpressure force acting on the unbalanced area of the piston (around
the seat area) will produce an upward lifting force which will cause the piston to lift.
− Net force = 8
Such a condition might occur if the valve is fitted into a pressured header and
process pressure at the valve inlet decreases below the inlet pressure (process
shut down).
To prevent this, the answer is to equip the valve with two check valves. It is the
most commonly used system. One check valve is fitted on the pressure line
connecting the main valve outlet to the dome above the piston.
Another is located in the pressure sense line. This latter having for target to
prevent the backflow from the outlet into the process side of the valve through the
pilot.
The first check valve allows the backpressure to pressurize the dome of the main
valve. When the back- pressure exceeds the process pressure only the area
beyond the noule area is subjected to the back- pressure force. The area within
the nozzle diameter is subjected to the higher backpressure on the top side of the
piston and thus produces a net downward force to keep the valve closed
(preventing a back flow).
− Upward force:
1. Inlet pressure = 10 x 10 = 100 daN
2. Backpressure = 2 x 14 = 28 daN
Total upward force 128 daN
The above described system applies for the flowing pilot that means the process
fluid coming from the pressure sense line flows through the pilot to maintain it
open till the pressure decreases.
Another type of pilot exists now (and is more and more used). Which is called the
“non flowing pilot” which as its name states, does not flow the process fluid. When
the main valve relieves to oppose a backpressure, the non-flowing pilot needs to
be equipped with a system called "back flow preventer".
The back flow preventer is a shuttle check valve system, which is fitted between
the top and the outlet of the main valve. When the back-pressure is greater than
the inlet pressure (PS) and this last lower than the set pressure, the shuttle check
transfers to the left blocking the back-pressure flow entering the pilot.
When the inlet pressure exceeds the backpressure but is lower than the set
pressure the shuttle transfers to the right allowing the pressurization of the dome
by the inlet pressure. When the inlet pressure exceeds the set pressure the pilot
opens, depressurizing the dome (PB): the main valve opens and the shuttle
transfers to the right blocking the hack-pressure flow to the pilot and sending the
dome pressure to the pilot vent.
The function of the second check value is to prevent the backpressure from
discharging through the pilot vent when the main valve is relieving a backpressure
acting on the pilot could cause an erratic closure or blow down of the main valve.
ALL HAS BEEN SAID ABOUT THE MAIN VALVE BUT WHAT ABOUT THE PILOT?
The pilot valve is in fact a small spring operated safety valve, which functions in
the same way.
The supply pressure is sensed either at the main valve inlet through a pressure
pick-up or directly on the process system itself.
The inlet pressure acts on the seat of a spindle, which is loaded by the spring
adjusted at the set pressure value.
The pressure is equal both in the pilot and the dome of the main valve. The
spindle seals an orifice called pilot exhaust. Once the pressure increases to reach
the set pressure then the spindle lifts and releases the pilot exhaust permitting the
dome pressure to escape and the main valve to open as shown in the below
figure.
12 - 12
Safety valves & Rupture disc
A blow down adjustment allows the pilot to close more or less quickly to adjust the
re-pressurisation of the dome once the pressure decreases.
13 - 13
Safety valves & Rupture disc
1. The most commonly used is the non-flowing pop action type. This type of pilot
is not only designed to have no fiow of the process fluid but also to open the
main valve in a snap way at the set pressure to full lift and reclose at some
pressure below set. As for a conventional valve, this difference is called
blowdown.
2. The flowing pop action type is more and more abandoned, although acting in
the same way as the no-flow type. It obliges the process fluid to be
recuperated and furthermore submits the internals to the corrosive action fo
the fluid.
3. The modulating action type (flowing or not). This type of pilot produces a main
valve opening characteristic that is proportional to the relieving capacity
required. In other words, the valve responds to the flow capacity generated
by the increase of pressure. In fact is acts as a regulator. The pressure at
which the valve opens and closes is the same. There is no blowdown on this
type of valve.
SEAT TIGHTNESS OF THE PTLOT OPERATED SAFETY VALVE
Two different designs of seat are in opposition.
a. The metal-to-metal seats where both the nozzle and piston seats are metallic
(as most of the conventional valves).
- which do not accept the least foreign particle without its tightness being
affected
- obligation to have both seats perfectly lapped
- withstands the corrosive action and temperature of most fluids.
b. The soft seat where the nozzle seat is metallic and the piston seat is made
form elastomer or plastic.
- accepts more easily some foreign particles without affecting the tightness
- does not need a lapping and is very easy and quick to replace
- is more sensible to the corrosivity and the temperature of the fluid
pressure
- special care must be taken when selecting the elastomer
o spring operated
o pilot operated
are manufactured by the Sebim Group and are going to be described more fully in
following chapters. The next table will help you to select the appropriate valve with
regards to the operating service considerations.
14 - 14
Safety valves & Rupture disc
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
15 - 15
Safety valves & Rupture disc
16 - 16
Safety valves & Rupture disc
These are fine metal diaphragms, designed to rupture in case an excess pressure is
accidentally caused in the separator. The rupture disc pressure is chosen to be 100 %
of the nominal working pressure of separator.
The discs (or diaphragms) can be directly tightened in a special union sub, or between
two flanges, according to the size and assembly. There are discs as large as 6' in
diameter and also smaller sizes wit rupture pressure of up to 6000 PSI.
The discs are conceived to resist the pressure and the pressure must be exerted on
the hollow side.
The pressure is indicated on each rupture disc, on a strip of metal riveted to the
disc.
17 - 17
Safety valves & Rupture disc
18 - 18
Safety valves & Rupture disc
19 - 19
Pneumatic control valves
SECTION 10
1-1
Pneumatic control valves
2-2
Pneumatic control valves
1.1.1 Role
The automatic control valve is a final control element designed to regulate the rate of
flow of fluid in a pipe by varying its cross-sectional area in response to a signal
received from a controller.
1.1.2 Description
2. VALVE BODY
− Diaphragm case
− Diaphragm
− Actuator spring
− Spring seat
− Spring adjuster
− Stem connector
− Cast iron yoke which fractures under sudden shock, preventing damage to the
valve stem
Automatic control valves installed on GEOSERVICES are of the throttling type and
used with the proportional mode of control.
VALVE BODY
It is in the valve body that physical control of the fluid is achieved by means of varying
the cross-sectional area for flow available to the fluid.
3-3
Pneumatic control valves
− Body casting
− Packing flange
− Stem
− Valve plug
− Seat ring
− Cage
THROTTLING VALVE
The control mechanisms used for automatic control of the proportional type are
designed to produce a linear relationship between the change in controlled pressure,
or level, and the force applied to the automatic control valve to affect control.
They are also designed to produce a linear relationship between the rate of change of
the process variable and the rate of change of the valve-positioning force. If these two
relationships exist and there is also a linear relationship between the percentage of
total valve movement and the percentage of total flow resulting from any change in
valve position, the result will be a good control. Automatic control valves installed on
GEOSERVICES separators use an equal percentage flow characteristic.
SIZING OF CONTROL VALVE
The importance of correctly sizing automatic control valves is essential. From an
economic viewpoint, an undersized valve cannot do the job for which it is intended
and must be replaced. A valve that is too large costs more initially. As for operation,
an oversized valve provides poor control and can cause system instability. The most
expensive, sensitive and accurate controller is of little value if the automatic control
valve cannot correct the flow properly to maintain the desired set point within
acceptable table limits.
The basic theory of control valve sizing may be expressed - "The flow rate of the
process fluid is mathematically converted to an equivalent flow rate of a reference
fluid. Then a valve size is selected which is known by test to be capable of flowing
that equivalent quantity of the reference fluid at the process pressure condition
specified." For liquid flow, the reference fluid is water; for gas flow, the reference fluid
is air at standard conditions of temperature and pressure.
4-4
Pneumatic control valves
across the valve. Basically it is a capacity index, which enable rapidly and accurately
to estimating the required valve size in any fluid system.
Inherent flow characteristic is the basic flow characteristic that is built into a given
valve and is only the parameter convenient for the manufacturers to publish.
Deviations from these characteristics should be expected in actual service when
changes in pressure drop and other conditions are encountered.
Valve flow characteristics are produced in control valve from the physical design of
the valve plug itself, or from shaped openings in cage in which the valve plug guides.
A wide variety of valve-plug and cage constructions are available, many of which
exhibit the same overall flow characteristic.
Valve plugs for control valve bodies and cages for balanced single plug valve fall into
one of the following categories:
c) Quick opening.
These terms apply basically to the flow characteristic obtained when a particular style
of valve plug is installed. Valve plugs may be contoured, ported, or fluted to obtain the
desired characteristic.
EQUAL PERCENTAGE VALVE PLUGS
A valve plug that has an equal percentage flow characteristic is one in which equal
increments of travel will give equal percentage changes in existing flow.
The change in flow is always proportional to the flow rate existing just before the
change in valve plug position is made. When the valve plug is near its seat and the
flow is small, the change in flow will be small; with a large flow, the change in flow will
be large.
Generally, valve plugs with an equal percentage flow characteristic are used on
applications where a large percentage of the pressure drop is normally absorbed by
the system itself, with only a relatively small percentage available at the control valve.
Equal percentage valve plugs should also be considered for those applications where
highly varying pressure drop conditions could be expected.
GEOSERVICES separators are fitted with FISHER single ported automatic control
valve designs ED and ES valve bodies.
FISHER DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR
Visual inspection of the diaphragm actuator will determine whether it is a direct or
reverse acting one.
5-5
Pneumatic control valves
In the direct acting type, the loading pressure is applied to the upper case section,
above the diaphragm.
In the reverse acting type, the loading pressure is applied to the lower case section,
below the diaphragm.
The Fisher Type 657 is a direct acting, spring opposed diaphragm actuator that is
used for the operation of automatic control valves. The opening closing or throttling of
the valve plug in the body is accomplished by varying the automatic loading pressure
on the diaphragm. This loading pressure is transmitted from an
The Fisher Type 667 is a reverse acting, spring opposed diaphragm actuator that is
used for the operation of automatic control valves. The opening, closing or throttling
of the valve plug in the body is accomplished by varying the pneumatic loading
pressure on the diaphragm. A typical Type 667 actuator is shown in figure 2.
In the event of failure of the loading pressure to the diaphragm of the actuator, the
actuator stem moves to the extreme downward position.
6-6
Pneumatic control valves
Fig. 1
7-7
Pneumatic control valves
Fig. 2
8-8
Pneumatic control valves
- Position the indicator disc against the zero of the control scale after coupling
actuator stem and valve plug stem
- Screw the spring adjusting screw until disc return to zero. (The control stem
actuator should not begin to move for a pressure below 3.1 psi).
If the Design ED or EAD piston ring or the Design ET or EAT seal ring is visibly
damaged, remove it and replace with a new part. Be careful not to scratch the surfaces
of the ring groove in the valve plug, or the new ring may not seal properly. The Design
ET or EAT seal ring must be pried and/or cut from the groove, so it cannot be used
again.
Grinding of metal seats, if required, should be done before installing the piston or seal
ring.
For Design ED or EAD bodies using a carbon-filled TFE piston ring, spread the ring
apart slightly at the split and install it over the stem and into the groove in the valve
plug.
Graphite piston rings are furnished as a complete ring and must be broken into two
approximately equal portions. Hold the ring securely and strike it across the edge of a
table or bench. Be certain broken ends are re-matched when the piston ring is installed
in the valve plug groove.
For Design ET or EAT body, apply Molykote No 80 lubricant or equivalent to both back
up and seal rings.
Place the back-up ring over the stem and into the groove. Place the seal ring over the
top edge of the valve plug so that it enters the groove on one side of the valve plug.
Slowly and gently stretch the seal ring and work it over the top edge of the valve plug.
The TFE material in the seal ring must be permitted time to cold-flow during the
stretching procedure, so avoid jerking sharply on the seal. Stretching the seal over the
valve plug may make it seem unduly loose when in the groove, but it will contract to its
original size after insertion into the cage.
When putting the valve plug into the cage, make sure the piston or seal ring is evenly
engaged in the entrance chamfer at the top of the cage to avoid damaging the ring.
Tighten the bonnet-to-body bolts to the recommended torque given in the following
table (follow accepted bolting practices and lubricate bolts.
9-9
Pneumatic control valves
b) The outer portion of the top gasket compresses so that the bonnet-to body
joint forms a seal.
Note : Spiral wound gasket boltup characteristics are such that tightening of one bold may
loosen an adjacent bolt. This will occur on subsequent tightening of all the bolts until the
bonnet-to-body seal is made. This requires several trials on each bolt until the nut does not
turn at the given torque.
Mount the actuator on the bonnet and make up the stem connection according to
procedure.Always ask the rig mechanic for advice in any case when the Geoservices
operator has to disconnect any rig air or fluid.
10 - 10
Pneumatic control valves
Fig.3
11 - 11
Pneumatic control valves
"Globe" style body with balanced valve plug and metal seat. (Globe is a term derived
from the globular shape of the body).
Several calibrated orifices on the valve plug allow the downstream pressure to act
simultaneously on both sides of the plug and ensure a good balance.
The valve plug (see figure 3) has a piston-ring upper seal and is designed for general
control applications.
The guided and balanced plug ensures a greater stability to the system and as a
result diaphragm actuator can be of a small size.
Flow direction for standard and cavitrol cages is, in through the cage openings and
out through the seat ring - Flow down.
Equal percentage cages equip GEOSERVICES valve bodies on separator oil and gas
outlets.
Note: There is an arrow on the Easy E valve body; the valve must be installed in piping with
the arrow indicating the direction of flow.
12 - 12
Pneumatic control valves
Maximum input pressure is 1440 psi for steel material and up to 64° F.
Maximum pressure drop with a metallic seat is similar to the maximum input pressure
up to 64° F.
It ensures a tolerance of leakage no greater than 0.01 % of maximum flow rate. The
leak is virtually nil with an elastomer joint.
The "ES" type valve body is fitted with a microform ½" plug (equal percentage flow
characteristic) and is found on 1" oil outlet and 2" water outlet from the 1440 psi
separator. The ½" microform plug is guided by a cage and is only used for low flow
rates.
The fluid action tends to open the valve hut the action is very slight and doesn't need
to be compensated by a larger diaphragm actuator.
Note: the arrow on the "ES" valve body must be installed in piping with the arrow indicating
the direction of flow.
13 - 13
Pneumatic control valves
14 - 14
Pneumatic control valves
15 - 15
Pneumatic control valves
16 - 16
Pneumatic controller
SECTION 11
PNEUMATIC CONTROLLERS
1-1
Pneumatic controller
The measurement of liquid level is a fundamental one used in the automatic control
of continuous processes. It is frequently used in conjunction with other basic
measurements of temperature, pressure and flow for the control of processes in
chemical and petroleum industries.
