AEMx CH07

Chapter 7
Vectors
7.1 Vectors in 2-Space

√
1. (a) 6i + 12j (b) i + 8j (c) 3i (d) 65 (e) 3
√
2. (a) h3, 3i (b) h3, 4i (c) h−1, −2i (d) 5 (e) 5
√ √
3. (a) h12, 0i (b) h4, −5i (c) h4, 5i (d) 41 (e) 41
1
√ √
4. (a) 2i − 12 j (b) 2
3i + 23 j (c) − 31 i − j (d) 2 2/3 (e) 10/3
√ √
5. (a) −9i + 6j (b) −3i + 9j (c) −3i − 5j (d) 3 10 (e) 34
√ √
6. (a) h3, 9i (b) h−4, −12i (c) h6, 18i (d) 4 10 (e) 6 10
√
7. (a) −6i + 27j (b) 0 (c) −4i + 18j (d) 0 (e) 2 85
√
8. (a) h21, 30i (b) h8, 12i (c) h6, 8i (d) 4 13 (e) 10
9. (a) h4, −12i − h−2, 2i = h6, −14i (b) h−3, 9i − h−5, 5i = h2, 4i
10. (a) (4i + 4j) − (6i − 4j) = −2i + 8j (b) (−3i − 3j) − (15i − 10j) = −18i + 7j
11. (a) (4i − 4j) − (−6i + 8j) = 10i − 12j (b) (−3i + 3j) − (−15i + 20j) = 12i − 17j
12. (a) h8, 0i − h0, −6i = h8, 6i (b) h−6, 0i − h0, −15i = h−6, 15i
13. (a) h16, 40i − h−4, −12i = h20, 52i (b) h−12, −30i − h−10, −30i = h−2, 0i
14. (a) h8, 12i − h10, 6i = h−2, 6i (b) h−6, −9i − h25, 15i = h−31, −24i
507
508 CHAPTER 7 VECTORS
15. y 16. y
5
P1P2 5 x
P1
P1
P1P2
5 x
−5 P2
P1P2 = 〈2, 5〉
P1P2 = 〈6, −4〉
17. y 18. y
5 P2 5
P1
P1
P1P2
P1P2
5 x P2 5 x
P1P2 = 〈2, 2〉
P1P2 = 〈2, −3〉
−−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−−→ −−→

19. Since P1 P2 = OP2 − OP1 , OP2 = P1 P2 + OP1 = (4i + 8j) + (−3i + 10j) = i + 18j, and the
terminal point is (1, 18).
−−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−−→
20. Since P1 P2 = OP2 − OP1 , OP1 = OP2 − P1 P2 = h4, 7i − h−5, −1i = h9, 8i, and the initial
point is (9, 8).
21. a(= −a), b(= − 14 a), c(= 25 a), e(= 2a), and f (= − 12 a) are parallel to (a).
22. We want −3b = a, so c = −3(9) = −27.
23. h6, 15i
24. h5, 2i
√ √ 1
D E D E
25. kak = 4 + 4 = 2 2 ; (a) u = √ h2, 2i = √1 , √1 ; (b) −u = − √12 , − √12
2 2 2 2
√
(a) u = 15 h−3, 4i = − 53 , 45 ;

3
, − 45

26. kak = 9 + 16 = 5; (b) −u = 5
27. kak = 5; (a) u = 15 h0, −5i = h0, −1i; (b) −u = h0, 1i
√ √ D √ E D √ E
1
1, − 3 = 21 , − 23 ; (b) −u = − 21 , 23

28. kak = 1 + 3 = 2; (a) u = 2
√ 1

5 12

29. ka + bk = kh5, 12ik = 25 + 144 = 13; u= 13 h5, 12i = 13 , 13
7.1 Vectors in 2-Space 509
√ √ D E
30. k2a − 3bk = kh−5, 4ik = 25 + 16 = 41; u= √1 h−5, 4i = − √541 , √441
41
√ √
31. kak = 9 + 49 = 58; b=2 √1 (3i + 7j) = √6 i + √14 j
58 58 58
q √ √
1 1 √1 ; 1√ 1 3 2 3 2
− 12 j =

32. kak = 4 + 4 = 2
b=3 1/ 2 2i 2 i − 2 j
33. − 43 a = h−3, −15/2i 34. 5(a + b) = 5h0, 1i = h0, 5i
35. 3b a 36.
b = a + (b + c)
a b+c
b a c
37. x = −(a + b) = −a − b 38. x = 2(a − b) = 2a − 2b
39. 40.
−c d c
b
e
a b
a
b = (−c) − a; (b + c) + a = 0; From Problem 39, e+c+d = 0. But b = e−a
a+b+c=0 and e = a + b, so (a + b) + c + d = 0.
41. From 2i + 3j = k1 b + k2 c = k1 (i + j) + k2 (i − j) = (k1 + k2 )i + (k1 − k2 )j we obtain the

system of equations k1 + k2 = 2, k1 − k2 = 3. Solving, we find k1 = 52 and k2 = − 12 . Then
a = 25 b − 12 c.
42. From 2i + 3j = k1 b + k2 c = k1 (−2i + 4j) + k2 (5i + 7j) = (−2k1 + 5k2 )i + (4k1 + 7k2 )j we
1
obtain the system of equations −2k1 + 5k2 = 2, 4k1 + 7k2 = 3. Solving, we find k1 = 34 and
7
k2 = 17 .
43. From y ′ = 21 x we see that the slope of the tangent line at (2, 2) is 1. A vector with slope 1 is
√
i + j. A unit vector is (i + j)/ki + jk = (i + j)/ 2 = √12 i + √12 j. Another unit vector tangent
to the curve is − √12 i − √12 j.
44. From y ′ = −2x + 3 we see that the slope of the tangent line at (0, 0) is 3. A vector with slope
√
3 is i + 3j. A unit vector is (i + 3j)/ki + 3jk = (i + 3j)/ 10 = √110 i + √110 j. Another unit
vector is − √110 i − √110 j.
45. (a) Since Ff = −Fg , kFg k = kFf k = µkFn k and tan θ = kFg k/kFn k = µkFn k/kFn k = µ.
(b) θ = tan−1 0.6 ≈ 31◦

