LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

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Title Page no:

 Introduction to Logic gates 1
 Types of Logic gates 3
1.AND gate 3
2.OR gate 4
3.Not gate 5
4.NAND gate 6
5.NOR gate 7
6.XNOR gate 8
7.EXOR gate 9

 Summary of Logic gate 10

 Universal Logic gate & Rise 11
of Integrated Circuits
 Introduction to Integrated 12
Circuits
 Classification of Integrated 12
Circuits
 Merits &Demerits of 14
Integrated Circuits
 Application of Integrated 16
Circuits
1
 Result 17
 Bibliography 18

Logic Gates and Intergrated Circuits | Project done by Mohan Prasath

 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Logic Gates
INTRODUCTION
A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. It
makes ―logical decisions‖ based on the different combinations of
digital signals present on its inputs. Digital logic gates may have
more than one input but generally only have one digital output. Most
logic gates have two inputs and one output.

Knowledge Cloud
A gate is a digital circuit that is designed for performance a
particular logical operation. As it works according to some logical
relationship between input and output voltages, so it is generally
known as “LOGIC GATES”

At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the

two binaryconditions low (0) or high (1), represented by different
voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and generally does,
change often, as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the
low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is
approximately five volts positive (+5 V).

Individual logic gates can be connected together to form

combinational or sequential circuitsor larger logic gate
functions.Different types of logic gate implements different
Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical operation on one or
more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Depending on
2 the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has
for instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to
a non-ideal physical device. Page 1

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Logic gates are primarily implemented electronically using diodes or

transistors, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic
relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules,
or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic gates can be
cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed,
allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic,
and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be
described with Boolean logic.

A large number of electronic circuits (in computers, control units,

and so on) are made up of logic gates. These process signals
represent either true or false. The most common symbols used to
represent logic gates are shown below.

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Page 2

TYPES OF LOGIC GATES:

1. AND gate:
The AND gate is a basic digital logic gate that implements logical
conjunction - it behaves according to the truth table. A HIGH
output (1) results only if both the inputs to the AND gate are HIGH
(1). If neither or only one input to the AND gate is HIGH, a LOW
output results. In another sense, the function of AND effectively
finds the minimum between two binary digits, just as the OR
function finds the maximum. Therefore, the output is always 0
except when all the inputs are 1.

We will start with a 2 input AND gate. The symbol for a 2 input
AND gate is as follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input AND gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input AND gate is

4
Q  A.B

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Page 3

2. OR gate:
The OR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical
disjunction - it behaves according to the truth table. A HIGH
output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the gate are
HIGH (1). If neither input is high, a LOW output (0) results. In
another sense, the function of OR effectively finds the
maximum between two binary digits, just as the complementary
AND function finds the minimum. We will start with a 2 input
OR gate. The symbol for a 2 input OR gate is as follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input OR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input OR gate is

Q = A+B
5

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Page 4

3.NOT gate (or inverter):

This is the simplest form of logic gate and has only 1 input and
1 output. Simply the purpose of this gate is to invert the input
signal so if a Logic 0 is at the input, the output will be at
Logic 1 and vice versa. The symbol for a NOT gate is as
follows.

A Q

The truth table for a NOT gate is the simplest of all Truth Tables
and is shown below.

Input Output
A Q
0 1
1 0

The Boolean expression for a NOT gate is

6 QA

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Page 5

4.NAND gate

In digital electronics, a NAND gate (negative-AND) is a logic gate

which produces an output that is false only if all its inputs are true;
thus its output is complement to that of the AND gate. A LOW (0)
output results only if both the inputs to the gate are HIGH (1); if
one or both inputs are LOW (0), a HIGH (1) output results. It is
made using transistors. By De Morgan's theorem, AB=A+B, a NAND
gate is equivalent to inverters followed by an OR gate. The NAND
gate is significant because any Boolean function can be implemented
by using a combination of NAND gates. This property is called
functional completeness.

We will start with a 2 input NAND gate. The symbol for a 2

input NAND gate is as follows.(Next page)

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input NAND gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
7
The Boolean expression for a 2 input NAND gate is

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Q  A.B

Page 6

5.NOR gate:

The NOR gate is a digital logic gatewhich behaves according to the

truth table. A HIGH output (1) results if both the inputs to the gate
are LOW (0); if one or both input is HIGH (1), a LOW output (0)
results. NOR is the result of the negation of the OR operator. It
can also be seen as an AND gate with all the inputs inverted. NOR is
a functionally complete operation—NOR gates can be combined to
generate any other logical function. By contrast, the OR operator is
monotonic as it can only change LOW to HIGH but not vice versa.