Several principles of measurement are used in determining the level of liquids. The
type of instrument selected being governed by the nature of the liquid, the shape of
the vessel in which the liquid is contained, the pressure under which it is operating,
and the application.
To enable the various instruments used to quantify the measurement made, various
units are used: linear units such as feet for a direct measurement of depth or
pressure units such as psi for a pressure head.
2-2
Pneumatic controller
a. DIPSTICK
The simplest, probably the most common method of measuring level in an
open tank, is by means of a dipstick of gauge staff immersed in the liquid and
marked off in contents or depth over a datum line.
The dipstick although crude and simple is a very accurate method of level
measurement but cannot be used for automatic recording or controlling
purposes. It has many applications where a continuous indication is
unnecessary buy where regular readings can easily be taken.
b. SIGHT TUBE
The device is based on the communicating vessels principles. The two ends of
a glass tube are connected to the vessel in which the liquid level is to be
measured.
The tube is mounted on the side of the vessel in the vertical position.
The level in the tube is the same as that in the vessel.
The liquid in the tube can be seen and its height can be measured with a
graduated scale, which is placed behind the tube. The device is not convenient
for high pressure.
3-3
Pneumatic controller
c. SIGHT GLASS
With high pressures, a sight glass must replace the sight tube.
This device is made within a steel chamber.
Basically two models are available:
− with front and back glass, allowing the passage of the light to give a
clear indication of the level (transparent sight glass)
− with only one glass on one side of the chamber (refracting sight glass);
in this case the glass has generally longitudinal bevels on its inside to
easy the reading by refracting the light.
The thickness of the chamber and of the glass itself depends on the working
pressure and temperature.
Note: When using sight glasses, the liquid in the glass should be as clean as possible. the
number of glasses used depends on the range of the level variations. As the glass may
break, sight glass safety valves should always be used with sight glasses.
SIGHT GLASS SAFETY VALVE
This valve is made of a body and a valve stem with a bevelled shutter acting as
a tap. The stem of the valve has got a tip to push on the floating ball. The body
has an inlet connected to the vessel, and an outlet directly connected to the
sight glass. A handle enables positioning the stem inside the valve body.
In the position shown, the shutter is away from its seat letting the passage to
the sight glass open and the flow through the valve is only due to the level
variations: the ball is then kept by its weight down in its groove.
If the glass breaks, the flow increases very much and pushes the ball against its
seat, hence insulating the sight glass, which can safely be repaired.
To re-open the valve, the ball must be pushed back in its groove. This is
performed by turning the handle half way clockwise in order to push the ball
with the stem tip.
However, this new position of the stem is not safe, impeding the ball to seat
properly in case of a new failure. Hence the handle has to be returned to the
initial position by turning it completely counter-clockwise.
4-4
Pneumatic controller
Note: When the density of the object is less than that of the fluid, the net force will be
upwards and the object will rise. A Helium filled balloon is a good example.
When an object is floating, the net force on it will be zero. This happens when the
volume of the object submerged displaces an amount of liquid whose weight is equal
to the weight of the object. A ship made of steel can float because it can displace
more water than it weighs.
5-5
Pneumatic controller
FB = Wobj
ρ f × Vsub × g = ρ obj × Vobj × g
Vsub ρ obj
=
Vobj ρf
Thus the fraction of a floating object that is submerged stand in ratio to the density of
the object to the density of the fluid. For objects with a vertical wall around the outside
edge like a rectangle, we can reduce the above equation even farther,
A × d sub ρ obj
=
A × d obj ρf
d sub ρ obj
=
d obj ρf
Where A is the surface and d is the height of the object.
To measure the level, based on the archimede’s principle, a hollow float is resting
freely on the liquid surface and is connected by a cord, chain or thin metallic tape
over a pulley to a counterbalance weight.
The float maintains a constant depth of immersion in a given liquid and rises and falls
with any change in the liquid level. In doing so, it drives a pulley, which operates an
indicating, recording or control mechanism to show the changes in level.
Turbulence in the liquid can be prevented from affecting the float by the addition of a
stilling well around it.
This device cannot be used for applications where the liquid is under pressure. Here,
some method of transferring the position of the float through the container wall is
needed.
6-6
Pneumatic controller
A float and lever contained in a metallic cage, which is connected to the pressurized
vessel, follows any variations in level.
This movement is transmitted through the cage by a shaft rotating in a gland or
stuffing box to a counterbalance lever outside the cage. This outside lever can
operate a pneumatic controller or can be directly linked to a control valve regulating
the low of liquid into or out the vessel.
7-7
Pneumatic controller
Wa = Wd − (Vsub × ρ f × g ) = Wd − (A × L × ρ f × g )
Where A is the area of the displacer and L is the height of the liquid relative to the
bottom of the displacer.
As a consequence the apparent weight is inversely proportional to the level. So, this
device can be used as a transducer with the level indicated by a force.
In practice, the scale is replaced by a dynomemetric system.
The apparent weight of the displacer is measured by a torsion spring known as a
torque tube assembly, which transforms the weight variations into an angular
movement of a torque tube shaft.
The angular movement can be used to drive a pneumatic or electronic transmitter or
controller, producing an indicating or controlling output signal in direct proportion to
the liquid level from the bottom of the displacer.
The principle of the torque tube is schematically given in the figure.
One end of the tube is fixed on a flange while the free end is connected to the
displacer arm, which is acting as a lever.
The apparent weight Wa of the displacer, applies to the tube a torque T:
T = Wa × l
Where l is the length of the displacer arm.
T = (Wd − Fup )× l = (Wd − A × L × ρ f × g )× l
Where A is the area of the displacer and L is the height of the liquid relative to the
bottom of the displacer.
8-8
Pneumatic controller
As a consequence, the tube twists by the amount (for small valves of temperature) of:
T
α=
K
Where K is the constant of torsion of the tube
The torque tube behaves like a spring where the force is replaced by the torque and
the linear displacement by the angular displacement.
Inside the tube, a rod is welded to the closed end of the torque tube and is free to
rotate at the other end.
This rod transmits the tube rotation out of the flanged end.
The system is therefore very well suited for a perfect sealing.
α=
(Wd − A × L × ρ f × g )× l
K
So when the liquid level L builds up around the displacer, its apparent weight
decreases and, as a consequence, so does the angle a.
Obviously, if the level is below the bottom of the displacer or above its top, no further
change in the apparent weight takes place and therefore, no further indication of level
change is possible.
The total variation in level measurement is therefore, governed by the height of the
displacer.
If for the same torque tube, the height is increased, the section has to be decreased
consequently so as to keep the total volume of the displacer constant.
Note: The zero of the device is independent from the density of the liquid.
The total deflection depends on the length of the displacer and on the density of the liquid.
As the angular variation of the output is very small, an amplifier will be needed to give a
readable output signal.
The same device can be used to ensure liquid density, provided the displacer is all the time
completely immersed in the liquids.
LIQUID-LIQUID INTERFACE
Displacement units can be also used to measure the position of the interface
between two immiscible liquids having different specific gravities.
This is commonly down to measure the interface between oil and water in a
separator to allow the oil and water to be drawn off the vessel individually. In this
application, it is essential that the displacer is always submerged in liquid.
9-9
Pneumatic controller
10 - 10
Pneumatic controller
11 - 11
Pneumatic controller
12 - 12
Pneumatic controller
1.3.1 Role
This equipment is designed to operate in conjunction with a normally closed
automatic control valve in controlling the liquid level in a continuously supplied
vessel.
1.3.3 Description
It is composed of three basic elements:
− A plunger
− A torque tube
− Regulation and supply equipment
PLUNGER
The plunger (volume 100 cu. ins., weight 4 3/4 lbs) is made of stainless steel.
TORQUE TUBE ASSEMBLY
the torque tube assembly consists of the rotary shaft and the torque tube itself. The
rotary shaft is usually made of steel but it can be Monel or Iconel. The rotary shaft
converts the Archimedes' upthrust into angular displacement of the flapper.
Note: since the torque tube-plunger assembly is fitted under tension with the torque tube
attempting to raise the plunger, the lower the liquid level, the greater the couple on the torque
tube.
13 - 13
Pneumatic controller
14 - 14
Pneumatic controller
15 - 15
Pneumatic controller
16 - 16
Pneumatic controller
17 - 17
Pneumatic controller
18 - 18
Pneumatic controller
19 - 19
Pneumatic controller
20 - 20
Pneumatic controller
Displacers are available in solid plastic (6000 psig max. working pressure) or
optional 304 SST (1440 psig max. working pressure) for either horizontal or
vertical mounting.
Type Hub.Size Displacer Size Material
(inch) (inch) Plastic 304 SST
2 1-7/8 X 12 X X
244 V 1-7/8 x 12 X x
3&4 2-3/4 x 8 X X
279 V 2 1-7/8 x 9 X ...
279 VBU 2 1-7/8 X 9 X ...
X-available. Special displacers can be provided on request.
Principle of operation:
− Direct Acting
Increasing process level gives an increasing controller output
− Reverse Acting
Decreasing process level gives an increasing controller output
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
21 - 21
Pneumatic controller
DIRECT ACTING
Supply pressure of 20 to 50 psig is supplied to chamber "A". On rising level,
disc "B" moves to restrict nozzle opening "C" and pressure builds on
diaphragm "E". When the force on diaphragm "E" is great enough to
overcome the force of the relay springs, the diaphragm assembly moves toward
the inner valve "H" closing exhaust port "G". Both exhaust "G" and supply "F"
are now closed. As the diaphragm assembly continues to move, supply port
"F" opens to pressurize chamber "J" and the control valve. Diaphragm "K" is
now pressurized with a force opposite of diaphragm "E". Since chambers "L"
and "M" are vented to atmosphere there is no influencing force on diaphragm
"N". Diaphragms "K" and "E" seeking an equilibrium, enable proportional
control. As the process level drops, disc "B" moves away from nozzle "C".
The force across diaphragm "K plus the force of the relay spring is now greater
than the force on diaphragm "E", the diaphragm assembly moves down,
closing supply port "F". As the pressure on diaphragm "E" continues to
decrease, exhaust port "G" opens and allows the pressure on the control valve
diaphragm to bleed to atmosphere.
REVERSE ACTING
For reverse acting proportional control, the principle of operation remains the
same but the controller assembly is mounted on top of the flexure tube
assembly. This enables an increasing signal to the control valve diaphragm on
decreasing liquid level.
SNAP-ACTING CONTROL
DIRECT ACTING
With increased level, nozzle "C" is open and 20 to 50 psig supply pressure is in
chambers "L" and "J" ad loading the control valve. The pressures on
diaphragm "K" are opposite and equal. The pressure on diaphragm "N" is
upward because chamber "M" is vented to atmosphere.
As the liquid level decreases, disc "B" will cover nozzle "C". This causes
pressure to build up on diaphragm "E" overcoming the relay spring and the
opposite force on diaphragm "N". The increased pressure on diaphragm "E"
closes supply port "G" and opens exhaust port "F". Chamber "J" and the
control valve loading pressure are vented to atmosphere. With chamber "J"
22 - 22
Pneumatic controller
vented to atmosphere, the forces in chamber "L" on diaphragms "N" and "K"
are opposite and equal. The relatively unopposed force o diaphragm "E" now
causes the pilot to snap closed.
As the liquid level increases, disc "B" will uncover nozzle "C". This bleeds the
pressure from diaphragm "E". The relay sprig close exhaust port "F" and open
supply port "G". chamber "J" is pressurized and the forces on diaphragm "K"
are neutralized again. The unopposed pressure on diaphragm "N" causes the
pilot to snap open.
REVERSE ACTING
For revere snap-acting control, the principle of operation remains the same but
the controller assembly is mounted below the flexure tube assembly. This
ensures an increasing signal to the control valve diaphragm on decreasing
liquid level.
23 - 23
Pneumatic controller
24 - 24
Pneumatic controller
So the valve will stroke completely between 350 psi and 450 psi.
25 - 25
Pneumatic controller
26 - 26
Pneumatic controller
27 - 27
Pneumatic controller
− Increase to 75% nominal pressure, adjusting as above and check for 3 PSI or
less.
− Adjust as above, apply 100% nominal pressure and check for 3 PSI or less.
TESTING BELLOWS ALIGNMENT
− • Put proportional band close to zero, with no pressure on the Bourdon Tube
− • Adjust set point to give 9 PSI output
− • Mark position of set point on scale
− • Apply 100% nominal pressure to Bourdon Tube
− • Adjust set point to give 9 PSI output
− • Mark the position of the set point on the scale
The two marks should be at approximately the same distance from the 50% line.
If this is not so, it is necessary to change the bellows which may have been
subjected to excess pressure or other cause of damage.
Note: If the nozzle is positioned for direct action, then read 15 PSI for 3 PSI and vice versa.
FIELD REGULATION
− Ensure that the valve supply pressure to the Bourdon Tube is fully open.
− Ensure that the supply pressure is set at 20 PSI.
− Adjust proportional band setting to 10% for safety.
− Adjust set point to give 15 PSI output to close the valve.
− Check for correct operation of the controller by moving the Bourdon Tube
manually. A small deflection should give a large alteration in output pressure.
− Adjust proportional band to a value giving minimum pumping and alteration
in differential pressure for a relatively constant static pressure.
28 - 28
Pneumatic controller
MAINTENANCE
Two important points:
− Draining the pressure reducer filter bowl occasionally to prevent liquid
interfering with controller operations. A small drain valve is fitted for this
purpose.
− Clean the restrictor orifice occasionally by pressing the pin to allow free
passage of pilot air through the relay orifice.
OPERATING INCIDENTS
Failure to obtain complete pressure range to the control valve:
− Ensure that the output pressure gauge reads correctly
− Check for faults in the lines and unions.
Pressure pulsations on the output pressure or cycling:
− The proportional band being set too low can produce cycling at the outlet of a
controller.
− Check that the valve is not blocked or seized by a foreign body (hydrates etc.)
− If the valve plug operates too close to the seat, the valve is probably over-
sized.
FAULTS
− Linkage broken between Bourdon Tube and flapper.
− Ruptured relay diaphragms.
29 - 29
Pneumatic controller
30 - 30
Pneumatic controller
31 - 31
Oil volume
SECTION 12
1-1
Oil volume
1.1 TANKS
2-2
Oil volume
The surge tank is normally a vertical, 100 bbl single compartment tank that can
operate up to 50 psi. This makes it ideal for work with H2S. the gas line is taken
along the boom, or to the pit with the separator gas line.
The tank is fitted with a graduated sightglass so that volumes can be measured.
The tank is also fitted with a safety valve and rupture disc.
Advantages: Pressurised, for use with H2S, possible to measure GOR2 if an
orifice meter and control valve are fitted on gas outlet line. This
tank can be used for measuring clean up returns, because it is
a pressurised vessel.
Disadvantages: Cost, only single compartment. Unable to dip tank.
3-3
Oil volume
4-4
Oil volume
Safety Check the validity of the official test documentation of the surge
tank
Check the setting of the safety valve before starting operations
Check the condition of the rupture disc.