46. Since w + F1 + F2 = 0,
−200j + kF1 k cos 20◦ i + kF1 k sin 20◦ j − kF2 k cos 15◦ i + kF2 k sin 15◦ j = 0
or
(kF1 k cos 20◦ − kF2 k cos 15◦ )i + (kF1 k sin 20◦ + kF2 k sin 15◦ − 200)j = 0.
Thus, kF1 k cos 20◦ − kF2 k cos 15◦ = 0; kF1 k sin 20◦ + kF2 k sin 15◦ − 200 = 0. Solving this
system for kF1 k and kF2 k, we obtain
200 cos 15◦ 200 cos 15◦ 200 cos 15◦
kF1 k = = = ≈ 336.8 lb
sin 15◦ cos 20◦ + cos 15◦ sin 20◦ sin (15◦ + 20◦ ) sin 35◦
and
200 cos 20◦ 200 cos 20◦
kF2 k = = ≈ 327.7 lb.
sin 15◦ cos 20◦ + cos 15◦ sin 20◦ sin 35◦
47. Since y/2a(L2 + y 2 )3/2 is an odd function on [−a, a], Fy = 0. Now, using the fact that
L/(L2 + y 2 )3/2 is an even function, we have
Z a
L dy L a dy
Z
2 2 3/2
= y = L tan θ, dy = L sec2 θ dθ
−a 2a(L + y ) a 0 (L + y 2 )3/2
2
L tan a/L
Z tan−1 a/L
L sec2 θ dθ sec2 θ dθ
−1
1
Z
= =
a 0 L3 (1 + tan2 θ)3/2 La 0 sec3 θ
Z tan−1 a/L tan−1 a/L
1 1
= cos θ dθ = sin θ

La 0 La
0
1 a 1
√= = √ .
La L + a
2 2 L L 2 + a2
√ √
Then Fx = qQ/4πǫ0 L L2 + a2 and F = (qQ/4πǫ0 L L2 + a2 )i.
48. Place one corner of the parallelogram at the origin

−−→ −−→ P2 P2
and let two adjacent sides be OP1 and OP2 . Let M
M
be the midpoint of the diagonal connecting P1 and P2 N
P1 P1
and N be the midpoint of the other diagonal. Then
−−→ 1 −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
OM = 2 (OP1 + OP2 ). Since OP1 + OP2 is the main diagonal of the parallelogram and N is
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
its midpoint, ON = 12 (OP1 + OP2 ). Thus, OM = ON and the diagonals bisect each other.
−−→ −−→ −→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −→
49. By Problem 39, AB + BC + CA = 0 and AD + DE + EC + CA = 0. B
−−→ −−→ −→
From the first equation, AB + BC = −CA. Since D and E are midpoints,
−−→ 1 − −
→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −→ D
AD = 2 AB and EC = 21 BC. Then, 12 AB + DE + 21 BC + CA = 0 and E
−−→ −→ 1 −−→ −−→ −→ 1 −→ 1 −→ A C

DE = −CA − (AB + BC) = −CA − (−CA) = − CA.
2 2 2
Thus, the line segment joining the midpoints D and E is parallel to the side AC and half its
length.
−→ −
−→
50. We have OA = 150 cos 20◦ i + 150 sin 20◦ j, AB = 200 cos 113◦ i + 200 sin 113◦ j,
−−→
BC = 240 cos 190◦ i + 240 sin 190◦ j. Then
r = (150 cos 20◦ + 200 cos 113◦ + 240 cos 190◦ )i + (150 sin 20◦ + 200 sin 113◦ + 240 sin 190◦ )j
≈ −173.55i + 193.73j
and krk ≈ 260.09 miles.
7.2 Vectors in 3-Space
1. – 6. z
(0, 0, 4) (1, 1, 5)
(5, −4, 3)
y
(3, 4, 0)
(6, −2, 0) (6, 0, 0)

x
7. A plane perpendicular to the z-axis, 5 units above the xy-plane
8. A plane perpendicular to the x-axis, 1 unit in front of the yz-plane
9. A line perpendicular to the xy-plane at (2, 3, 0)
10. A single point located at (4, −1, 7)
11. (2, 0, 0), (2, 5, 0), (2, 0, 8), (2, 5, 8), (0, 5, 0), (0, 5, 8), (0, 0, 8), (0, 0, 0)
12. z (−1, 3, 7)
(−1, 6, 7)
(3, 6, 7)
(3, 3, 7) (−1, 6, 4)
(−1, 3, 4)
(3, 6, 4)
(3, 3, 4)
13. (a) xy-plane: (−2, 5, 0), xz-plane: (−2, 0, 4), yz-plane: (0, 5, 4);
(b) (−2, 5, −2)
(c) Since the shortest distance between a point and a plane is a perpendicular line, the point
in the plane x = 3 is (3, 5, 4).
14. We find planes that are parallel to coordinate planes:
(a) z = −5;
(b) x = 1 and y = −1;
(c) z = 2
15. The union of the planes x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0
16. The origin (0, 0, 0)
17. The point (−1, 2, −3)
18. The union of the planes x = 2 and z = 8
19. The union of the planes z = 5 and z = −5
20. The line through the points (1, 1, 1), (−1, −1, −1), and the origin
p √
21. d = (3 − 6)2 + (−1 − 4)2 + (2 − 8)2 = 70
p √
22. d = (−1 − 0)2 + (−3 − 4)2 + (5 − 3)2 = 3 6
23. (a) 7;
p
(b) d = (−3)2 + (−4)2 = 5
24. (a) 2;
p
(b) d = (−6)2 + 22 + (−3)2 = 7
p p
25. d(P1 , P2 ) = 32 + 62 + (−6)2 = 9; d(P1 , P3 ) = 22 + 12 + 22 = 3
p √
d(P2 , P3 ) = (2 − 3)2 + (1 − 6)2 + (2 − (−6))2 = 90;
The triangle is a right triangle.
p √ q √ √
26. d(P1 , P2 ) = 12 + 22 + 42 =
21; d(P1 , P3 ) = 32 + 22 + (2 2)2 = 21
√ √
q q
2 2 2
d(P2 , P3 ) = (3 − 1) + (2 − 2) + (2 2 − 4) = 28 − 16 2;
The triangle is an isosceles triangle.
p √
27. d(P1 , P2 ) = (4 − 1)2 + (1 − 2)2 + (3 − 3)2 = 10;
p √
d(P1 , P3 ) = (4 − 1)2 + (6 − 2)2 + (4 − 3)2 = 26
p √
d(P2 , P3 ) = (4 − 4)2 + (6 − 1)2 + (4 − 3)2 = 26;
The triangle is an isosceles triangle.
p
28. d(P1 , P2 ) = (1 − 1)2 + (1 − 1)2 + (1 − (−1))2 = 2;
p
d(P1 , P3 ) = (0 − 1)2 + (−1 − 1)2 + (1 − (−1))2 = 3;
p √
d(P2 , P3 ) = (0 − 1)2 + (−1 − 1)2 + (1 − 1)2 = 5;
The triangle is a right triangle.
p √
29. d(P1 , P2 ) = (−2 − 1)2 + (−2 − 2)2 + (−3 − 0)2 = 34;
p √
d(P1 , P3 ) = (7 − 1)2 + (10 − 2)2 + (6 − 0)2 = 2 34;
p √
d(P2 , P3 ) = (7 − (−2))2 + (10 − (−2))2 + (6 − (−3))2 = 3 34
Since d(P1 , P2 ) + d(P1 , P3 ) = d(P2 , P3 ), the points P1 , P2 , and P3 are collinear.
p √
30. d(P1 , P2 ) = (1 − 2)2 + (4 − 3)2 + (4 − 2)2 =
6
p √
d(P1 , P3 ) = (5 − 2)2 + (0 − 3)2 + (−4 − 2)2 = 3 6
p √
d(P2 , P3 ) = (5 − 1)2 + (0 − 4)2 + (−4 − 4)2 = 4 6
Since d(P1 , P2 ) + d(P1 , P3 ) = d(P2 , P3 ), the points P1 , P2 , and P3 are collinear.
p √
31. (2 − x)2 + (1 − 2)2 + (1 − 3)2 = 21
Therefore,
x2 − 4x + 9 = 21
x2 − 4x + 4 = 16
(x − 2)2 = 16
x = 2 ± 4 or x = 6, −2
p
32. (0 − x)2 + (3 − x)2 + (5 − 1)2 = 5
Therefore,
2x2 − 6x + 25 = 25
x2 − 3x = 0
x = 0, 3