We will start with a 2 input NOR gate. The symbol for a 2 input NOR
gate is asfollows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input NOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
8
The Boolean expression for a 2 input NOR gate is

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Q = A+B

Page 7

6.XNOR gate:

The XNOR gate has 2 inputs and is the inverted form of the EXOR
gate. The XNOR gate (sometimes spelled "exnor" or "enor" and
rarely written NXOR) is a digital logic gate whose function is the
logical complement of the exclusive OR (XOR) gate. A HIGH output
(1) results if both of the inputs to the gate are the same. If one but
not both inputs are HIGH (1), a LOW output (0) results. The symbol
for a 2 input XNOR gate is as follows.

A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input XNOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

9 The Boolean expression for a 2 input XNOR gate is

Q  A B
Logic Gates and Intergrated Circuits | Project done by Mohan Prasath
alternatively Q  A.B  A.B
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Page 8

7.EXOR gate.

The EXOR gate has 2 inputs and is a specialised version of the OR

gate. The XOR gate (sometimes EOR gate, or EXOR gate and
pronounced as Exclusive OR gate) is a digital logic gate that
implements an exclusive or; that is, a true output (1/HIGH) results
if one, and only one, of the inputs to the gate is true. If both inputs
are false (0/LOW) or both are true, a false output results. XOR
represents the inequality function, i.e., the output is true if the
inputs are not alike otherwise the output is false. A way to
remember XOR is "one or the other but not both". The symbol for a
2 input EXOR gate is as follows.
A
Q
B

The truth table for the 2 input EXOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
10 1 0 1
1 1 0

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The Boolean expression for a 2 input EXOR gate is

Q  A B

alternatively Q  A.B  A.B

Page 9

Summary of 2-input Logic Gates

The following Truth Table compares the logical functions of the 2-
input logic gates above.

Inputs Truth Table Outputs For Each Gate

A B AND NAND OR NOR EX-OR EX-NOR

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

The following table gives a list of the common logic functions and
their equivalent Boolean notation.

Logic Function Boolean Notation

AND A.B

OR A+B

11 NOT A

NAND A .B

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 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

NOR A+B

EX-OR (A.B) + (A.B) or A B

EX-NOR (A.B) + or A B

Page 10

Universal logic gates

NAND and NOR gates as digital building blocks.

The repeated use of the OR, the AND or the NOT gates alone
cannot give a different gate. But the repeated use of the NAND or
the NOR gates alone can give all basic gates like OR, AND and NOT
gate. Hence the NAND and the NOR gates are also called Universal
Logic Gates. In digital circuits, these gates serve as digital building
blocks.

Knowledge Cloud
Charles Sanders Peirce (winter of 1880–81) showed that NOR gates alone
(or alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to reproduce the
functions of all the other logic gates, but his work on it was unpublished
until 1933.The first published proof was by Henry M.Sheffer in 1913, so
the NAND logical operation is sometimes called Sheffer stroke; the
logical NOR is sometimes called Peirce's arrow.

Rise of Integrated Circuits

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be
12 performed. In theory, there is no limit to the number of gates that
can be arrayed together in a single device. But in practice, there is a
limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given physical

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space. Arrays of logic gates are found in digital integrated circuits

(ICs).

As IC technology advances, the required physical volume for each

individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or
smaller size become capable of performing ever-more-complicated
operations at ever-increasing speeds

Page 11

Integrated Circuits
INTRODUCTION
An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip or microchip,
isa semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny
resistors, capacitors, and transistors are fabricated. An IC can
function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter,
computer memory, or microprocessor.

Integrated Circuits or IC’s as they are more commonly called, can be

grouped together into families according to the number of
transistors or ―gates‖ that they contain. For example, a
simpleAND gate my contain only a few individual transistors, were as
a more complex microprocessor may contain many thousands of
individual transistor gates. A particular IC is categorized as either
linear (analog) or digital, depending on its intended application.

13 Classification of Integrated Circuits

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Small Scale Integration or (SSI) ~ Contain up to 10

transistors or a few gates within a single package such as AND, OR,
NOT gates.

Medium Scale Integration or (MSI) ~ Between 10 and 100

transistors or tens of gates within a single package and perform
digital operations such as adders, decoders, counters, flip-flops and
multiplexers.

Page 12

Large Scale Integration or (LSI) – between 100 and 1,000

transistors or hundreds of gates and perform specific digital
operations such as I/O chips, memory, arithmetic and logic units.

Very-Large Scale Integration or (VLSI) – between

1,000 and 10,000 transistors or thousands of gates and perform
computational operations such as processors, large memory arrays
and programmable logic devices.

Super-Large Scale Integration or (SLSI) – between

10,000 and 100,000 transistors within a single package and perform
computational operations such as microprocessor chips, micro-
controllers, basic PICs and calculators.

Ultra-Large Scale Integration or (ULSI) – more than

1 million transistors –used in computers CPUs, GPUs, video
processors, micro-controllers, FPGAs and complex PICs.