Tanks must be earthed and the resistance value checked.
2
(minimum section of 1 cm cable )
Ensure an unrestricted flow from the vessel is available before
flowing in. Empty all liquids before flowing in and be beware of
any residual H2S.
Any residual liquid or gas must be evacuated with steam before
working inside a tank or any welding job on the equipment.
Flushing with water is NOT sufficient.
Breathing apparatus is mandatory when entering or working
inside a tank.
Empty tanks and vessels prior to transportation or lifting.
The flow rate should always be limited so as not to fill the tank
too rapidly, 30 min. filling time is a reasonable figure, it
corresponds to 3800 bbl per day or 160 bbl / hr. for the 100
bbl surge tank. Never fill the tank above 80 % of it's capacity.
A flowrate of 1350 bbl per day is the maximum for the 35 bbl
surge tank.
In case of the calibration of a 3" vortex flow meter the flow rate
has to be increased to 5000 bbl / day, but the flowing time has
to be reduced accordingly, in all cases someone should be on
standby near the tank to divert the flow from the tank if
necessary.
A surge tank must be used whenever H2S is expected or
suspected during a test.
A wizard press. controller acts on an normally open automatic
control valve and regulates the pressure inside the surge tank ,
the gas is evacuated to the flare line. This valve closes
whenever the pressure is below 40 psi. if the wizard is set
correctly, the valve will be fully open if the pressure inside the
tank exceeds 70 psi.
The liquid level is adjusted manually so constant supervision is
still required, HI - LO pilots are installed to indicate if the level
is above or below pre-set limits.
A safety valve and a rupture disc on top of the surge tank can
prevent the bursting of the tank due to excess pressure.
Never tie the surge tank gas line into the separator gas outlet.
Never fill the tank beyond 80% of its capacity.
Ensure the tank and flare knock-out drum is grounded.
Offshore an earth strap bolted to the deck. On land, an earth
stake driven into the ground. In dry climates water the earth
stake daily!. Earth straps should have a .cross sectional area of
at least 1 cm2
5-5
Oil volume
6-6
Oil volume
6. Check operation of the HI - Lo level alarms before starting test. To start from
a completely empty tank, the Lo-Level alarm has to be bypassed until the
liquid level is above the Lo - Level sensor.
7. The filling and emptying of the tank must be supervised at all times.
8. The pressure in the tank is insufficient for burning to a burner. The transfer
pump must be used to empty the tank.
Note : When using tank for meter calibration ensure "O" level is above manhole cover.
(Manhole can give significant error). Check date and condition of rupture disc. Ensure the
gas outlet line goes to pit or along to end of burner boom.
7-7
Oil volume
1.2.1 Principle
It is a calibrated container into which oil can be admitted under the same
conditions as the separator.
The oil is then slowly decompressed and the shrinkage value can be read off
directly, expression %, form a graduated scale.
8-8
Oil volume
9-9
Oil volume
Before starting shrinkage measurement, flush the sight glass 3 times to bring
fresh oil into the sight glass. (In the case where the shrinkage tester is connected
to sight glass. On some separators the shrinkage tester is tied into the oil line)
a. Check that all valves are closed.
b. Open valves V1, 2 and 9 and thereby pressurize the tester.
c. Close V9 and open V12 to sweep the separator of any gas from previous
measurement.
d. Close V12. Repeat steps b and c 3 times.
e. Open V9 again and pressurise tester. Open valves V5, 7 and V11 and thereby
slowly begin to fill tester.
f. When the level reaches the bottom of the tester sight glass close V11 and V9
open V12 and flush the tester contents to a bucket. This flushes the lines and
tester with fresh oil.
g. Open V9 again, then open V11 and slowly begin to fill the tester.
h. When the level reaches the "O" mark on the tester, close valve V11 and V7.
Close also V2 and V9.
i. If level is above "O" mark, proceed as follows: Very gently open V12 and
VERY SLOWLY drop level. At "O" mark close V12. Monitor tester pressure,
ensure it comes back to separator pressure. Leave 2-3 minutes to stabilize.
j. If level is below "O" mark (Separator level low), proceed as follows: Open V7
and V11, then open VERY SLOWLY V10, level will be "pulled up" very
Monitor tester pressure, ensure it comes back to separator pressure. Leave
2-3 minutes to stabilize.
k. At this point all valves on the shrinkage tester should be closed. (Including V2
V7 on sight glass.)
l. Open VERY SLIGHTLY valve V10 to allow the sample to slowly degas. The
nozzle, which makes it easier to control the rate of degassing.
m. The level in the tester will fall, after decompression is complete (+/- 1-2 hours)
the shrinkage value can be read of the scale, directly in percent. The final
temperature shall also be read, this temperature shall be used to
calculate the "K" (VCF) factor. (Volume reduction)
Oil flow rate coming from separators can generally be measured by gauging the
reception tank or flowing the oil through a positive flow meter.
The producer is only interested in the amount of stock tank oil the well is
producing i.e. degassed oil at 60°F and 14.73 psi. This is a very accurate method
of measurement. If the oil has passed through a separator, only the tank
temperature will need to be taken into account (BSW and shrinkage will not be
factors)
Generally most positiv Floco meter. Some correction factors have to be included in
the oil flow calculations for:
• amount of volume reduction due to gas entrained in the oil (shrinkage).
• amount of volume reduction due to water and solids in the oil (BSW).
10 - 10
Oil volume
• temperature of the oil. An increase above 60°F of the oil increases the
apparent flow rate.
• the oil in the separator is under pressure and the apparent oil flow rate is
greater.
11 - 11
Oil volume
DESCRIPTION
Type : F 2500-2
Service : H2S - 720 PSI WP
Liquid meter dia. : 2" (3")
Ends : flange ASA 300 LBS RF
Flow rate : 3 - 60 GPM (90)
Non reset register - 7 wheel totalizer readout in U.S. barrels No. 3059
Overall length face-to-face : 304,8 mm
12 - 12
Oil volume
LAYOUT
13 - 13
Oil volume
N° DESCRIPTION
1 Body bolt, 3/8 - 24 x 1 1/4 Soc.Hd
2 Washer, 3/8 Flat
3 Nut, blind
4 O-ring, bearing seal
6 Nut, bearing
7 Sideplate, register-side, plain-side
8 Wearplate
9 Rotor bearing
10 Hinge Pin, Rotor
11 Rotor Hinge Assembly
12 Spring
13 Spring grommet
14 Hub Assembly
15 Wedge
16 O-ring, body seal
17 Liner
18 Meter Body
19 Dowel pin
20 Bridge Seal (set of two)
21 Bridge
22 Drive Screw
23 Nameplate
24 Bridge screw, 5/16 -18 x 7/8 Soc.Hd
25 Bridge screw washer
26 Bushing, O-ring
27 Drive pin
28 Drive coupling and shaft assembly
29 Magnet, drive
30 E-ring
31 Housing, bearing assembly
32 O-ring, Buna-N
33 Magnet, driven, assembly
34 Drive pin
35 Worm
36 Screw, 10-32 x 1/2
37 Register adapter assembly
38 Worm gear assembly
39 Calibration gear, drive (See Section 5.2)
40 Calibration gear, driven (see Section 5.2)
41 Register assembly
42 Not Required
43 Register gasket
44 Gasket, Seal
45 Glass Register
46 Retainer, Register Glass
47 Register Box Assembly (includes Items 43, 44, 45, 48 & 49)
48 Lid, Register, Housing
49 Pin Register Lid
14 - 14
Oil volume
15 - 15
Oil volume
PRINCIPLE
The liquid flowing through the meter creates a VORTEX in an offset chamber.
The VORTEX rotational velocity is proportional to the flowrate and is measured
directly on a readout meter which is driven by the rotor through a magnetic
coupling.
ACCURACY
Factory Calibration ± 0.5% of reading
Repeatability ± 0.2% of reading
BALL BEARINGS SLEEVE BEARINGS
RANGE
2" - 850 to 6850 bbls/d 700 to 8500 bbls/d
3" - 2050 to 17000 bbls/d 3400 to 22000 bbls/d
16 - 16
Oil volume
CONSTRUCTION
Roots Vortex Series P liquid meters are manufactured in five pipe sizes - 1", 2",
3", 4" and 6" - and in a variety of materials and bearings types. They are intended
for handling clear liquids at flow rates, pressures and temperatures within their
nameplate ratings.
The construction of a Roots Vortex meter is described by its model number. The
diagram on the following page explains the Model Number system.
MAINTENANCE
Meter application will govern the frequency at which maintenance is required.
Periodic inspection is recommended as preventative maintenance.
INSPECTION
A recommended inspection check list should include at least the following items:
• Check externally for leaks.
• Check for obstruction to flow by foreign objects.
• Remove the cover and inspect the rotor assembly for worn or damaged parts.
Particular attention should be given to the bearings.
• Remove the readout and check for proper operation
17 - 17
Oil volume
INSTALLATION DIAGRAM
Line drawing illustrating the correct flow direction when facing the read-out hub-top
view. The letter “A” or “B” will be found on the meter code (register)
18 - 18
Oil volume
REPAIR
Before attempting disassembly, depressurize and drain the line. It is not
necessary to remove the meter from the line for normal repairs.
CALIBRATION
Each Ball Vortex liquid meter is calibrated at the factory and the calibration plug
cover is sealed. Factory calibration is accomplished using well designed, carefully
maintained proving equipment. Meter inaccuracy after installation is frequently the
result of improper installation or faulty standards of comparison.
If meter registration is suspect, first check the installation to be sure all
requirements are met. When using a gravimetric proving system, specific gravity
and temperature must be carefully considered in computing the volumetric
equivalent of the weight of the liquid used for testing.
For field proving the recommended flow standard is a large volumetric calibrated
tank or pipeline type ball piston prover.
In Production testing the volumetric tank method is exclusively used for meter
calibration.
Errors found after proving are accounted for in the arithmetical calculations of oil
volumes, by introducing a correction factor. The calibration plug is NEVER
adjusted in the field.
The proving tank should be equal to at least the amount passed by the meter in
one minute at its maximum rate.
If meter registration is found to be low, check first for a damaged rotor or worn or
damaged bearings, before attempting any adjustment.
If meter registration is found to be high, check for upstream obstructions which
could result in increased liquid velocity, or an obstruction under the septum which
will cause over registration.
Liquid flowing at or near it's vapour pressure, may flash and cause over
registration as will entrained gas.
If the meter does not register, check for proper installation of the readout device. If
properly installed, check the readout for proper operation by removing and turning
by hand.
LUBRICATION
The bearings of the Roots Vortex meter are lubricated by the liquid being metered.
However, if the meter is handling contaminated liquids or solutions which tend to
precipitate solids, it is advisable to periodically flush the meter with clean liquid or
water. Flushing is particularly important if the meter will stand idle while filled with
solutions which can precipitate solids.
Remove the readout by loosening the three set screws and twisting the readout as
it is pulled off the mounting ring. Remove the cover screws and then remove the
readout side cover by pulling straight away from the meter. Protect the rotor
during this step.
The rotor assembly may come out when the cover is removed. If it remains, it
should be removed by gently pulling on it while taking precautions to prevent
damage.
19 - 19
Oil volume
20 - 20
Oil volume
21 - 21
Oil volume
22 - 22
Oil volume
The computation of the oil flow rate from the separator is one of the fundamental
functions to be performed during a well test. The oil rate is calculated using either
the FLOCO or the ROTRON. The meter which will be utilised, depends entirely on
the flowrate. The following are the flowrate ranges for the 2" floco and the 3" rotron.
FLOCO Range 200 - 2200 bbls/day
ROTRON Range 3400 - 22000 bbls/day (Sleeve type bearing)
It can be seen that the two ranges do not overlap. These are however, the official
manufacturers ranges, experience has shown that the 2" floco will operate up to
3500 bbls/day. It is far preferable to use the floco somewhat above its stated range,
than to use the rotron below its range. (The accuracy of the rotron below 3400
bbl/day is very poor).
A number of factors come into play concerning the oil rate. They are:
"K" (or VCF) factor:
The volume reduction factor due to temperature, known as the "K" factor. This is
derived from tables or a chart.
1.4.1 Shrinkage
The "SHRINKAGE" is the reduction of the volume of oil due to the release of
dissolved gas in solution leaving the separator.
Oil volumes are always reported at "STANDARD CONDITIONS" usually 14.73
psia at 60°F. The oil leaving the separator will always be at elevated pressures
and temperatures and will therefore normally still contain some dissolved gas. In
taking the oil to atmospheric conditions this gas will be released, and the oil
volume will reduce because of it. The shrinkage can be derived from either a
shrinkage tester, gauge tank or from tables.
The method used will depend on equipment available and client.
In order of reliability they are:
• The gauge tank method
• The shrinkage tester
• Tables of charts. They only really give an approximation and make several
assumptions about the fluid that may or may not be true.
The temperature used to calculate the "K" factor above is THE FINAL
SHRINKAGE TEMPERATURE, either of the tank or the shrinkage tester, and
NOT the flowing temperature of the oil line of the separator. If the charts are used
to ESTIMATE the shrinkage then the "K" factor will be 1, because the charts give
the shrinkage at 60°F.
23 - 23
Oil volume
1.4.2 "BSW":
The BSW is the Basic Sediments and Water, that is the amount of water and
sediment present in the well flow. It is normally measured by taking samples of well
flow at the choke manifold and oil outlet of the separator. A centrifuge is then used
to separate out the constituent parts of the sample. The glasses are graduated so
that the BSW can be read of as a percentage. The BSW will be introduced into the
oil computation so that the final oil rate calculated reflects the pure oil rate alone. It
is important to understand that if water is being dumped from the separator then the
BSW at the choke manifold will NOT be the same as the BSW at the oil outlet.
theoretically, in this case, if the water level is kept low in the separator the BSW at
the oil outlet will be zero. If, however, water is not dumped from the separator, but
simply allowed to leave the separator with the oil, then the BSW at both choke
manifold and meter run should be the same. Essentially, in a nutshell, the BSW
used for oil calculation will be the BSW at the meter run.
BSW measurement
The Basic Sediment and Water has to be determined in order to be able to
calculate the NET oil flow from the well, and to be aware of the presence of water
and sediments.
METHOD
The basic piece of equipment for BSW determination is the centrifuge. This may
be driven by an electric motor or hand driven.
Samples of well flow are taken from the well head, upstream of the choke, and
placed int he centrifuge in order to separate out the oil, water and sediment. In
the case of emulsions a demulsifier may have to be used. (Only a drop in each
glass.) The glasses should be filled to the 10 ml mark (or 100 ml depending on
size of glass) to make percentage calculations simple. The method of sample
taking is important. If the needle on the choke manifold is only cracked open to fill
the sample glasses, the sample taken will not be representative.
A good flow into a bucket has to be established and a plastic container filled. This
container should then be well shaken and the sample glasses filled form it.