1 + 7 3 + (−2) 1/2 + 5/2
33. , , = (4, 1/2, 3/2)
2 2 2

0 + 4 5 + 1 −8 + (−6)
34. , , = (2, 3, −7)
2 2 2
35. (x1 + 2)/2 = −1; (y1 + 3)/2 = −4; (z1 + 6)/2 = 8

x1 = −4 y1 = −11 z1 = 10
The coordinates of P1 are (−4, −11, 10).

36. (−3 + (−5))/2 = x3 ; (4 + 8)/2 = y3 = 6; (1 + 3)/2 = z3 = 2
The coordinates of P3 are (−4, 6, 2).

−3 + (−4) 4 + 6 1 + 2
(a) , , = (−7/2, 5, 3/2)
2 2 2

−4 + (−5) 6 + 8 2 + 3
(b) , , = (−9/2, 7, 5/2)
2 2 2
−−−→ −−−→
37. P1 P2 = h−3, −6, 1i 38. P1 P2 = h8, −5/2, 8i
−−−→ −−−→
39. P1 P2 = h2, 1, 1i 40. P1 P2 = h−3, −3, 7i
41. a + (b + c) = h2, 4, 12i
42. 2a − (b − c) = h2, −6, 4i − h−3, −5, −8i = h5, −1, 12i
43. b + 2(a − 3c) = h−1, 1, 1i + 2h−5, −21, −25i = h−11, −41, −49i
44. 4(a + 2c) − 6b = 4h5, 9, 20i − h−6, 6, 6i = h26, 30, 74i

√ √
45. ka + ck = kh3, 3, 11ik = 9 + 9 + 121 = 139
√ √ √
46. kckk2bk = ( 4 + 36 + 81 )(2)( 1 + 1 + 1 ) = 22 3

a b
47.
+ 5
= 1 kak + 5 1 kbk = 1 + 5 = 6
kak kbk kak kbk
√ √
48. kbka + kakb = 1 + 1 + 1 h1, −3, 2i + 1 + 9 + 4 h−1, 1, 1i
√ √ √ √ √ √
= h 3 , −3 3 , 2 3 i + h− 14 , 14 , 14 i
√ √ √ √ √ √
= h 3 − 14 , −3 3 + 14 , 2 3 + 14 i
√ 1
49. kak = 100 + 25 + 100 = 15; u=−
h10, −5, 10i = h−2/3, 1/3, −2/3i
15
√ √ 1 1 3 2
50. kak = 1 + 9 + 4 = 14 ; u = √ (i − 3j + 2k) = √ i − √ j + √ k
14 14 14 14
51. b = 4a = 4i − 4j + 4k
√

1 1 3 3 1
52. kak = 36 + 9 + 4 = 7; b=− h−6, 3, −2i = ,− ,
2 7 7 14 7
53. z
a
1 (a + b)
2
b
y
x
7.3 Dot Product 515
7.3 Dot Product
√ √
1. a · b = 10(5) cos (π/4) = 25 2 2. a · b = 6(12) cos (π/6) = 36 3
3. a · b = 2(−1) + (−3)2 + 4(5) = 12 4. b · c = (−1)3 + 2(6) + 5(−1) = 4
5. a · c = 2(3) + (−3)6 + 4(−1) = −16 6. a · (b + c) = 2(2) + (−3)8 + 4(4) = −4
7. a · (4b) = 2(−4) + (−3)8 + 4(20) = 48 8. b · (a − c) = (−1)(−1) + 2(−9) + 5(5) = 8
9. a · a = 22 + (−3)2 + 42 = 29 10. (2b) · (3c) = (−2)9 + 4(18) + 10(−3) = 24
11. a · (a + b + c) = 2(4) + (−3)5 + 4(8) = 25
12. (2a) · (a − 2b) = 4(4) + (−6)(−7) + 8(−6) = 10