While the “ultra large scale” ULSI classification is less well used,
another level of integration which represents the complexity of the
14 Integrated Circuit is known as the System-on-Chip or (SOC) for
short. Here the individual components such as the microprocessor,
memory, peripherals, I/O logic etc., are all produced on a single
piece of silicon and which represents a whole electronic system
Logic Gates and Intergrated Circuits | Project done by Mohan Prasath
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within one single chip, literally putting the word ―integrated‖ into
integrated circuit.
These complete integrated chips which can contain up to 100 million
individual silicon-CMOS transistor gates within one single package
are generally used in mobile phones, digital cameras, micro-
controllers, PIC’s and robotic type applications.

Page 13

Merits and Demerits

Merits of Integrated Circuits
1. Miniature in size. As fabrication process is used for the
integration of active and passive components on to a silicon
chip, the IC becomes a lot smaller. When compared to
a discrete circuit, it may be at least a thousand times smaller.
2. Due to small size, the weight of the IC also reduces, when
compared to the discrete circuit.
3. To produce hundreds of discrete circuits on a PCB (Printed
circuit board) for the same logic takes more time and increase
the cost factor. But for the production of hundreds of ICs the
cost of production will be very low and less time consuming.
4. The PCB (Printed circuit board) consisting soldered joints will
be less reliable. This problem is omitted in IC’s because of no
soldered joints, with fewer interconnections, and thus highly
reliable.
5. The small size of ICs causes lesser power consumption and
lesser power loss.
6. In a discrete circuitry, if a single transistor becomes faulty,
15 the whole circuit may fail to work. This transistor has to be
desoldered and replaced. It is difficult to find out which

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component has failed. This problem can be omitted in an IC by

replacing an entire IC as it is low in cost.
7. Increased operating speed because of absence of parasitic
capacitance (is an unavoidable and usually
unwanted capacitance that exists between the parts of an
electronic component or circuit simply because of their
proximity to each other) effect.
8. As the IC’s are produced in bulk the temperature coefficients
and other parameters will be closely matching.
9. Improved functional performance as more complex circuits can
be fabricated for achieving better characteristics. Page 14
10. All IC’s are tested for operating ranges in very low and
very high temperatures.
11. As all the components are fabricated very close to each other
in an IC, they are highly suitable for small signal operation, as
there won’t be any stray electrical pickup.
12. As all the components are fabricated inside the chip, therewill
not be any external projections.

Demerits of Integrated Circuits

1. The power rating for most of the IC’s does not exceed more
than 10 watts. Thus it is not possible to manufacture high
power IC’s.
2. Some components like transformers and inductors cannot be
integrated into an IC. They have to be connected externally to
the semiconductor pins.
3. There is a large value of saturation resistance of transistors.
4. The IC will not work properly if wrongly handled or exposed to
excessive heat.
5. It is difficult to achieve low temperature coefficient and
16
fabricate an IC with low noise.

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6. It is not possible to fabricate capacitors that exceed a value

of 30pF. Thus, high value capacitors are to be connected
externally to the IC.
7. There is a large value of saturation resistance of transistors
8. Some complex IC’s maybe costly. If such integrated circuits
are used roughly and become faulty, they have to be replaced
by a new one. They cannot be repaired as the individual
components inside the IC are too small.

Page 15

Application of Integrated Circuits

Because of the above mentioned advantages IC's found numerous
applications from cars (automotive controls), televisions, computers,
microwaves, portable devices like laptops, MP3, play stations,
cameras, cellular phones to ship equipment’s, aero planes, space
craft’s. These are also used in switching telephone circuits and data
processing. They also found applications in military equipment’s. The
most common application of IC is digital watch which tells hour,
second, minute, day and month. Another common but important
application is scientific calculator which can perform basic functions
like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as well as
complex functions like square root, cube, permutations, combinations
, trigonometric functions, etc.

IC's are of Linear, digital and mixed types. Linear IC's also known as
analog Integrated circuits are used in:
17
1. Power amplifiers
2. Small-signal amplifiers

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 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

3. Operational amplifiers
4. Microwave amplifiers
5. RF and IF amplifiers
6. Voltage comparators
7. Multipliers
8. Radio receivers
9. Voltage regulators

Page 16

Result
We had mainly discussed about the design, property and operation
of various logic gates

Using combinations of logic gates, complex operations can be

performed.In theory, there is no limit to the number of gates that
can be arranged together in a single device. But in practice, there is
a limit to the number of gates that can be packed into a given
physical space.

Arrays of logic gates are found in digital integrated circuits (ICs).

As IC technology advances, the required physical volume for each
individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or
smaller size become capable of performing ever-more-complicated
operations at ever-increasing speeds.
18

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Page 17

Bibliography
I would like to declare the array of references hereby and submit
that I took help from following sources

1. Comprehensive Physics Practical

A textbook for Physics practical’s ISBN 978-81-318-0384-4

2. Wikipedia.com
The Online Encyclopedia indexing world’s best articles with genuine
references

3. TCYonline.com
An online video tutorial and educational Centre

4. Meritnation.com
The leading educational site in India
19

5. http://projects.icbse.com/forums
Online help for CBSE projects

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Logic Gates and Intergrated Circuits | Project done by Mohan Prasath