Centrifuge the samples for a good 2 - 3 minutes. The percentage of sediment and
water can then be read off the millilitre scale. The average of the two readings is
taken as the result.
If the separator is running two phases only this BSW shall be entered into the oil
calculation. If the separator is running 3 phase, (water is being dumped and
measured from the separator), the BSW is for information only on the "Well Test
Data Sheet".
Caution: The centrifuge runs at a very high speed, never open an electric centrifuge until
the rotor has stopped completely.
All meters have an error, it is normal to ascertain this error before the test begins.
This is achieved by pumping water through the meters, at a rate around the
expected well flow rate. The flow is directed to the gauge tank, where the precise
amount of water pumped can be measured. (Min 20 - 30 bbls). by reading the
meter before and after, and comparing with the tank reading, a meter factor can be
arrived at.
24 - 24
Oil volume
This is a method whereby a combined correction factor for meter and shrinkage
factor is calculated using a gauge or surge tank. It is the most accurate, and
therefore most preferable, method of calculating these two factors.
The procedure is as follows. During a given flow period in the test the well flow is
directed from the burner to the gauge/surge tank. At the precise moment that the
valves are operated, the meter is read. It is necessary before starting to have a
level of dead oil in the tank. Some 20 or 30 bbls of oil are passed to the tank.
When this quantity of oil has passed to the tank, the flow directed back to the
burner again. As before the meter is read at the moment the flow is diverted. What
we have now is a precise quantity of oil having passed through the meter to the
tank, say 25 bbls. The oil in the tank is now left to "shrink". Because the tank is at
atmospheric pressure the oil will gradually degas, and shrink due to this degassing.
When the oil has completely degassed (can take 2 - 3 hours or more) the new tank
level is read and converted to bbls. This may be 21 bbls. As before by dividing the
tank volume by meter volume we get a correction factor. This factor represents a
composite correction, comprising meter factor AND shrinkage. The final tank
temperature is also read and form this the "K" (or VCF) factor is calculated.
One other property which is measured is the oil Specific Gravity. The SG does not
go directly into the calculation of oil rates, but may be needed for example, if the
estimation of shrinkage charts are used. It is an important parameter which is
25 - 25
Oil volume
normally entered into the oil calculation sheet. The SG is an expression of the
"weight" of the oil in relation to fresh water. It is simply a ratio, and has NO units. It
should NOT be confused with density!
It is measured using glass hydrometers. The temperature is also measured at the
same time and the SG measured must be corrected to 60°F (15°C if in SI).
26 - 26
Daniel
SECTION 13
1-1
Daniel
2-2
Daniel
1.1.1 Installation
− Remove all scale, sediment and dirt from the flange faces, pipe and Daniel
Box. The roughness of the inside of the pipe should correspond with
commercially finished steel pipe. Gasket the line flanges and install the fitting
in the line, be sure that the flow direction correspond with the arrow on the
body.
− Install bleeder valve (N°10B) and grease gun (N°23) to connections on Daniel
Box.
− With no orifice plate in line and the gate valve closed, do a hydraulic pressure
test corresponding to the test pressure of the Daniel Box, line pipe and
flanges i.e. Separator test pressure. After the hydraulic test, check for any
welding slag or foreign matter that may be in the pipe and remove it.
1.1.2 Operation
Operation of the Daniel Box is shown in Figure 1. However, there are some points
that should be raised when using a Daniel Box.
− If the gas flow rate is now known, always put an orifice that is larger and work
down until the right size plate is in the line.
− Lift the orifice plate into the top compartment just before a choke change.
3-3
Daniel
4-4
Daniel
5-5
Daniel
1. Lubricate the slide valve one per month, whether or not the orifice plate is
removed.
2. Before lubricating, open the bleeder valve and close both the slide valve
and the equalizer valve.
4. Inject lubricant slowly. If done hastily, high pressure from the lubricant
may rupture valve seat gasket or force apart the valve and seat.
5. Crank stem all the way in to grease fitting. If more lubricant is required,
repeat steps 3 and 4 above.
To clean out dried or cracked lubricant when fitting has not been operated for long
periods of time, close slide valve, de-pressure line and fill top chamber with a
grease solvent. Also, solvent may be forced through grease fitting with a large
chamber grease gun. After cleaning, replace with new lubricant.
1.1.4 Maintenance
It is recommended that all Senior-type orifice fittings be operated once every thirty
days. Slide valve (Part n°5) should be opened and closed and lubrication applied
through Part n°23. If plate inspection is not required, it is recommended that gear
shafts (n°6 and n°7) be rotated. Under conditions where there is likely to be an
accumulation of sediment for any cause, blow-down valves should be installed in
place of pipe plugs at bottom of fitting and blown as often as required. Plate carrier
should always be raised into upper chamber before blowing or cleaning through
blow-down valves.
6-6
Daniel
EXPLODED VIEW
7-7
Daniel
8-8
Barton
SECTION 14
BARTON RECORDER
1-1
Barton
MODEL 199
2-2
Barton
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
RECORDERS
3-3
Ranarex
SECTION 15
1-1
Ranarex
1.1 ROLE
− The Ranarex Gas Gravimeter allows the accurate determination of specific
gravity of gas.
− The instrument operates on the principle that the kinetic energy of air on
counter rotating impellers.
Figure 1
The Ranarex Gravimeter uses dynamic forces to measure the specific gravity of
gas. The simple operating principle is illustrated in Figure 1. The chassis of the
instrument forms two cylindrical gas-tight measuring chambers, each having
separate inlet and outlet connections. Each chamber contains an impeller and an
impulse wheel, which have straight radial vanes. These wheels are mounted on
separated shafts, facing each other but not touching, so that each chamber
resembles an automotive fluid coupling. An electric motor and drive belt rotates both
impellers at the same speed and in the same direction.
The impellers draw continuous flows of gas simple and dry reference air into their
respective chambers and spin the gas and air against the vanes of the
corresponding impulse wheels which are proportional to the densities of the gas and
of the reference air. This torques is transmitted from the chambers by the impulse
wheel pivot shafts to two external measuring wheels. The upper measuring wheel
has a spiral shaped rim (cam) and the lower measuring wheel has a circular rim.
A flexible tape is wrapped over the measuring wheel rims in the crossed direction so
that the gas and air torque exerts two opposing forces on the tape. These opposing
forces prevent continuous rotation of the measuring wheels but permit controlled
2-2
Ranarex
motion of the system as the gas torque changes. As the system moves, a pointer
attached to the hub on the upper or cam wheel moves over the indicating scale,
which is graduated to read specific gravity
Figure 2 explains the geometry of the measuring system for the two operating
conditions. The left view shows the position of the cam and reference wheel when
checking the "zero". This check is made each time the gravimeter is started, by
operating with dry air flowing through both chambers. Both torques’ "Ta", produced
by the air, will be equal and the measuring wheels will move until the opposing
forces "Fa" are equal. The radii (moment arms) "Ra" must be equal to produce
equal forces from equal torque. The angular position at which the cam radius equals
the reference wheel radius corresponds to the 1.000 graduation on the indicating
scale.
The right views of Figure 2 shows the position of the system when measuring
specific gravity below 1.000. Gas is admitted to the upper chamber and dry
reference air to the lower chamber. The lighter gas creates a smaller torque "Tg" in
the upper chamber than the torque "Ta" created by the air in the lower chamber.
Temporarily, the upward force "Fg" created by the cam wheel will be smaller than
the downward force "Fa" created by the reference wheel. The reference wheel and
tape will then turn the cam wheel clockwise toward the balance position shown. As
the cam wheel rotates the radius "Rg" gradually decreases. As the radius
decreases, the resulting upward force "Fg" gradually increases and eventually is
restored to its original value. When "Fg" becomes equal to "Fa" they will balance
and motion will cease. Meanwhile the cam wheel has turned the pointer to a new
3-3
Ranarex
angular position on the scale. The operator reads the inner circle of scale
graduations having a range of 0.520 to 1.030 specific gravity.
It is evident for these examples that the radius of the cam - not the force it exerts -
changes as the gas density varies. In effect, the measuring system divides the
radius of the cam by the radius of the reference wheel. This is the equivalent of
dividing the torque and density of the gas in the upper chamber by the torque and
density of the reference air in the lower chamber, which is the specific gravity.
To measure specific gravity above 1.000, the gas is admitted to the lower chamber
and the dry reference air is admitted to the upper chamber. The measuring system
then divides the torque and density of the air in the upper chamber by the torque
and density of the gas in the lower chamber. This is the reciprocal of the specific
gravity. The measuring system and pointer will reach a balance position as they did
with gas below 1.000. However, the user reads the outer circle of scale graduations
from 0.970 to 1.90, which are placed at the reciprocal values of the inner circle.
As described later, the pressures of the gas and reference air are equalized and the
temperatures of the gas and reference air are equalized. In addition, the belt and
pulley drive turns the impellers at equal speeds. Therefore, changes in pressure,
temperature and motor speed affect both torques equally. Since the torques
produce opposing forces the effects of varying pressure, temperature and motor
speed are cancelled.
The length of the flexible tape is not critical for accurate measurement. The circular
measuring wheel, which acts primarily as the reference device also serves as a
take-up, winding or unwinding the tape as required.
A high-capacity air drier is built into the Gravimeter to dry incoming ambient air for
use as reference air and zeroing air. The Gravimeter is also equipped with a rotary
selector valve which directs the flows of gas sample and dry reference air to the
correct chamber for checking "zero", for measuring gas below 1.000 or for
measuring gas below 1.000 or for measuring gas above 1.000 specific gravity.
The drive motor is a low-current, non-arcing type for operation on 115 volt AC.
When the Gravimeter is to be used in a motor vehicle or in an area where AC is not
available, a DC-AC transistorized inverter is supplied to change 12-volt DC battery
current to the correct AC supply. A different motor pulley should be ordered for 50 or
60 Hz.
Measuring «sour gas» will not damage the RANAREX. The impellers and impulse
wheels is molded phenol; the chamber and casing are aluminum; the shafts are
stainless steel and all internal trim in contact with the gas is aluminum or stainless
steel. These materials are not attacked by dry or moist sour gas.
4-4
Ranarex
5-5
Ranarex
Caution: Do not operate RANAREX without first reading pages 5 and 6 Operating
Instructions.
on upper right side of RANAREX case. If also measuring gases above 1.000
specific gravity, also attach hose to nipple "HEAVY GAS OUTLET". These hoses
must remain attached when making air check or "zero point" check.
Caution: This type RANAREX Gravimeter is provided with a Pointer Lock (Figure 4 of the
Operating manual) which must be locked at all times when the RANAREX motor is not
operating. The function of the lock is to exert tension on the flexible tape, which connects the
cam and reference wheel (Figure 1). This tension maintains correct "tracking" of the tape
when the RANAREX is stopped. The user is cautioned to leave the lock applied until after
the RANAREX motor has been started and to apply the lock before shutting off the motor, to
avoid operating inconvenience and prevent damage to the RANAREX.
The "LOCK" position of the pointer is at the upper right corner of the scale, near the 0.970 -
1.030 graduations. The arrow of the knob and the legends shows the position of the locking
mechanism on the RANAREX front cover.
To check if the pointer is locked, turn the knob to "UNLOCK" and observe if the pointer drifts
downward, even though slightly. Then turn knob to "LOCK" position and observe if the
pointer snaps into original position. If doubt exists that the flexible tape is correctly tracked,
check as explained on page 7.
1.6.1 Procedure
The correct procedure for operating the RANAREX Gravimeter is described in the
instruction plate located over the center of the indicating scale and reproduced
here as Figure 5 of the Operating manual. It is recommended that the used
7-7
Ranarex
1.7 MAINTENANCE
1.7.1 Disassembly
When necessary to disassemble the Gravimeter, observe the sequence described
in the "Disassembly Procedure", page 12 of the Operating manual.
1.8 LUBRICATION
The motor bearing, impeller bearing and idler pulley bearing have long life
lubrication and should give long service. If the impeller bearing binds or become
extremely noisy, they may be lubricated as described on page 10 and 11 of the
Operating manual, or the complete assembly may be replaced. The idler pulley
8-8
Ranarex
bearing should be inspected and re-lubricated if it does not turn freely or becomes
noisy.
− Finally, with the cover held to the casing, check if the lower end of the lock
spring will snap between the détente pins and will be retained. If necessary,
bend the lower end of the spring toward, or away from, the front cover, if
required.
10 - 10
Gas flow rate computation
SECTION 16
1-1
Gas flow rate computation
d D
2.5 D 8D
PIPE TAPS
The differential pressure is measured across the orifice from taps located one inch
to either side of the orifice. The differential pressure is measured from taps located
at 2.5 D upstream (where D = I.D. of pipe). The orifice may be installed in the line
either between two flanges or in a Daniel's box. The orifice installed between two
flanges is called a diaphragm. It is circular in shape, made of stainless steel and has
2-2
Gas flow rate computation
a concentrically pierced in. calibrated orifice in it. Above the diaphragm is a tail,
which sticks out the flange. This tail has orifice and pipe line sizes engraved on it.
The flanges are bottled together with a diaphragm inside. The method is suitable for
steady flow. It is economical and easy to use. However, large variations in flow
would cause the insuring device to go off scale and another diaphragm to be put in.
If continuous fluctuations are occurring, then this is not suitable.
3-3
Gas flow rate computation
Qh = C ' hwpf
Where
Qh= Rate of flow at base conditions in cu/ft per hour
C'= Orifice flow constant. It is the rate of flow in cu/ft per hour at base
conditions when the pressure extension, hwpf = 1.000
hw= Differential pressure in inches of water
Pf= Static pressure in psia
hwpf = 1.000 = Pressure extension.
4-4
Gas flow rate computation
− the location of the static pressure tap
EXERCISE 1
Line Size = 5.761"
Orifice Size = 1.250
Static Pressure = 345 psig
Differential Pressure = 64" H2O
Gas Temperature = 110°F
Gas Specific Gravity = 0.791
(Pipe taps, static pressure taken downstream)
Calculate the flow rate/day
If the oil flow rate = 2.560 STO BPD, calculate the G.O.R.
EXERCISE 2
Line size = 7.981"
Orifice Size = 3.500
Static Pressure = 850 psig
Differential Pressure = 126" H2O
Gas Temperature = 143°F
Gas Specific Gravity = 0.695
(Flange taps, static pressure taken downstream)
Calculate the gas flow rate/day
If the oil flow rate = 6.895 STO BDP, calculate the G.O.R.
5-5
Gas flow rate computation
6-6
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
SECTION 17
HYDRATES
1-1
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
2 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
TexTeam Pump
To by pass flare
From W.H.