a·b 2(−1) + (−3)2 + 4(5) 12
13. b= 2 2 2
h−1, 2, 5i = h−1, 2, 5i = h−2/5, 4/5, 2i
b·b (−1) + 2 + 5 30
14. (c · b)a = [3(−1) + 6(2) + (−1)5]h2, −3, 4i = 4h2, −3, 4i = h8, −12, 16i
15. a and f, b and e, c and d
16. (a) a · b = 2 · 3 + (−c)2 + 3(4) = 0 or c=9
(b) a · b = c(−3) + 12 (4) + c2 = c2 − 3c + 2 = (c − 2)(c − 1) = 0 or c = 1, 2
17. Solving the system of equations 3x1 + y1 − 1 = 0, −3x1 + 2y1 + 2 = 0 gives x1 = 4/9 and
y1 = −1/3. Thus, v = h4/9, −1/3, 1i.
18. If a and b represent adjacent sides of the rhombus, then kak = kbk, the diagonals of the
rhombus are a + b and a − b, and
(a + b) · (a − b) = a · a − a · b + b · a − b · b = a · a − b · b = kak2 − kbk2 = 0.
Thus, the diagonals are perpendicular.
19. Since

a·b a·b
c·a= b− 2
a ·a=b·a− (a · a) = b · a − a · bkak2 kak2 = b · a − a · b = 0,
kak kak2
the vectors c and a are orthogonal.
√ √
20. a · b = 1(1) + c(1) = c + 1; kak = 1 + c2 , kbk = 2
1 c+1
cos 45◦ = √ = √ √
2 1 + c2 2
p
1 + c2 = c + 1
1 + c2 = c2 + 2c + 1
c=0
√ √
21. a · b = 3(2) + (−1)2 = 4; kak = 10 , kbk = 2 2
4 1
cos θ = √ √ =√
( 10)(2 2) 5
1
θ = cos−1 √
5
1.11 rad ≈ 63.43◦
√
22. a · b = 2(−3) + 1(−4) = −10; kak = 5 , kbk = 5
−10 2
cos θ = √ = −√
( 5 )5 5
√
θ = cos−1 (−2/ 5 ) ≈ 2.68 rad ≈ 153.43◦
√ √
23. a · b = 2(−1) + 4(−1) + 0(4) = −6; kak = 2 5 , kbk = 3 2
−6 1
cos θ = √ √ = −√
(2 5)(3 2) 10
√
θ = cos−1 (−1/ 10 ) ≈ 1.89 rad ≈ 108.43◦
√ √
24. a · b = 12 (2) + 12 (−4) + 23 (6) = 8; kak = 11/2, kbk = 2 14
8 8
cos θ = √ √ =√
( 11/2)(2 14 ) 154
√
θ = cos−1 (8/ 154 ) ≈ 0.87 rad ≈ 49.86◦
√ √ √ √
25. kak = 14 ; cos α = 1/ 14, α ≈ 74.50◦ ; cos β = 2/ 14, β ≈ 57.69◦ ; cos γ = 3/ 14,
γ ≈ 36.70◦
26. kak = 9; cos α = 2/3, α ≈ 48.19◦ ; cos β = 2/3, β ≈ 48.19◦ ; cos γ = −1/3, γ ≈ 109.47◦
√
27. kak = 2; cos α = 1/2, α = 60◦ ; cos β = 0, β = 90◦ ; cos γ = − 3/2, γ = 150◦
√ √ √ √
28. kak = 78 ; cos α = 5/ 78 , α ≈ 55.52◦ ; cos β = 7/ 78 , β ≈ 37.57◦ ; cos γ = 2/ 78 ,
γ ≈ 76.91◦
−−→ −−
→
29. Let θ be the angle between AD and AB and a be the length of an edge of the cube. Then
−−→ −
−→
AD = ai + aj + ak, AB = ai and
−−→ − −→
AD · AB a2 1
cos θ = −−→ −− → = √ √ =√
2
3a a 2 3
kADk kABk
−−→ −→
so θ ≈ 0.955317 radian or 54.7356◦ . Letting φ be the angle between AD and AC and noting
−→
that AC = ai + aj we have
−−→ −→ r
AD · AC a2 + a2 2
cos φ = −−→ −→ = √ √ =
kADk kACk 2
3a 2a 2 3
so φ ≈ 0.61548 radian or 35.2644◦ .
7.3 Dot Product 517
30. If a and b are orthogonal, then a · b = 0 and

a 1 b1 a2 b2 a 3 b3
cos α1 cos α2 + cos β1 cos β2 + cos γ1 cos γ2 = + +
kak kbk kak kbk kak kbk
1
= (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )
kak kbk
1
= (a · b) = 0.
kak kbk
√ √ √
31. a = h5, 7, 4i; kak = 3 10 ; cos α = 5/3 10 , α ≈ 58.19◦ ; cos β = 7/3 10 , β ≈ 42.45◦ ;
√
cos γ = 4/3 10 , γ ≈ 65.06◦
32. We want cos α = cos β = cos γ or a1 = a2 = a3 . Letting a1 = a2 = a3 = 1 we obtain the

vector i + j + k. A unit vector in the same direction is √13 i + √13 j + √13 k.
33. compb a = a · b/kbk = h1, −1, 3i · h2, 6, 3i/7 = 5/7

√ √
34. compa b = b · a/kak = h2, 6, 3i · h1, −1, 3i/ 11 = 5/ 11
√ √
35. b − a = h1, 7, 0i; compa (b − a) = (b − a) · a/kak = h1, 7, 0i · h1, −1, 3i/ 11 = −6/ 11
36. a + b = h3, 5, 6i; 2b = h4, 12, 6i; comp2b (a + b) · 2b/|2b| = h3, 5, 6i · h4, 12, 6i/14 = 54/7
−−→ −−→ √ −−→ −− → √
37. OP = 3i + 10j; kOP k = 109 ; comp− −→ a = a · OP /kOP k = (4i + 6j) · (3i + 10j)/ 109 =
√ OP
72/ 109
−−→ −−→ √ −−→ −−→ √
38. OP = h1, −1, 1i; kOP k = 3 ; comp− −→ a = a · OP /kOP k = h2, 1, −1i · h1, −1, 1i/ 3 = 0
OP
39. compb a = a · b/kbk = (−5i + 5j) · (−3i + 4j)/5 = 7

21 28
projb a = (compb a)b/kbk = 7(−3i + 4j)/5 = − i+ j
5 5
√ √
40. compb a = a · b/kbk = (4i + 2j) · (−3i + j)/ 10 = − 10
√ √
projb a = (compb a)b/kbk = − 10(−3i + j)/ 10 = 3i − j
41. compb a = a · b/kbk = (−i − 2j + 7k) · (6i − 3j − 2k)/7 = −2

12 6 4
projb a = (compb a)b/kbk = −2(6i − 3j − 2k)/7 = − i+ j+ k
7 7 7
42. compb a = a · b/kbk = h1, 1, 1i · h−2, 2, −1i/3 = −1/3
1
projb a = (compb a)b/kbk = − h−2, 2, −1i/3 = h2/9, −2/9, 1/9i
3
43. a + b = 3i + 4j; ka + bk = 5;
comp(a+b) a = a · (a + b)/ka + bk = (4i + 3j) · (3i + 4j)/5 = 24/5

24 72 96
proj(a+b) a = (comp(a+b) a)(a + b)/ka + bk = (3i + 4j)/5 = i+ j
5 25 25
√
44. a − b = 5i + 2j; ka − bk = 29 ;
√ √
comp(a−b) b = b · (a − b)/ka − bk = (−i + j) · (5i + 2j)/ 29 = −3/ 29
3 √ 15 6
proj(a−b) b = (comp(a−b) b)(a − b)/ka − bk = − √ (5i + 2j)/ 29 = − i − j
29 29 29
45. We identify kFk = 20, θ = 60◦ and kdk = 100. Then W = kFk kdk cos θ = 20(100)( 12 ) = 1000
ft-lb.
46. We identify d = −i + 3j + 8k. Then W = F · d = h4, 3, 5i · h−1, 3, 8i = 45 N-m.
47. (a) Since w and d are orthogonal, W = w · d = 0.

√
(b) We identify θ = 0◦ . Then W = kFk kdk cos θ = 30( 42 + 32 ) = 150 N-m.
48. Using d = 6i + 2j and F = 3( 35 i + 45 j), W = F · d = h 59 , 12

5 i · h6, 2i =
78
5 ft-lb.
49. Let a and b be vectors from the center of the carbon atom to the centers of two distinct
hydrogen atoms. The distance between two hydrogen atoms is then
p √
kb − ak = (b − a) · (b − a) = b · b − 2a · b + a · a
p p
= kbk2 + kak2 − 2kak kbk cos θ = (1.1)2 + (1.1)2 − 2(1.1)(1.1) cos 109.5◦
p
= 1.21 + 1.21 − 2.42(−0.333807) ≈ 1.80 angstroms.
50. Using the fact that | cos θ| ≤ 1, we have |a · b| = kak kbk| cos θ| = kak kbk| cos θ| ≤ kak kbk.
51. ka + bk2 = (a + b) · (a + b) = a · a + 2a · b + b · b = kak2 + 2a · b + kbk2

≤ kak2 + 2|a · b| + kbk2 since x ≤ |x|
≤ kak2 + 2kak kbk + kbk2 = (kak + kbk)2 by Problem 50
Thus, since ka + bk and kak + kbk are positive, ka + bk ≤ kak + kbk.
52. Let P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) be distinct points on the line ax + by = −c. Then
−−−→
n · P1 P2 = ha, bi · hx2 − x1 , y2 − y1 i = ax2 − ax1 + by2 − by1
= (ax2 + by2 ) − (ax1 + by1 ) = −c − (−c) = 0,
and the vectors are perpendicular. Thus, n is perpendicular to the line.

−−−→
53. Let θ be the angle between n and P2 P1 . Then
−−−→
−−−→ |n · P2 P1 | |ha, bi · hx1 − x2 , y1 − y2 i| |ax1 − ax2 + by1 − by2 |
d = kP1 P2 k | cos θ| = = √ = √
knk 2
a +b 2 a 2 + b2
|ax1 + by1 − (ax2 + by2 )| |ax1 + by1 − (−c)| |ax1 + by1 + c|
= √ = √ = √ .
2
a +b 2 2
a +b 2 a 2 + b2
7.4 Cross Product 519
7.4 Cross Product

i j k
−1 0 1 0 1 −1
1. a × b = 1 −1 0 =
i−
j+
k = −5i − 5j + 3k
0 3 5 3 5 0 5 0 3

i j k
1 0 2 0 2 1
2. a × b = 2 1 0 =

i − 4 −1 j + 4 0 k = −i + 2j − 4k

4 0 −1 0 −1

i j k
−3 1 1 1 1 −3
3. a × b = 1 −3 1 =
i−
j+
k = h−12, −2, 6i
2 0 4 0 4 2 4 2 0

i j k
1 1 1 1 1 1
4. a × b = 1 1 1 = i −
−5 3 j + −5 2 k = h1, −8, 7i

−5 2 3 2 3

i j k
−1 2 2 2 2 −1
5. a × b = 2 −1 2 =

i − −1 −1 j + −1 3 k = −5i + 5k

−1 3 −1 3 −1

i j k
1 −5 4 −5 4 1
6. a × b = 4 1 −5 =
i−
j+
k = 14i − 6j + 10k
2 3 −1 3 −1 2 −1 2 3

i j k
0 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 0
7. a × b = 1/2 1 1/2 =

i − 4

j + 4 6 k = h−3, 2, 3i

4 6 0 6 0 0

i j k
5 0 0 0 0 5
8. a × b = 0 5 0 =
i−
j+
k = h20, 0, −10i
2 −3 4 −3 4 2 4 2 3

i j k
2 −4 2 −4 2 2
9. a × b = 2 2 −4 = i − j + k = h0, 0, 0i
−3 −3 6 −3 6 −3 6 −3 −3

i j k
1 −6 8 −6 8 1
10. a × b = 8 1 −6 =

i − 1 10 j + 1 −2 k = h−2, −86, −17i

1 −2 10 −2 10
−−−→ −−−→
11. P1 P2 = (−2, 2, −4); P1 P3 = (−3, 1, 1)

i j k
−−−→ −−−→ 2 −4 −2 −4 −2 −2
P1 P2 × P1 P3 = −2 2 −4 =
i−
j+
k = 6i + 14j + 4k
−3 1 1 1 1 −3 1 −3 1
−−−→ −−−→
12. P1 P2 = (0, 1, 1); P1 P3 = (1, 2, 2);

i j k
−−−→ −−−→ 1 1 0 1 0 1
P1 P2 × P1 P3 = 0 1 1 =

i − 1 2 j + 1 2 k = j − k

1 2 2 2 2

i j k
7 −4 2 −4 2 7
13. a × b = 2 7 −4 =
i−
j+
k = −3i − 2j − 5k
1 1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 1 1
is perpendicular to both a and b.