SEPARATOR
TexTeam Pump
Injection of methanol / glycal
3-3
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
1.2 HEATERS
The first question asked is why are heaters required in an offshore or on-shore well
testing package? Heaters are installed to heat the crude oil stream either to lower
its viscosity and/or to pass it in separation of the gas/oil or, more particularly, an oil
water emulsion. Another reason for having a heater in a test package is for gas well
testing. When gas under high pressure is passed through a choke to reduce its
pressure, it expands and cools. If this cooling is severe, it my result in hydrate
formation and blocking of all the connecting lines.
The basic heater design is aimed at combating this problem. The design is refereed
to as a split bundle type. The incoming stream, which has been expanded and
cooled through the choke manifold, passe directly into the high pressure coil,
consisting of a number of passes of high pressure pipe where the gas is re-heated.
The high-pressure stream then exists from the heater and passes through a heater
choke, where it is expanded, reduced in pressure and once again cooled. It passes
back into the heater and through the low-pressure coils and is re-heated.
A by-pass manifold should always be incorporated as part of the heater so that the
test stream can be diverted directly across the heater, without passing through it.
Increasingly high heater outputs are being asked for, especially in the North Sea,
where high surface pressures, high flow rates and cool temperatures lead to hydrate
formation.
Heaters are now in use with heat transfer capacities ranging from 1.5 to 4
MMBTU/HR with 2 MMBTU/HR being the most popular. They are fabricated with a
variety of heating methods:
− GAS FIRED
− OIL/DIESEL FIRED
− ELECTRICALLY FIRED
− HOT WATER CIRCULATION
− STEAM
The first three are indirect heaters; the last two are direct heaters. The two most
popular heaters are the gas fired and steam ones.
1. Steam Heaters are widely used in areas where steam is available e.g.
offshore production platforms because it is very safe and also has a
high heat transfer capacity. Only type of heater allowed in the North
Sea.
2. Gas fired heaters (indirect)
Heater consists of:
− Heater shell - thin walled horizontal vessel, having removable flanged covers
at both ends.
− Removable fire tube and burner assembly mounted on the lower portion of
one of the end covers.
− Removable coil assembly mounted on the upper portion of the opposite end
cover.
The heater is filled with water, covering both the firebox and the high pressure coil
assembly. This has two advantages - should the high-pressure coils rupture, the
4 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
well fluid will come into contact with water, the same applies when the firebox is
perforated.
Also installed above the firebox is the thermosiphon baffle. This gives better control
over the direction of the hot water currents, allowing greater heat transfer and it
reduces the possibility of steam generation, thus reducing scaling of the fire tube.
1.2.1 Description
5 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
1.2.2.1 Dimensions
Shell 3.450 mm x 8.140mm *
Overall Length 6.200 mm
Width 2.200 mm
Height 2.800 mm
2.2 Weight
Empty 11.300 kg
Full of water 17.300 kg
6 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
1.2.6 Connections
1.2.7 Operation
7 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
8 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
9 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
1.2.8 Safety
− Only personnel trained in the use of the heater may operate this equipment.
− The Geoservices heater can either operate on gasoil or gas from the
separator, if H2S is expected or suspected use the gasoil burner, (H2S when
burned releases SO4 another dangerous gas.)
− Check that the heater and ignition system is grounded.
− Check that the stack is properly mounted and that all bolts and seals are
tight.
− Before starting the heater you have to blow fresh air through the combustion
chamber during 5 to 10 minutes, this to sweep any gases from previous
operation and avoids an explosion. A special air blower is installed for this
purpose.
− While igniting the pilot flame the air blower should stay on and only when the
main burners are operating the air blower can be turned off.
− Stay away from the front of the burner while igniting and don't allow any other
person in the area (5 m around)
− Always turn off the main supplies of gasoil or gas when stopping the heater.
− Beware of hot surfaces on burner or vessel.
− Install heater outside zone 1 or zone 2.
− Drain heaters before any transportation and use only sweet water in the bath.
− Never use the adjustable choke as a valve.
− Check frequently for " wash and wear " on the adjustable choke.
− Remove measuring instruments before hammering on the wing unions.
− Use a sand trap when sand or salt production is expected in gas wells.
− Never flow a well trough the heater if no choke or choke seat is installed, this
to protect the internal threat of the choke seat.
10 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
Vent
R
RA1 A3 A1 Air
CM5
A2 A1 Inlet
A4 A6 A5
AA2 AA1
Reset
Sensor Button RA2
RA3
Air
Burner
Blow AG2
RG1 AG3 Air RG2 AG1
PG1 G2 RG1
11 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
PROBLEM CAUSES
Pilot flame off, burner stopped Check:-valve PG 1 is open-pilot gas
supply bottles-pilot gas press. is at least
0,4 bars-if air supply is on-if TC temp.
setting is above HTSD setting-if there is
any liquid in gas pilot line (drain scrubber)
Burner stopped Pilot flame off, (see above), fuel or gas
supply low or finished, Temperature set
on TC is reached, bad atomizing air or off.
Bad combustion Check if atomizing air is working properly
(valve A 4 open, A 6 closed) sufficient
pressure for fuel and air, see burner
section for further remedies.
Water boiling TC and HTSD set to high, temperature
controller’s defect. Or water level to low.
CM 5 pilot guard does not come on Adjust temperature sensor (bulb) closer to
after ignition. the pilot flame inside the burner housing.
Diesel supplies pressure to low. Not sufficient air supply, oilier O empty or
air filter F plugged.
Note: Before any intervention on the burner circuits you have to close all manuals operating
fuel and air valves, beware of hot surfaces.
1.3.1 Description
Chemical injectors are positive displacement type units powered by integral gas
motors. These injectors fill the requirements of a broad range of applications
because of their ability to achieve high discharge pressures (up to 20,000 psi) and
wide volume ranges. A horizontal plunger and vertical resilient check valve
arrangement assure high operating efficiency.
The standard pump head has a Ductile Iron body and 10-8 stainless steel trim. All
Stainless steel heads are also available for highly corrosive applications. A built-in
priming valve facilitates pump head priming, enables the operator to easily check
pump operation and offers a sample-catching device.
The pump frame and body castings are high-strength aluminum. The operating
mechanism operates in oil and is protected against dust and other atmospheric
influences.
A standard equipment safety valve offers protection against accidental
overpressure of the main diaphragm. The adjustable packing is equipped with a
lantern ring and a grease jack for lubricating the plunger and packing to insure long
life. No grease jack is furnished with Teflon packing.
12 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
1.3.2 Applications
13 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
14 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
1.3.3 Characteristics
• Model n° 5002
• Plunger size ¼"
• Operating ratio gas/fluid 1000/0
• Maximum discharge pressure (psig)
Hard packing 20 000
Soft packing 3 000
• Maximum volume
Intermittent GPH 0.83
Intermittent GPD 20
Continuous GPH 0.67
Continuous GPD 16
15 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
1.3.4 Installation
After removing pump from carton, inspect for possible damage in transit from
factory. If the pump has been damaged, file claim with carrier.
Bolt holes are provided for a permanent mounting (see drawing for dimensions). If
more detailed information is required, request TXT Blueprint.
Connect the suction line to pump head. When a reservoir is furnished with the
pump, the suction line is already connected. Fill the reservoir and open (all the
way) the sight feed shut-off assembly. It is important to have the valve open all the
w
ay when the pump is in operation because the valve seals-off in the open position
and prevents air from entering the suction line through the valve. A dual strainer is
furnished as part of this unit.
When a power unit model (less tanks) is purchased, a strainer should be piped into
the suction line to prevent sand, rust or other particles, which score the plunger or
possible four the check valves, from entering the pump head.
The sight feed assembly which can be used with the 3/8" and ½" plungers only. A
street ell and nipple is required to pipe the sight feed into the bottom bushing of the
pump head. This should be installed as shown. the inlet connections on the pump
head and the sight feed are ¼" FPT.
Connect the discharge line. The top connection on the pump head is the fluid
discharge and has a female ¼" pipe thread connection. A line check should be
installed in the discharge line as close to the point of injection as possible. For
pumps with 3/8" plunger, offers a ¼" line check either in brass or stainless steel
which will withstand working pressures of 3000 and 6000 psi respectively.
For further plunger sizes, ½", 1 and 1¼", offers the stainless steel line check which
withstands pressures up to 6000 psi. When installing these check valves note the
arrow on the body, which indicates the direction of flow.
Connect the power gas line. First blow power gas line clean to remove any loose
rust particles, slag, sand, etc.
Consider the pressure requirements of the pump. If the gas supply exceeds 50 psi
(consider erratic pressure), the pump should be equipped with a regulator to
reduce the gas pressure to 50 psi.
Note: The regulator pipe (Item 2, General Assembly) between the inlet valve and pilot valve
is for reducing only a small part of the gas supply to actuate the master valve. It does not
reduce the main gas supply.
Caution: The regulator does not regulate the pressure of the main gas supply. It is factory
set at 12 psi. Do not readjust them unless the pressure gauge indicates reading other than
12 psi. This is important because over-pressure will cause excessive wear.
16 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
The safety valve is for protection of the diaphragm and is set at 50 psi. Pressure
on the diaphragm should not in any case exceed 50 psi. Tie in gas line into inlet
valve.
Lubrication. Remove the cover plate and fill the chamber next to diaphragm with
oil.
Insert stick lubricant into the grease jack. No lubrication is required if the pump is
equipped with Teflon packing and chrome-plated plunger.
Adjust for desired volume by considering pump speed (see charts) and position of
pin. Different volumes can be achieved by short and long stroke setting (see
charts). The pump is assembled with the plunger travel-adjusting pin inserted in
the hole
of the plunger nearest the plunger-packing gland nut. This is the position of longest
stroke. To shorten the stroke places the pin in the other hole.
Start the pump by slowly opening the inlet valve. Prime the pump head by opening
the priming valve. After the pump discharges fluid without bubbles, close the
priming valve for normal operation. At this point make a visual check of the plunger
drip and using a flat blade screwdriver slowly tighten the gland nut to prevent
excess drip and waste of chemicals. Do not overtighten plunger packing.
It may be necessary to readjust the packing the next day. A slight leak during the
break-in period is beneficial. Sufficient time should be allowed to let the packing
"seat-in". Do not adjust packing under pressure.
If low volumes are being pumped, the pump head, the fluid discharge line and all
other fittings-up to the line check should be thoroughly purged of all air bubbles.
If, in replacing parts in the pump head, corrosion is noted, notify the TXT factory of
the type and name of the manufacturer of the compound being pumped. If any
excessive wear or excessive replacement of parts is noted the TXT factory should
be notified and the failing part numbers be identified. We are endeavoring to build
the best equipment possible and your suggestions are always appreciated.
1.3.6 Maintenance
17 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
18 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
19 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
20 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
21 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
22 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
23 - 26
Hydrates (Heater, Texsteam pump)
INJECTOR HEAD
24 - 26
Regulators
SECTION 18
REGULATORS
1-1
Regulators
1.1 ROLE
• To reduce the pressure
• To keep the downstream pressure constant
• To act, if necessary, as a filter.
1.2 DESCRIPTION
Regulators are generally composed of:
• A body in several parts
• A diaphragm
• A calibration spring
• A plug, its seat and a plug spring
• A filter element can be added
1.3 OPERATION
In order to go from upstream of the regulator to downstream, the gas to be reduced
passes across a plug seat system. The downstream pressure, against the
diaphragm, causes a force that is counter-balanced by the tension of the calibration
spring. Adjustment of the spring tension will enable the value of this force to be
adjusted.
Let us examine what happens when the downstream pressure in the regulator
varies:
• The downstream pressure is reduced
The spring tension is then greater than the force exerted by the gas pressure o the
diaphragm; consequently:
• The plug moves away from its seat
• The downstream pressure increases until the desired value is reached.
• The downstream pressure is increased
The spring tension is then less than the force exerted by the gas against the
diaphragm. Consequently:
• The plug pushed by its support spring, approaches its seat
• The downstream pressure falls until the desired value is reached.
1.3.2 Adjustment
The value of the downstream pressure range will be a function of the spring used.
To reduce the value of this range, a change of spring following the manufacturer
instructions is all that is necessary.
2-2
Regulators
The value of the downstream pressure (within its range) is obtained by adjusting the
spring tension with the aid of an adjustment screw. This tension plays the role of a set
point.
1.3.3 Maintenance
• Purge frequently
• Clean the porous cartridge if there is one.
1.3.4 Breakdowns
• Pierced diaphragm
• Blocked filter
4.1.1 ROLE
The object of this type of regulator is to supply, at constant pressure of air or gas,
all sorts of pneumatic controllers.
4.1.2 OPERATION
This has already been studied. Nevertheless, one should note the small channel
providing the communication between the regulator output and the diaphragm.
REMARK
If the downstream pressure is too great, the gas or air can vent through the hole in
the middle of the diaphragm.
• During normal operation, this hole is covered by the tapered top part of the
plug.
• The gas can vent to the atmosphere through an orifice in the bonnet cap, an
orifice that also allows the diaphragm to "breathe" during normal operation.
4.1.3 DISMANTLING AND REASSEMBLY
To dismantle the bonnet cap, begin by removing the spring calibration adjustment
screw.
4.1.4 ADJUSTMENT
The outlet pressure from the regulator is marked on the bonnet cap. The different
ranges possible are:
3-3
Regulators
4-4
Regulators
Control point will move the diaphragm off the valve stem, venting the
excess pressure to the atmosphere through a drilled vent in the spring
case.
INSTALLATION
WARNING
The vent hole drilled in the bonnet must not be plugged. On outdoor
installations this hole should be in the down position. If this is
impractical, protect the regulator so that moisture cannot enter the vent.
The Type 67FR must not be used for applications where gas cannot be
vented to the atmosphere. All pipelines should be thoroughly cleaned
and blown out before installing the regulator. Be sure that flow is in
accordance with the letters denoting "IN" and "OUT" on the body. Inlet
and outlet connections are tapped ¼" NPT. Install with the drain cock
down. The drain cock (key 17) should be opened periodically to allow
moisture, which has accumulated to drain. The regularity with which this
is done will depend on how much moisture is in the system.
OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION
As is the case with most regulators, the Series 67F and 67FR have an
outlet pressure rating lower than the inlet pressure rating. Some type of
over-pressure protection is needed if the actual inlet pressure exceeds
the 100 psig maximum operating outlet pressure rating. The maximum
inlet pressure rating is 250 psig.
Over-pressure protection should also be provided when the inlet
pressure is greater than the safe working pressure of downstream
equipment.
Full-capacity downstream relief protection must be provided with the 67F
design if upstream pressure is high enough to damage equipment
downstream. This also applies to the 67FR design, which only provides
for low capacity relief.
ADJUSTMENT
The outlet spring range is shown on the paper label attached to the
bonnet. Outlet pressure spring ranges are as follows:
Spring Range in psig Spring Color
3-20 Green
5-35 Cadmium
30-60 Blue
35-100 Red
The above spring ranges are recommended, although reduced pressure
down to O psig may be obtained with each spring.
To change the outlet setting of the spring, first loosen locknut (key 11).