i j k
−2 4 −1 4 −1 −2
14. a × b = −1 −2 4 =

i − 4 0 j + 4 −1 k = h4, 16, 9i

4 −1 0 −1 0
is perpendicular to both a and b.

i j k
−2 1 5 1 5 −2
15. a × b = 5 −2 1 = i −
2 −7 j + 2 0 k = h14, 37, 4i

2 0 −7 0 −7
a · (a × b) = h5, −2, −1i · h14, 37, 4i = 70 − 74 + 4 = 0;

b · (a × b) = h2, 0, −7i · h14, 37, 4i = 28 + 0 − 28 = 0

i j k
−1/4 0 k = − 3 i − 3j − 1 k
1/2 0 1/2 −1/4
16. a × b = 1/2 −1/4 0 = i − j +
2 −2 6 2 6 2 −2 2 2
−2 6

1 1 3 1 3 3
a · (a × b) = i − j · − i − 3j − k = − + + 0 = 0
2 4 2 2 4 4

3 1
b · (a × b) = (2i − 2j + 6k) · − i − 3j − k = −3 + 6 − 3 = 0
2 2

i j k
1 1 2 1 2 1
17. (a) b × c = 2 1 1 =
i−
j+ k = j−k
3 1 1 3 1 3 1
1 1

i j k
−1 2 1 2 1 −1
a × (b × c) = 1 −1 2 = i −
0 −1 j + 0 1 k = −i + j + k

0 1 −1
1 −1
(b) a · c = (i − j + 2k) · (3i + j + k) = 4; (a · c)b = 4(2i + j + k) = 8i + 4j + 4k

a · b = (i − j + 2k) · (2i + j + k) = 3; (a · b)c = 3(3i + j + k) = 9i + 3j + 3k
a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c = (8i + 4j + 4k) − (9i + 3j + 3k) = −i + j + k

i j k
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
18. (a) b × c = 1 2 −1 =
i− j+ k = 21i − 7j + 7k
−1 5 8 −1 8 −1 5
5 8

i j k
0 −4 3 −4 3 0
a × (b × c) = 3 0 −4 = i− j+ k
21 −7 7 21 7 21 −7
−7 7
= −28i − 105j − 21k
(b) a · c = (3i − 4k) · (−i + 5j + 8k) = −35; (a·c)b = −35(i+2j−k) = −35i−70j+35k;

a · b = (3i − 4k) · (i + 2j − k) = 7; (a · b)c = 7(−i + 5j + 8k) = −7i + 35j + 56k;
a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c(−35i − 70j + 35k) − (−7i + 35j + 56k) = −28i − 105j − 21k
19. (2i) × j = 2(i × j) = 2k
20. i × (−3k) = −3(i × k) = −3(−j) = 3j
21. k × (2i − j) = k × (2i) + k × (−j) = 2(k × i) − (k × j) = 2j − (−i) = i + 2j
22. i × (j × k) = i × i = 0
23. [(2k) × (3j)] × (4j) = [2 · 3(k × j) × (4j)] = 6(−i) × 4j = (−6)(4)(i × j) = −24k
24. (2i − j + 5k) × i = (2i × i) + (−j × i) + (5k × i) = 2(i × i) + (i × j) + 5(k × i) = 5j + k
25. (i + j) × (i + 5k) = [(i + j) × i] + [(i + j) × 5k] = (i × i) + (j × i) + (i × 5k) + (j × 5k)

= −k + 5(−j) + 5i = 5i − 5j − k
26. i × k − 2(j × i) = −j − 2(−k) = −j + 2k
27. k · (j × k) = k · i = 0
28. i · [j × (−k)] = i · [−(j × k)] = i · (−i) = −(i · i) = −1

√
29. k4j − 5(i × j)k = k4j − 5kk = 41
30. (i × j) · (3j × i) = k · (−3k) = −3(k · k) = −3
31. i × (i × j) = i × k = −j 32. (i × j) × i = k × i = j
33. (i × i) × j = 0 × j = 0 34. (i · i)(i × j) = 1(k) = k
35. 2j · [i × (j − 3k)] = 2j · [(i × j) + (i × (−3k)] = 2j · [k + 3(k × i)] = 2j · (k + 3j)

= 2j · k + 2j · 3j = 2(j · k) + 6(j · j) = 2(0) + 6(1) = 6
36. (i × k) × (j × i) = (−j) × (−k) = (−1)(−1)(j × k) = j × k = i
37. a × (3b) = 3(a × b) = 3(4i − 3j + 6k) = 12i − 9j + 18k
38. b × a = −a × b = −(a × b) = −4i + 3j − 6k

39. (−a) × b = −(a × b) = −4i + 3j − 6k

p √
40. |a × b| = 42 + (−3)2 + 62 = 61

i j k
−3 6 4 6 4 −3
41. (a × b) × c = 4 −3 6 = i−
2 −1 j + 2 −4 k = −21i + 16j + 22k

2 4 −1 4 −1
42. (a × b) · c = 4(2) + (−3)4 + 6(−1) = −10
43. a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c = 4(2) + (−3)4 + 6(−1) = −10
44. (4a) · (b × c) = (4a × b) · c = 4(a × b) · c = 16(2) + (−12)4 + 24(−1) = −40

−
−→
45. (a) Let A = (1, 3, 0), B = (2, 0, 0), C = (0, 0, 4), and D = (1, −3, 4). Then AB = i − 3j,
−→ −−→ −−→ −
−→ −−→
AC = −i − 3j + 4k, CD = i − 3j, and BD = −i − 3j + 4k. Since AB = CD and
−→ −−→
AC = BD, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(b) Computing

i j k
−−→ −→
AB × AC = 1 −3 0 = −12i − 4j − 6k
−1 −3 4
√
we find that the area is k − 12i − 4j − 6kk = 144 + 16 + 36 = 14.
−−
→
46. (a) Let A = (3, 4, 1), B = (−1, 4, 2), C = (2, 0, 2) and D = (−2, 0, 3). Then AB = −4i + k,
−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
AC = −i − 4j + k, CD = −4i + k, and BD = −i − 4j + k. Since AB = CD and
−→ −−→
AC = BD, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(b) Computing

i j k
−−→ −→
AB × AC = −4 0 1 = 4i + 3j + 16k
−1 −4 1
√ √
we find that the area is k4i + 3j + 16kk = 16 + 9 + 256 = 281 ≈ 16.76.
−−−→ −−−→
47. P1 P2 = j; P2 P3 = −j + k

i j k
−−−→ −−−→ 1 0 0 0 0 1
P1 P2 × P2 P3 = 0 1 0 =
i−
j+
k = i;
0 −1 1 −1 1 0 1 0 −1
A = 12 kik = 21 sq. unit

−−−→ −−−→
48. P1 P2 = j + 2k; P2 P3 = 2i + j − 2k

i j k
−−−→ −−−→ 1 2 0 2 0 1
P1 P2 × P2 P3 = 0 1 2 =

i − 2 −2 j + 2 1 k = −4i + 4j − 2k;

2 1 −2 1 −2
A = 12 k − 4i + 4j − 2kk = 3 sq. units

−−−→ −−−→
49. P1 P2 = −3j − k; P2 P3 = −2i − k

i j k
−−−→ −−−→ −3 −1 0 −1 0 −3
P1 P2 × P2 P3 = 0 −3 −1 =

i − −2 −1 j + −2 0 k = 3i + 2j − 6k;

−2 0 −1 0 −1
A = 12 k3i + 2j − 6kk = 7
2 sq. units
−−−→ −−−→
50. P1 P2 = −i + 3k; P2 P3 = 2i + 4j − k

i j k
−−−→ −−−→ 0 3 −1 3 −1 0
P1 P2 × P2 P3 = −1 0 3 = 2 −1 j + 2 4 k = −12i + 5j − 4k;
i−
2 4 −1 4 −1
√
A = 12 k − 12i + 5j − 4kk = 185
2 sq. units

i j k
4 0 −1 0 −1 4
51. b × c = −1 4 0 =

i − 2 2 j + 2 2 k = 8i + 2j − 10k

2 2 2 2 2
v = |a · (b × c)| = |(i + j) · (8i + 2j − 10k)| = |8 + 2 + 0| = 10 cu. units

i j k
4 1 1 1 1 4
52. b × c = 1 4 1 =
i− j+ k = 19i − 4j − 3k
1 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 1
v = |a · (b × c)| = |(3i + j + k) · (19i − 4j − 3k)| = |57 − 4 − 3| = 50 cu. units

i j k
6 −6 −2 −6 −2 6
53. b × c = −2 6 −6 =
i− j+ k = 21i − 14j − 21k
5/2 3 1/2 3 1/2 5/2 1/2 5/2 3
a · (b × c) = (4i + 6j) · (21i − 14j − 21k) = 84 − 84 + 0 = 0. The vectors are coplanar.

−−−→ −−−→
54. The four points will be coplanar if the three vectors P1 P2 = h3, −1, −1i, P2 P3 = h−3, −5, 13i,
−−−→
and P3 P4 = h−8, 7, −6i are coplanar.

i j k
−−−→ −−−→ −5 13 −3 13 −3 −5
P2 P3 × P3 P4 = −3 −5 12 =
i − −8 −6 j + −8 7 k = h−61, −122, −61i

−8 7 −6 7 −6
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→

P1 P2 · (P2 P3 × P3 P4 ) = h3, −1, −1i · h−61, −122, −61i = −183 + 122 + 61 = 0
The four points are coplanar.
55. (a) Since θ = 90◦ , ka × bk = kak kbk | sin 90◦ | = 6.4(5) = 32.
(b) The direction of a × b is into the fourth quadrant of the xy-plane or to the left of the
plane determined by a and b as shown in Figure 7.4.2 in the text. It makes an angle of
30◦ with the positive x-axis.
√ √
(c) We identify n = ( 3 i − j)/2. Then a × b = 32n = 16 3 i − 16j.
√ √ √
56. Using Definition 7.4.1, a × b = 27 (8) sin 120◦ n = 24 3 ( 3/2)n = 36n. By the right-hand
rule, n = j or n = −j. Thus, a × b = 36j or −36j.
57. (a) We note first that a × b = k, b × c = 21 (i − k), c × a = 1

2 (j − k), a · (b × c) = 1
2 ,
b · (c × a) = 12 , and c · (a × b) = 21 . Then
1 1
2 (i − k) 2 (j − k) k
A= 1 = i − k, B= 1 = j − k, and C= 1 = 2k.
2 2 2
(b) We need to compute A · (B × C). Using formula (10) in the text we have
(c × a) × (a × b) [(c × a) · b]a − [(c × a) · a]b
B×C= =
[b · (c × a)][c · (a × b)] [b · (c × a)][c · (a × b)]
a
= since(c × a) · a = 0.
c · (a × b)
Then
b×c 1
A · (B × C) = · ac · (a × b) =
a · (b × c) c · (a × b)
and the volume of the unit cell of the reciprocal latrice is the reciprocal of the volume
of the unit cell of the original lattice.

a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
58. a × (b + c) = i− j+
k
b2 + c2 b3 + c3 b1 + c1 b3 + c3 b1 + c1 b2 + c2
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i + (a2 c3 − a3 c2 )i − [(a1 b3 − a3 b1 )j + (a1 c3 − a3 c1 )j]