Then turn adjusting screw (key 10) clockwise to increase outlet setting or
counter-clockwise to decrease outlet setting. Be sure to tighten locknut
after changing the setting.
5-5
Regulators
FISHER FR 67
6-6
Regulators
MAINTENANCE
CAUTION
Before disassembly or removing the regulator from the line, isolate it
from the pressure system and release all the pressure from the
regulator.
Due to normal wear, parts must be periodically inspected and replaced if
necessary. The frequency of inspection depends on the severity of the
service conditions.
Before disassembling the unit for diaphragm replacement, loosen the
locknut and turn the adjusting screw counter-clockwise until there is no
compression on the spring. Remove the six screws (key 12) and
separate the bonnet from the body. This exposes the diaphragm (key 7)
for replacement.
To replace the valve plug, remove the four cap screws (key 18) and
remove the filter cap (key 25). The filter adapter (key 13) can now be
removed with a deep socket wrench to gain access to the valve plug
(key 4).
When the filter element (key 29) becomes dirty, it should be cleaned
with solvent and blown out with air or replaced.
TYPE NUMBER
When corresponding with the factory or representatives in regard to this
regulator, always give the type number found stamped on the body.
Refer to the complete part numbers when ordering parts.
4.2.1 ROLE
The aim of this regulator as its name indicates is to prevent the formation of
hydrates during gas reduction.
4.2.2 DESCRIPTION
A small calibrated orifice (1) located upstream of the regulator causes the
reduction. This orifice is always installed inside the separator where the gas is
hottest. The heat is transmitted to the reduced gas by fins (2) located on the input
adapter. This system enables the temperature of the input gas to be increased
and also prevents the formation of hydrates.
The task of the stem (3) linking the orifice to the bottom part of the diaphragm is to
vary the quantity of gas input according to the fluctuations of the downstream
pressure in the regulator. These pressure fluctuations are transmitted to the
diaphragm.
4.2.3 OPERATION
Fall in downstream pressure:
The spring pushes back the diaphragm, which consequently uncovers slightly
more of the input orifice. As a result, the downstream pressure in the regulator is
re-established.
Increase in downstream pressure:
7-7
Regulators
The pressure pushes back the diaphragm, which consequently closes slightly
more of the input orifice. As a result, the downstream pressure in the reducer is
re-established.
4.2.4 DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLY
Dismantling presents no particular difficulty. Start by disconnecting the union (4).
During these operations, proceed extremely carefully in order to avoid blocking the
bosses of the stem, linking the orifice with the diaphragm.
4.2.5 ADJUSTMENT
The regulator output pressure is marked on the bonnet cap. It is a function of the
type of spring used:
• 10 to 75 PSI
• 50 to 150 PSI
• 100 to 225 PSI
• 200 to 500 PSI
As for other regulators, adjusting the spring tension can set the output pressure.
4.2.6 MAINTENANCE
It might be necessary to replace the disc opposite the orifice, on the end of the
stem. To do this:
• Disconnect the union
• Unscrew the disc carrier and replace it.
8-8
Regulators
4.3.1 ROLE
It is used on GEOSERVICES Heaters to reduce the supply gas for the principal
burner. This reduction is carried out between the scrubber working at 100 PSI and
the principal burner, which must be supplied between 10 and 25 PSI.
4.3.2 DESCRIPTION
• A body (1) contains the spring and diaphragm.
• A pipe (2) providing the communication between the bottom part of the
diaphragm and the regulator output.
• A calibrated orifice (3) allowing the fall in pressure.
• A disc (4) more or less covering the calibrated orifice according to the
variations in output pressure.
• A linkage system (5) connecting the disc to the diaphragm.
4.3.3 OPERATION
The gas is reduced across the calibrated orifice. As for all regulators, a variation in
the downstream pressure causes the disc to be displaces, thus enabling the
passage of gas to be increased or reduced. As a result, the downstream pressure
is re-established.
4.3.4 DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLY
Nothing particular except during assembly:
Replace the adjustment screw by compressing slightly the spring before re-
tightening the bonnet cap positioning screw - this is done in order to give the
diaphragm a bit of slack, enabling the regulator to work (do not forget it is a
controller too).
4.3.5 ADJUSTMENT
The output pressure range is a function of two parameters:
• The spring
• The diameter of the orifice, which can be changed according to the flow,
anticipated.
On our regulators, we use:
• The type 10 - 25 PSI spring
• The 3/8" orifice.
This information can be seen on the bonnet cap. The adjustment of a precise
output pressure is obtained by regulating the spring tension.
9-9
Regulators
4.3.6 MAINTENANCE
• Disc and orifice inspection
You can easily do this by unscrewing the union, which connects the body (fixed on
the tubing) to the diaphragm assembly.
• Make sure that the union is correctly tightened.
• In the case of leakage from this point, change the gasket.
• To remove the diaphragm:
a) Remove the adjustment screw
b) Remove the bonnet cap positioning screw
c) Remove the diaphragm assembly-head by disconnecting the push
rod (6) of the arm (7).
4.3.7 BREAKDOWNS
PIERCED DIAPHRAGM
10 - 10
Regulators
11 - 11
Regulators
12 - 12
Regulators
Note: Always use a pressure gauge to monitor pressure when making adjustments.
For spring-loaded Types 620 and 621
1. Remove the adjusting screw cap from Type 621 (top view key 31).
2. Loosen locknut (key 22).
3. Increase the outlet setting by turning the adjusting screw (key 23)
clockwise. Decrease the outlet setting by turning the adjusting
screw counter-clockwise.
For pressure-loaded Type 621 regulators, perform adjustments on the
loading regulator as follows:
1. Loosen locknut if one is present.
2. To increase outlet setting, turn adjusting screw clockwise. To
decrease outlet setting turn adjusting screw counter-clockwise.
3. Tighten locknut.
TAKING UNIT OUT OF SERVICE
Isolate the regulator from all pressure. For pressure-loaded
constructions, shut off supply pressure to the loading regulator.
Cautiously release all pressure from the regulator to be serviced before
performing any maintenance on the unit.
FISHER 'BIG JOE' PRESSURE REDUCING REGULATOR (630)
This regulator is used to lower the separator gas pressure (max 1 500
PSI) to 100 PSI so that gas can be supplied to operate the separator
instruments (in locations with no air supply) or to supply gas to the heater.
The pressure reduction can depend on the size of the orifice and the
spring rate.
Specifications - max inlet pressure 1 500 psig
outlet pressure 3 - 40 psig or 27 - 500 psig
operating temperature 20°F to 150°F.
13 - 13
Regulators
14 - 14
Regulators
4.4.1 ROLE
This regulator is used on our Heaters to lower the supply pressure between the
separator outlet and the heater scrubber. That is to say, between 1500 PSI, which
is the maximum reducer limit, and 100 PSI, which is the maximum working
pressure limit of the scrubber.
4.4.2 DESCRIPTION
See diagram.
4.4.3 OPERATION
The same principle as for the 621.
4.4.4 DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLY
During assembly, do not forget to put the case (3) containing the spring on the low-
pressure side. The arrow on the bonnet cap indicates the flow direction of the
fluid.
During assembly, replace the adjustment screw by slightly compressing the spring
before re-tightening the case positioning screws. This is to give the diaphragm a
bit of slack.
4.4.5 ADJUSTMENT
The output pressure range is a function of two parameters:
• The spring
• The orifice diameter.
Information about the spring and orifice is marked on the bonnet cap.
a) SPRING
On the equipment that we use, the most frequent output ranges are:
• 46- 95 PSI
• 90- 150 PSI.
The output pressure desired can be adjusted by regulating the screw tension.
b) ORIFICE
The orifice normally used is the 3/16". In the heater body you will find 1/8" and ¼"
orifices. Remember that ¼ 3/16 1/8.
If the input pressure of fuel gas is weak (it is generally the separator pressure), you
will have to use a large orifice and vice versa.
We can see, therefore, that to obtain a correct supply pressure, one must regulate
both the orifice diameter and the spring at the same time.
Note: If there were a risk of the presence of H2S, you would be well advised to use Stainless
Steel rather than brass orifices.
4.4.6 MAINTENANCE
• Check that the orifice is clean.
• Grease the male connections before tightening them.
15 - 15
Regulators
16 - 16
Burners and Booms
SECTION 19
1-1
Burners and Booms
Although the burner can be configured in many ways due to Customer requirements, the
standard Vulcan burner is equipped with six heads, each individual head comprising of:
- Venturi mixing chamber that atomizes fluid into fine droplets and where compressed
air is injected into the flow.
- Static mixers tube where air and fluid are commingled thoroughly.
- A spray cone on the burner tip to achieve final atomization.
- A diesel or gas pilot
The four upper heads of the burner are for the disposal of well fluids and effluent. Depending
on the expected flow rate, the number of guns can be selected by the opening or closing of
valves on the burner oil manifold.
The oil supply line to the burners is equipped with diesel injection piping to mix well effluent
with diesel to achieve a more favorable burning mixture.
The lower two guns are to provide a diesel or gas blanket flame to aid in the disposal of oil
based mud’s, or oils with high water cut or solids. These lower guns may also be used for the
disposal of surge tank contents whilst the well is flowing through the upper guns.
The Vulcan burner also has water injection piping around the burner heads that enables
atomized water to enter the flame. The action of high temperature on water vapor splits the
water into its constituent elements that combine chemically with the hydrocarbons to improve
burning, and eliminates the formation of black smoke.
Also fitted to the burner head is a water screen to reduce radiated heat and enable personnel
access to the burner head whilst burning is in progress.
Flare ignition is carried out by the use of high-tension spark plugs igniting a gas or diesel pilot
flame. Each burner head has an individual pilot to ensure early ignition of the atomized fluid
from each gun. The spark plugs are connected to armored high-tension leads, which are in
turn connected to three high-tension transformer units supplied by 220 or 110 V. AC supply.
For added safety, non-return valves are fitted to the oil and air supply lines to prevent back
flow into the boom and rig pipework.
2-2
Burners and Booms
1.1.2 Supplies
OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT
3-3
Burners and Booms
1.1.5 Connections
4-4
Burners and Booms
1.2.1 Installation
Determine the wind direction, and orientates the burner head so the wind
direction is blowing parallel and from behind.
Depending on the expected oil Flow rate open the required number of burner
guns.
Turn on the gas or diesel pilot supply; turn on the pilot air supply.
Ignite the pilot by pressing and holding the ignition button. If ignition is not
immediate, regulate the gas or diesel supply and try again.
Start the air compressor and send air to the burner head at about 1-2 bar.
Make sure the pilots remain lit.
Start the water pump. Open the water valve to the water injection rings. Make
sure that you have good atomization and that all the water nozzles are free
and unplugged.
Decrease the water supply, by regulating the valve, to the minimum to achieve
good atomization.
If a diesel or gas flame blanket is being used, slowly open the supply valve to
the burner. When flare ignites, regulate the flame by adjusting the supply
valve. The diesel blanket will normally burn with black smoke, as air will flow
preferentially to the upper guns until oil production is being sent to them.
Slowly open the oil supply valve to the upper burner nozzles. The burner
should ignite, and burn with black smoke.
Slowly increase the burning rate to the maximum by opening the oil and air
supply valves to the burner. Black smoke will be reduced by the addition of
more air. Do not increase either the air or oil supply without adjusting the
other.
When a stable flame is produced at the maximum flow-rate, increase the
water injection into the flare by slowly opening the water supply valve. The
black smoke will become thinner and eventually disappear.
It should be noted that a lack of air would produce fallout and black smoke,
especially at low flow rates. Fallout and black smoke will decrease with the
addition of more air, and fallout can be eliminated completely when the right
balance is achieved. The addition of water will stop black smoke formation, but
5-5
Burners and Booms
too much water will cause fallout, even before you start to produce grey
smoke.
A close check should be made whilst burning on abrasive solids in oil or for
drilling mud, etc. These fluids can be very damaging to the venturi and burner
tips leading to poor atomization of oil and reduced burning efficiency. Fallout
will become evident and steadily worsen under these conditions. Replacement
of the affected parts should be carried out at the first opportunity.
6-6
Burners and Booms
• The spark plugs and high-tension leads should be inspected for signs
of corrosion or damage. Make sure there is no dirt on the spark plug
tip that may cause shorting.
• The pilot’s head must be dismantled and cleaned.
• Propane flow rate or gas oil/compressed air ratio must be adjusted.
• The water spray system must be cleaned and function checked.
• The pressure test of the burner head is compulsory in order to verify
the efficiency of the check valve on the compressed air line.
1.3 SAFETY
Use of the burner is the single largest source of ignition during normal rig operations.
The Vulcan Burner is designed for ease of use and is a safe operation. To maintain
safe working conditions, certain guidelines must be followed before the start, and
during the burning operations.
1. The Burner must only be operated by trained personnel who are familiar with its
operation.
2. Before starting any Burner operations all process lines and connections to the
burner must be pressure tested.
3. The burner head isolation valves, and non-return valves on the air, oil, and diesel
lines must be operational and pressure tested.
4. Burning operations must only be started upon direction from the customer.
Stopping burner operations is upon direction of the customer or upon discovery of
equipment malfunction.
7. Information on the estimated flow rate, oil viscosity and gravity should be obtained
before the start of burner operations.
8. Burner set-up may be modified whilst burning, as the burner does not radiate
excessive heat towards the rear. Certain safety rules must be observed whilst
modifications to the burner set-up are made.
− Wear cotton or flame retarding materials. Work clothing must not be made
of Nylon or similar synthetic material.
− Wear work gloves.
− Wear safety goggles & ear protectors.
− Wear a life jacket or buoyancy aid.
− Secure yourself with a safety harness.
− Always have fire fighters and a rescue team present to lend assistance.
7-7
Burners and Booms
1 ignition box
2 high-tension cables
2 spark plugs
50 water nozzles
1 complete burner head assembly 2 ½
1 complete burner head assembly 1 ½
1 'O' rings kit
1 complete gas pilot assembly
1 ball valve 2"
1 ball valve 1 ½
1 swivel 3"
2 'O' rings for swivel 3"
4 bolts for flanges
4 rings for flange 1 ½"
4 rings for flange 2"
4 rings for flange 3"
1 check valve 3"
1 check valve 2"
2 venturi cones
6 grey lock seal 2"
2 grey lock seal 3"
8-8
Burners and Booms
Pressure test
successful? No
Yes
Orientate No Burner
Burner orientated correctly for wind direction ?
Yes
Ignite Pilots
Adjust Gas or
Check power supply Diesel supply
and high tension circuit
Pilots ignited ?
No No
Yes
Use Diesel/Gas
Blanket
No
Clean Burn!
9-9
Burners and Booms
In the following pages you will find the typical cable installation of a 60’ burner boom, delta
plates mounting.
10 - 10
Burners and Booms
BOOM 60’
11 - 11
Burners and Booms
BOOM 60’
DELTA PLATE MOUNTING
12 - 12
Burners and Booms
13 - 13
Burners and Booms
14 - 14
Burners and Booms
15 - 15
Burners and Booms
DELTA PLATE
16 - 16
Burners and Booms
17 - 17
Burners and Booms
BILL OF MATERIAL
18 - 18
Sampling
SECTION 20
SURFACE SAMPLING
1-1
Sampling
1.1 GENERAL
Samples taken at the bottom of the producing well or at surface make it possible to
analyze both the physical and chemical characteristics of the reservoir fluids.
Results obtained in the laboratory can only be interpreted if the sample is
representative because the volume necessary for analysis is only an infinitesimal
part of the fluid in place.
MAKE SURE THAT NO CHEMICALS ARE INJECTED UPSTREAM OF THE
SEPARATOR (Glycol, Methanol, inhibitors etc.) at the time of sampling. If any such
injection is stopped before sampling, allow ample time for the chemicals to be
purged from the separator. If it is impossible to operate without injection of
chemicals, note the chemical used and its injection rate.
The choice of a sampling method should be made according to the type and
conditions of the reservoir fluid, production characteristics, bottom hole and surface
equipment available. In all cases the selected method should follow the procedures
described in this chapter.
Note: if possible the separator liquid and gas samples should be taken simultaneously in
order to have the same sampling conditions for both fluids.
Bottom Hole Sampling if any will be advantageously performed at the same time.
The earlier in the well life sampling is made, the better, but the well must be properly
cleaned-up.
The main difficulty while sampling arises from the fact that liquid and gas are
in dynamic equilibrium in the Separator:
Any drop in pressure or increase in temperature of the Separator liquid,
which is at its bubble point, will result in the formation of gas. For the
Separator gas, which is at its dew point (this is a normal dew point - not
retrograde), an increase in pressure or decrease in temperature will result in
condensation of the heavy components.
In any such case when a fluid becomes diphasic during sampling, it is
probable that disproportionate quantities of the two phases will be collected
and the sample will not be representative.
Before any sampling is attempted, the sample point should be checked to
make sure there is no possibility of contamination (e.g. oil or condensate
carry-over for a gas sampling point; water or sludge from a liquid point).
If more than one separator is in use, gas and liquid samples must be taken
from the first (higher-pressure) separator. In exceptional circumstances,
liquid samples could be taken from lower pressure separators, but only if
samples of gas are taken from this lower pressure separator and all higher-
pressure separators; all gas flow rates must also be measured.
H2S concentrations in a sample can change due to reaction, adsorption or
solution, and laboratory analyses frequently give reduced concentrations due
to this. Thus, in any case where H2S is present in a reservoir fluid, on-site
2-2
Sampling
The flowing period during which the samples are to be taken should be preceded by
a cleaning-up period long enough to eliminate the drilling completion or stimulation
fluids.
Well must flow through the Separator situate as close as possible to the Well Head,
to avoid any disturbance and too lengthy stabilization periods in flow lines.
With client agreement, immediately after the clean-up period, a first sampling is
performed for safety. (When all further samples have been taken, the samples
taken at the end of the clean-up period can be discarded).
Sampling should be performed when the Gas Liquid Ratio (G.L.R.) is stable; stability
should normally be better than 5%. In difficult wells, variations of up to 10% may be
unavoidable.
In general, the longer the flow period, the better the flow stability and quality of
samples.
This is achieved in producing the well with a low drawdown (saturated fluid) or at a
bottom hole pressure higher than the bubble point pressure (undersaturated fluid),
until a stable flow is reached, in order to avoid retrograde condensation in the
reservoir near the bore hole (gas well) or gas liberation in the reservoir near the bore
hole (oil well).
Stabilization is achieved:
Flow must be high enough to avoid liquid accumulations at the tubing shoe.
If the GOR decreases, keep producing until stabilization is reached.
Flow must be maintained at the minimum steady rate. When the Gas Oil Ratio
(G.O.R.) is steady between two flow reductions, then the well is producing fluid
representative of the reservoir.
3-3
Sampling
The pressure must be adjusted to minimize liquid carry over at the Separator Outlet.
The Down Hole flowing pressure shall be recorded during sampling. A pressure
gradient while flowing is useful to compute the pressure at the level of perforations.
Pressure and temperature of reservoir under static conditions are also necessary.
2. Full purging of Flexible Hose before sampling is necessary to make sure that the
sample is representative of the fluid actually leaving the separator (i.e. for which the
flow rate is measured).
5. Need for duplicate samples: it is recommended that three samples of each phase
(coupled if possible) be taken. This is an insurance against sample leaks or other
losses and allows crosschecking of samples in the Laboratory.
6. Need for sufficient sample quantities for the entire PVT study. Condition 5. is
normally sufficient.
7. Information to be given on each sample. The laboratory PVT study of the sample
can be carried out properly only if all the information obtained during the well test
has been noted carefully and then sent to the laboratory. Surface Sampling sheet
(separate one for each sample) should be filled in completely. This means every
space should have some entry with units as appropriate; an example is given
hereafter. If a measurement was not made or is unknown, enter N/A for "Not
applicable". Any observation about unusual character of fluid, problems during
sampling etc. should be given under "Remarks". A copy of the Surface Sampling
sheet must be enclosed, in a protective envelope, with the samples to be sent to
the laboratory or to be stored. A COPY OF THE WELL TEST REPORT SHOULD
BE SENT SEPARATELY TO THE PVT LABORATORY ALONG WITH THE
TRANSPORT DETAILS
8. Reporting of sampling data should include: method and transfer fluid used,
quantities (even approximate) of materials remaining in the sample bottle, and
reporting any event which may mean one sample is less reliable than another.
4-4
Sampling
9. OIL BOTTLES MUST NEVER BE LEFT FULL OF LIQUID SAMPLE. A GAS CAP
OF AT LEAST 10% IS COMPULSORY FOR SAMPLE STORAGE AND/OR
TRANSPORTATION.
10. If 0.5 liter gas bottles are provided, fill up one bottle with gas after standard
sampling is completed. This will be available for chromatographic analysis. If 0.5
liter gas bottles are not available, a standard oil bottle can be filled if required, using
nitrogen as displacement fluid. As connection to oil bottle (¼" NPT x 3/16" RIC) is
unique in the Sampling Kit, this sampling can be effected at the end of operation
only. MAKE SURE THAT NO TRACE OF OIL OR SOLVENT REMAINS IN THE
UNION. A 0.5 liter gas bottle or 628 cc oil bottle is filled in about 5 minutes.
11. Sample Bottle Checking immediately after the sampling must be performed, and
once the Flexible Hoses have been disconnected, a leak test is made on the
Valves by immersing them into a bucket full of water. If the test shows no leaks,
the Valve outlets are fitted with Protector Plugs and sealed. Finally Bottle End
Protectors are installed. If a leaking valve is detected for an oil or condensate
sample, the sample is invalid and sampling should be repeated. A leaking gas
sample should likewise be rejected, unless the leak is cured before any significant
quantity of gas has been lost. (Pressure still within 2% of Separator pressure).
13. It is recommended to fill up a 5 gal (20 liter) jerrycan with flashed Separator or Tank
oil and to give it to client for his possible use.
14. For transportation purposes, the Bottle is placed into a special Transportation
Container. (Together WITH Surface Sampling sheet and Maintenance Report on
Sampling Bottles.)
15. Surface Sampling can only be carried out if at the minimum stabilized flow rate the
G.O.R. is very close to the initial G.O.R.
Take a minimum of three bottles (20 or 20 liter) for each sampling sequence
for a normal PVT study to ensure full control of representativeness and
sufficient quantity of sample.
THIS IS IRRESPECTIVE OF GOR - i.e. ANY GOR = 3 BOTTLES.
In case of low separator pressure (< 100 psi) and/or sampling with small
sample bottles (less than 10 liters) the following minimum gas volumes
should be collected:
Reservoir Volume of Gas at STANDARD CONDITIONS to
Fluid Type be sampled
5-5
Sampling
1.6.2 Methods
6-6
Sampling
Note Bottle number and time of sampling in the sequence of events. Do not forget to
complete fully the sampling sheet and include one copy in the Transportation Container.
7-7
Sampling
8-8
Sampling
Bottle pressure is maintained below separator pressure during purging in order to reduce the
possibility of condensation. If, however, there is significant cooling at the Control Valve
during filling, the filling procedure should be slowed down or stopped and restarted.
1.6.2.4 CIRCULATING
1. Connect to the Lower Valve of the Sampling Bottle via
transparent tubing: Either a Gas Flowmeter or a Gas
Meter. (Measuring Volumetric flow requires a StopWatch
with a Gas Flowmeter)
2. After mounting, connection of the Flexible Hose and
purging as for the VACUUM METHOD steps 1 to 5. Open
the Separator Sampling Point Valve.
3. Open slowly top Valve of the Sampling Bottle.
4. Admit gas into the Bottle, while maintaining the smallest
possible pressure drop across the Flexible Hose.
5. When Bottle pressure reaches Separator pressure, open
the Bottom Valve of the Bottle.
9-9
Sampling
If it is not possible to maintain the bottle at Separator temperature during circulation and/or
condensate is seen issuing from the Bottle Lower Valve, the circulation must be performed at
a lower pressure (e.g. 75% of Separator pressure). This is done by controlling flow at the
Separator Output and at the Bottle Lower Valve. If significant cooling of the Control Valves
occurs, purging should be slowed down or stopped temporarily. When purging is complete
(same volume as computed above), the Lower Valve is closed, and pressure allowed to build
up to Separator pressure before the Bottle Upper Valve is closed.
SEPARATOR WATER
This is the best option here (if the well is producing water)
because this water is already saturated with separator gas. After
ensuring that the water tapping point used is not producing any
separator hydrocarbon liquid (oil or condensate), the Sample
Bottle should be filled by gravity from the bottom with water at
separator pressure. It may not be possible for the Bottle to be
installed below the water output of the Separator, but Separator
10 - 10
Sampling
11 - 11
Sampling
Three bottles at least should be taken for each sampling to ensure good representation
and sufficient quantity of sample for a normal PVT study.
THIS IS IRRESPECTIVE OF GOR - i.e. ANY GOR: 3 BOTTLES.
On some occasions, if the customer wants very extensive or duplicate PVT studies,
additional quantities of samples may be requested.
1.7.1 Methods
All methods aim to keep the Separator liquid at or above its bubble point pressure
until it is transferred inside the Sample Bottle (by keeping sample at Separator
pressure and below Separator temperature).
The Sampling Bottle must be maintained at or below Separator Temperature. This
prevents a gas liberation, which would interfere with the filling in operation. In
cases where the Separator temperature is below ambient temperature, the Sample
Bottle should be cooled in a water/ice or water/salt/ice bath.
The oil or condensate methods below are listed in order of decreasing reliability.
Note Bottle number and time of sampling in the sequence of events. Do not forget to
complete fully the Sampling Sheet and include one copy in the Transportation Container
Please to refer to oil sampling using the surface sampling kit.
This sampling is possible only when the Well Head pressure is higher than the
bubble point pressure at Well Head temperature. For this condition to be achieved
it may often be necessary for samples to be taken at a low flow rate (i.e. less than
10 tubing total volumes per day). Clearly a good idea of the Bubble Point is
needed.
It is advisable that Separator Samples be taken at the same time to act as a back
up in case of unexpected two-phase flow at Well Head, or other cause of invalid
sampling.
Normal liquid sampling methods should be used BUT MAKE SURE SAMPLE
BOTTLES, GAUGES AND TUBINGS HAVE A WORKING PRESSURE RATED
ABOVE WELLHEAD PRESSURE.
12 - 12
Sampling
Since most gas-condensate wells produce two phases at the surface, this will only be
possible on the rare occasions when monophasic Well Head flow is expected (Well
Head pressure higher than dew point pressure at Well Head temperature). As in Oil
Sampling at Well Head, Separator back up Samples should be taken. Most
applications will be for dry gas wells where no liquid is formed in the Separator; here, a
Well Head Sample will be identical to a Separator Gas Sample.
Normal gas sampling methods should be used (i.e. usually VACUUM method) BUT
MAKE SURE SAMPLE BOTTLES, GAUGES AND TUBINGS HAVE A WORKING
PRESSURE RATED ABOVE WELLHEAD PRESSURE
The PVT surface sampling skid is an open framework stand for mounting and
supporting the oil and gas sampling cylinders and with all the valves,
interconnecting pipe work and pressure gauges necessary for the sampling
operation panel mounted to the supporting frame. The sampling skid comprises
two sections for the separate – but simultaneous – sampling of the gas and liquid
equilibrium phases from the test separator.
Dedicated flexible sampling lines are used to connect from sample points on the
test separator to the inlet fittings of the sample skid. The sampling lines should be
kept and maintained solely for use for each of the specific phases to be sampled
and are tagged accordingly (gas/oil) to avoid cross use.
A schematic of the sampling skid system is shown at the end.
The gas sampling section inlet connection is ¼ inch Swagelok on the back panel.
One or two 20 liters gas sample cylinders can be supported in the frame and
connected for sampling with short sections of fixed flexible lines. Control of the gas
flow is via an on/off ball valve and fine control during sampling via a horizontally
mounted needle valve. The body of needle valve is positioned in an insulated
water bath immediately below the panel.
Prior to sampling the water bath is filled with hot water (> 40° C) to a depth such
that the body of the needle valve is submersed. The temperature of the water
helps prevent hydrates forming across the valve flow area during sampling that
can cause total blockage of the valve. Immediately downstream of the flow control
valve is a pressure gauge panel mounted above the valve.
A flexible sampling line is used to connect the oil section of the skid to the sample
point at the test separator similarly as for the gas sampling via a rear mounted ¼
inch swagelok fitting. Again, a ball valve is used to control on/off flow to the
system. The oil sample cylinder is mounted and secured on an angled support
plate at the front of the skid. The cylinder is positioned with the double port valve at
the top. A sample fluid, flexible line connection is made to, one side of the sample
valve at the top of the cylinder. The sample line flush valve is mounted on the other
13 - 13
Sampling
side of the sample valve on the top of the cylinder. A displacement fluid, flexible
line connection is made to the valve at the bottom of the cylinder.
Two gauges are mounted one above the other, used to monitor, during sampling,
the sample pressure and the displacement fluid pressure. Two gauges are needed
as a check against malfunction or operational problems during the sampling and to
measure a shipping pressure of the sample for reference in the PVT laboratory.
1.9.3.1 SAMPLING
14 - 14
Sampling
14. Close valve V3, and crack open the swagelok connection on
connecting line to gas cylinder at valve V5.
15. Watch gas pressure on gauge G1 and close fitting again
before the pressure reaches zero.
16. Reopen valve V3 and pressurize the system again.
17. Repeat 14 to 16 5-6 times, and finally, close the fitting on the
cylinder inlet connection with system pressure close to zero
on gauge G1.
18. Close valve V4.
19. Open valve V5.
20. When opening valve V5 the final check for vacuum on the
sample cylinder is the negative deflection of the gauge G1.
21. Commence taking sample by cracking open valve V4.
22. Control the pressure increase of the sample cylinder with
valve V4, sampling period is approximately 30 – 40 minutes,
which gives an approximate pressure increase of 15
psi/minute (1 bar/minute) for a test separator pressure of 500
psi.
23. Continue to control filling of the gas sample cylinder until test
separator pressure is reached, record pressure.
24. Close valve V3 and V4; check pressure remains stable no
leaks.
25. Close valve V5.
26. Cracks open gas cylinder fitting connection (V5) and bleed
off pressure.
27. Remove connecting fitting.
28. Secure shipping plug in valve V5 opening.
29. Return gases sample cylinder to transportation box and tag
as used and containing a sample.
OIL SAMPLING
Similarly to the gas sampling traditionally liquid samples are
taken in 6 – 50 MI cylinders the latest generation of which is
the piston type. Oil (liquid) sample cylinders are normally
supplied cleaned and ready for use filled with a displacement
fluid (glycol/water mix). A check should be made that cylinders
are charged with the displacement fluid and if so that there are
no losses.
The preferred sample point for produced hydrocarbon liquid from
the test separator is the oil outlet flow line. Most separators will
be equipped with sample points on the flow line. An alternative is
a take off point on the bottom of the site glass level indicator for
the separator. This point is not ideal because of the relatively
large volume between the take off point and the bulk fluid of the
separator. Sampling from the site glass can also interfere with
the separator operation and show a false indication.
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
15 - 15
Sampling
16 - 16
Sampling
17 - 17
Sampling
18 - 18
Sampling
OIL CYLINDER
PISTON TYPE
Sampling
20 - 20
Sampling
In order to study the properties of gases and hydrocarbon liquids we need to understand the
relationship between them. This is best understood by considering molecular behavior and
its effect on three physical properties.
Pressure which is a function of molecular attraction and repulsion
Volume which is a function of the number of molecules present
Temperature which is a function of kinetic energy of the molecules
Pressure and molecular attraction tend to hold a material together. Temperature and
molecules repulsion tends to separate a material. When a material appears to be at rest it is
actually in dynamic equilibrium between the attractive and repulsive forces.
If one of the physical confines is changed (P.V. or T.) then equilibrium must be established.
For example if we add heat to the system then the temperature rises, because of the
increase of kinetic energy of the system and :
Either
The pressure increase as a function of the increased number of times the excited
molecules strike the walls of the container.
Or
The volume expands to accommodate the more excited molecules at the same
pressure.
In extreme case, when enough heat is added the forces become unbalanced (boiling liquid)
and the material changes state into gas phase.
Phase behaviour is best understood by considering phase diagram.
Pure substances
First we look at the simple phase diagram of a pure substance.
The phase diagram is a plot of Pressure against Temperature. For the purposes of
hydrocarbon chemistry we can ignore the Solid part of the phase diagram and concentrate
on the vapour pressure line TC with particular reference to C the critical point. The
temperature and pressure at this point are defined as :
Critical Temperature (Tc) –the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquified
regardless of the pressure applied
21 - 21
Sampling
Critical Pressure 5Pc) –the pressure above which liquid and gas cannot co-exist regardless
temperature
We have developed a phase envelope. The line AC is the bubble point locus and BC is the
dew point locus.
We can see also the definition of critical point C which we applied to the pure component
does not apply. Clearly liquid and gas can co-exist at temperatures and pressures above the
critical point. The critical point is merely the point at which Bubble Point locus and Dew Point
locus meet.
This type of behavior becomes more exaggerated as the complexity of a hydrocarbon
mixture increases as is shown in the following diagram.
It now becomes necessary to re-define the Pressure and Temperature above which gas and
liquid cannot co-exist.
The circondenbar is the pressure above, which liquid cannot be formed and the
circondentherm is the temperature above which liquid cannot exist.
Multicomponent Mixtures (Reservoir Fluids)
22 - 22
Sampling
We should now turn our attention to real complex hydrocarbons fluids and below are
presented typical phase diagrams for Reservoir fluids under the normal classifications
accepted in petroleum engineering.
LOW SHRINKAGE BLACK OIL
GAS CONDENSATE
23 - 23
Sampling
WET GAS
DRY GAS
As previously stated, phase diagrams are plots of pressure against temperature, whereas in
petroleum engineering we are usually more concerned with pressure vs. Volume (PV) at a
fixed or perhaps one or two fixed temperatures.
In this case it is interesting to consider the isotherm marked 1-2-3 on the phase diagrams
which represents reservoir temperature.
With reservoir oils a drop in pressure from 1-2 brings us the Bubble Point (the point at which
the first bubble of gas of the lightest component in the mixture appears). As we proceed from
2-3 the gas becomes progressively richer in heavier components, as the liquid becomes
progressively depleted of lights ends.
With condensate reservoir gases a drop in pressure from 1-2 brings us to the Dew Point (the
point at which the first drop of liquid appears). Here we observe retrograde condensation,
which is that the heaviest components drop out first and the gas stream becomes
progressively lighter as pressure drops.
We should now consider what happens in practice when the reservoir fluid is produced to the
surface, giving rise to both a drop in pressure and temperature.
This can be best done by reference to the dotted line on the phase diagrams marked 2-Sep.
The point marked Sep denotes the Separator Pressure and Temperature.
24 - 24
Sampling
With oils and condensate gas we remain within the phase envelope where liquid and gas can
co-exist. The actual point within the phase envelope defines the relative compositions of the
oil and gas according to physico-chemical parameters which will be explained later.
What is interesting to observe is that the Wet Gas produces no liquid (in the reservoir) along
the isotherm 1-2 but if the drop in pressure is accompanied by a drop in temperature, as
happens during production, then liquid is produced at separator pressure and temperature.
By definition a Dry Gas produces no liquid even at separator conditions, and heavy
components present have to be chilled out from the gas stream to bring the temperature
within the phase envelope.
The aim of PVT sampling is to obtain a small sample fluid under pressure, which is identical
to the reservoir fluid under initial conditions. To achieve this several factors must be taken
into account :
A. To decide upon the condition of the well to be sampled
B. To decide which sampling technique will give the best chance of obtaining a
representative fluid sample
A field discovery well is usually subjected to relatively large drawdown pressures and
considerable depletion in the production testing necessary to determine its extent. The
second and third wells drilled will still encounter essentially virgin reservoir pressure and the
problems associated with conditioning, sampling and analysis will be minimized.
Depletion of a reservoir below the bubble point pressure, leads to extreme difficulty in
obtaining a reliable sample. As the results from the analysis of reservoir fluids are generally
used in material balance calculations it is desirable that the analysis is performed on original
fluids samples. Extra pollution of data from a current bottom hole pressure to a higher bubble
point pressure is always hazardous and should only be attempted in extreme cases.
Selection of a well for sampling
For the result of the fluid analysis to be of maximum value in the reservoir study, the sample
must be representative of the phase that saturated the reservoir rock initially. In an oil
reservoir it will be the gas phase.
The well to be sampled should meet as many of the following conditions as possible :
1. The well should be centrally located in the field
2. It should have as high a productivity index as possible
3. The well should be completed in the section of the reservoir to be studied. In most cases
this will be the oil zone. Care should be taken to eliminate any occuring gas coning.
4. The well should be free from water production
5. The flow in the reservoir should be single phase
6. If bottom hole sampling is required, no mechanical difficulties in running the sampler to a
depth opposite the perforations should exist.
Data required prior to sampling
Before sampling is attempted it is important to obtain preliminary details of the reservoir and
well characteristics for example:
1. The type of fluid expected to be encountered. Oil, gas, condensate, or water
2. Whether it is saturated or undersaturated
25 - 25
Sampling
Undersaturated reservoirs
These reservoirs are characterized by constant G.O.R. equal to the maximum gas
solubility in oil. Bottom hole sampling and surface sampling can be carried out with
the well flowing at any stabilized flow rate for which flowing reservoir pressure
exceeds saturation pressure at reservoir conditions.
Saturated reservoirs
In these reservoirs the G.O.R. is only equal to the maximum gas stability in oil during
a very short initial flow period. The G.O.R. then increases as the well is produced.
Saturation pressure will equal to or near the initial static reservoir pressure, and if an
initial gas cap is present will always equal the initial pressure.
Bottom hole sampling can be carried out if the following procedures are adopted.
The flow rate should be progressively reduced and then the well finally shut-in. During
this period the flowing bottom hole pressure will increase and the free gas produced
into the well bore, or remain stationary within the oil phase until when the well is shut
in reservoir saturation pressure should be near to the initial static reservoir pressure.
At this point the well should be opened on the smallest possible choke (e;g; 1/16”)
and flowed for 10 to 15 minutes before the sampler closes. During this short flow
period draw down should minimized and any liberated gas, too small to affect the
validity of the samples.
The flow rate should be progressively reduced over a long period (depending on the
permeability of the reservoir) and finally shut in. During this period the flowing bottom
hole pressure will increase until it approaches the initial static bottom hole pressure.
The movable free gas will be produced into the well bore and the stationary free gas
will remain in the pore space of the reservoir. This remaining free gas reduces the
effective permeability of the reservoir rock to monophase reservoir fluid, and
increases the pressure drawdown.
26 - 26
Sampling
Since for these reservoirs it is impossible to determine in the field from well test data
the exact nature of the reservoir fluid (dry or wet gas), sampling should always be
carried out assuming the most difficult case, i.e. a gas condensate reservoir with a
dew point equal to the initial static pressure.
Surface sampling should always be carried out in gas reservoirs, bottom hole
sampling being unsuitable for the following reasons :
1. The laboratory analysis requires a greater sample than the 600 cc or 1000 cc
available with standard bottom hole samplers.
2. If a sample were taken, the effect of bringing the sampler to surface conditions
would cause liquid to condense in the sampler chamber. This liquid would in most
cases be only a small amount and would remain behind, wetting the walls of the
chamber, during a normal transfer at atmospheric temperature. Even if the sampler
was reheated to reservoir temperature, no guarantee that single phase conditions
existed could be given in the field.
In addition to the normal criteria for surface sampling in dealing with a gas reservoir, a
further parameter has to be met. The liquid condensed in the tubing, between the
bottom of the well and the tubing must be produced in the separator.
A volatile oil is one with a very high gas solubility in relation to its bubble point
pressure and because of its high G.O.R. and low relative density can be confused in
the field with a gas condensate reservoir. Because of these unusual characteristics,
Standings correlations cannot be used to determine bubble point pressure, therefore
these reservoirs should be sampled as gas condensates. If PVT analysis shows that
it is an oil reservoir and the bubble point is established, bottom hole sampling can be
employed on subsequent wells.
27 - 27
Transfer Pump
SECTION 21
TRANSFER PUMP
1-1
Transfer Pump
1.1 GENERAL
Pumps are used to empty one compartment of a tank; separator or other vessels
where not enough pressure exist to empty it.
The pump inlet is generally connected to the tank manifold for compartment selection;
the outlet is generally connected to a manifold that permits the passage of the liquid to
stock tanks to burners or burn pits through the normal piping.
It may also be required to re-inject the oil from the separator into an existing production
line or system, in which case a high-pressure transfer pump can be used.
1.1.1 Installation
2-2
Transfer Pump
Installation of pipes
Use of Teflon tape for
installing pipes may cause
damage to the pump.
Piping should be checked
carefully, allowing for
expansion or contraction.
pipe strain can distort the
pump components, thus
increasing wear, causing
bearing misalignment, or
breaking parts. Pipe
supports and expansion
joints should be used to
avoid weight and stresses
on the pump. See that
flanges or unions fit without forcing.
Pump part size does not necessarily establish correct pipe size. If in doubt as to
the pipe size to used contact the engineering department. It is recommended that
the pump be installed below the liquid level, with a short, large diameter supply line
to assure a flooded inlet.
1.1.3 Operation
A pump is a simple piece of equipment and should not give any major problems if
the following precautions are taken.
- Check required electrical supply (V, Hz).
- Check that the ventilation on the electrical motor is not obstructed.
- Don't inverse inlet and outlet.
- Check transmission parts, (v belts, flexible couplings)
3-3
Transfer Pump
4-4
Transfer Pump
5-5
Transfer Pump
the system, do not operate the pump for more than a few minutes with the
outlet line blocked. Rapid heating and possible damage will occur.
- When working or repairs are made on a pump always isolate the driving
system to avoid the accidental start-up by ignorance, neglectance or
automatic systems. Remove the air supply for pneumatic operated pumps,
remove fuses or electrical operated pumps, remove the engine starter key or
isolate the starter on combustion engines that drive a pump,
6-6
Transfer Pump
Non lubricating liquid, (only for pumps Change to other pump type
that need a lubricating pump fluid).
3. EXCESSIVE Starved pump. Check supply liquid, see also
NOISE "no or insufficient liquid
delivery".
7-7
Transfer Pump
8-8
Transfer Pump
- Electrical motor 18,5 kW, 3 phase, 380 V , turning at 1465 rev. / MN.
- Speed reducer type RX 101, from 1400 rev. / MN. to 683 rev. / MN. ( new
reducers come with a plug at the top, replace this plug with a vent that is
delivered with the pump.)
- Safety valve with bypass assures the protection against overpressure, (valid for
the flow direction)
- Pump, SIHI ref. RPNA 101
- Capacity : 5000 BOPD
- Max. temp. : 200 ° c
- Max. viscosity : 75000 CST.
- Rotation direction : reversible
1.5.1 Description
A separation plate between the gears prevents the liquid from flowing back.
Only one shaft exit exist, so only one exit seal which can be inspected and
replaced without disconnecting the piping (bleed down the lines first to avoid oil
spillage.).
This pump has a high efficiency, and viscosity chances don't have much influence
on the flow rate.
The schematic drawing underneath show how to wire the engine to a three phases
alternative current.
9-9
Transfer Pump
220 Volts between two phases or 380 Volts between two phases.
1.5.3 Maintenance
Besides the usual checks before the use of a pump there is some periodical
maintenance to be made;
- The oil level in the speed reducer should be checked regularly and an oil
change made every 10.000 working hours or every two years.
- Clean the bearings after 10.000 working hours and put new grease, fill-up
only one third of the space in the bearing.
- Inspect the seal on the shaft exit for leaks. Packing cord as shaft seal
demands current adjustment to ensure correct leakage at the stuffing box.
Dependent on RPM and viscosity the stuffing box must leak 10 – 100 drops
a minute to remove the friction heat generated between shaft and packing
cord. In the event of insufficient leakage the heat generation will cause
hardened packing rings and increase wear on the shaft.
10 - 10
Transfer Pump
MAIN PARTS
11 - 11
Transfer Pump
12 - 12
Transfer Pump
13 - 13