+ (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k + (a1 c2 − a2 c1 )k
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i − (a1 b3 − a3 b1 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k + (a2 c3 − a3 c2 )i
− (a1 c3 − a3 c1 )j + (a1 c2 − a2 c1 )k
=a×b+a×c
59. b × c = (b2 c3 − b3 c2 )i − (b1 c3 − b3 c1 )j + (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )k

a × (b × c) = [a2 (b1 c2 − b2 c1 ) + a3 (b1 c3 − b3 c1 )]i − [a1 (b1 c2 − b2 c1 ) − a3 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 )]j
+ [−a1 (b1 c3 − b3 c1 ) − a2 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 )]k
= (a2 b1 c2 − a2 b2 c1 + a3 b1 c3 − a3 b3 c1 )i
− (a1 b1 c2 − a1 b2 c1 − a3 b2 c3 + a3 b3 c2 )j
− (a1 b1 c3 − a1 b3 c1 + a2 b2 c3 − a2 b3 c2 )k
(a · c)b − (a · b)c = (a1 c1 + a2 c2 + a3 c3 )(b1 i + b2 j + b3 k)
− (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )(c1 i + c2 j + c3 k)
= (a2 b1 c2 − a2 b2 c1 + a3 b1 c3 − a3 b3 c1 )i
− (a1 b1 c2 − a1 b2 c1 − a3 b2 c3 + a3 b3 c2 )j
− (a1 b1 c3 − a1 b3 c1 + a2 b2 c3 − a2 b3 c2 )k
60. The statement is false since i × (i × j) = i × k = −j and (i × i) × j = 0 × j = 0.
61. Using equation 9 in the text,

a1 a2 a3 c1 c2 c3

a · (b × c) = b1 b2 b3 and (a × b) · c = c · (a × b) = a1 a2 a3 .
c1 c2 c3 b1 b2 b3
Expanding these determinants out we obtain
a · (b × c) = a1 b2 c3 + a2 b3 c1 + a3 b1 c2 − a3 b2 c1 − a1 b3 c2 − a2 b1 c3
and
c · (a × b) = a2 b3 c1 + a3 b1 c2 + a1 b2 c3 − a2 b1 c3 − a3 b2 c1 − a1 b3 c2 .
These are equal so a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c.
62. a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b)
= (a · c)b − (a · b)c + (b · a)c − (b · c)a + (c · b)a − (c · a)b
= [(a · c)b − (c · a)b] + [(b · a)c − (a · b)c] + [(c · b)a − (b · c)a] = 0
63. Since
ka × bk2 = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )2 + (a1 b3 − a3 b1 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2

= a22 b23 − 2a2 b3 a3 b2 + a23 b22 + a21 b23 − 2a1 b3 a3 b1 + a23 b21 + a21 b22 − 2a1 b2 a2 b1 + a22 b21
and
kak2 kbk2 − (a · b)2 = (a21 + a22 + a23 )(b21 + b22 + b23 ) − (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )2
= a21 a22 + a21 b22 + a21 b23 + a22 b21 + a22 b22 + a22 b23 + a23 b21 + a23 b22 + a23 b23
− a21 b21 − a22 b22 − a23 b23 − 2a1 b1 a2 b2 − 2a1 b1 a3 b3 − 2a2 b2 a3 b3
= a21 b22 + a21 b23 + a22 b21 + a22 b23 + a23 b21 + a23 b22
− 2a1 a2 b1 b2 − 2a1 a3 b1 b3 − 2a2 a3 b2 b3
we see that ka × bk2 = kak2 kbk2 − (a · b)2 .
64. No. For example i × (i + j) = i × j by the distributive law (iii) in the text, and the fact that
i × i = 0. But i + j does not equal j.
65. By the distributive law (iii) in the text:
(a + b) × (a − b) = (a + b) × a − (a + b) × b = a × a + b × a − a × b − b × b = 2b × a
since a × a = 0, b × b = 0, and −a × b = b × a.
7.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space
−−→ −−→
The equation of a line through P1 and P2 in 3-space with r1 = OP1 and r2 = OP2 can be expressed
as r = r1 + t(ka) or r = r2 + t(ka) where a = r2 − r1 and k is any non-zero scalar. Thus, the
form of the equation of a line is not unique. (See the alternate solution to Problem 1.)
1. a = h1 − 3, 2 − 5, 1 − (−2)i = h−2, −3, 3i; hx, y, zi = h1, 2, 1i + th−2, −3, 3i

Alternate Solution: a = h3 − 1, 5 − 2, −2 − 1i = h2, 3, −3i; hx, y, zi = h3, 5, −2i + th2, 3, −3i
2. a = h0 − (−2), 4 − 6, 5 − 3i = h2, −2, 2i; hx, y, zi = h0, 4, 5i + th2, −2, 2i
3. a = h1/2 − (−3/2), −1/2 − 5/2, 1 − (−1/2)i = h2, −3, 3/2i;

hx, y, zi = h1/2, −1/2, 1i + th2, −3, 3/2i
4. a = h10 − 5, 2 − (−3), −10 − 5i = h5, 5, −15i; hx, y, zi = h10, 2, −10i + th5, 5, −15i
5. a = h1 − (−4), 1 − 1, −1 − (−1)i = h5, 0, 0i; hx, y, zi = h1, 1, −1i + th5, 0, 0i
6. a = h3 − 5/2, 2 − 1, 1 − (−2)i = h1/2, 1, 3i; hx, y, zi = h3, 2, 1i + th1/2, 1, 3i
7. a = h2 − 6, 3 − (−1), 5 − 8i = h−4, 4, −3i; x = 2 − 4t, y = 3 + 4t, z = 5 − 3t
8. a = h2 − 0, 0 − 4, 0 − 9i = h2, −4, −9i; x = 2 + 2t, y = −4t, z = −9t
9. a = h1 − 3, 0 − (−2), 0 − (−7)i = h−2, 2, 7i; x = 1 − 2t, y = 2t, z = 7t
10. a = h0 − (−2), 0 − 4, 5 − 0i = h2, −4, 5i; x = 2t, y = −4t, z = 5 + 5t

1 3 1 1
11. a = h4 − (−6), 1/2 − (−1/4), 1/3 − 1/6i = h10, 3/4, 1/6i; x = 4 + 10t, y = + t, z = + t
2 4 3 6
12. a = h−3 − 4, 7 − (−8), 9 − (−1)i = h−7, 15, 10i; x = −3 − 7t, y = 7 + 15t, z = 9 + 10t
x − 10 y − 14 z+2
13. a1 = 10 − 1 = 9, a2 = 14 − 4 = 10, a3 = −2 − (−9) = 7; = =
9 10 7
x−1 y−3 z − 1/4
14. a1 = 1 − 2/3 = 1/3, a2 = 3 − 0 = 3, a3 = 1/4 − (−1/4) = 1/2; = =
1/3 3 1/2
x+7 z−5
15. a1 = −7 − 4 = −11, a2 = 2 − 2 = 0, a3 = 5 − 1 = 4; = , y=2
−11 4
x−1 y−1 z−2
16. a1 = 1 − (−5) = 6, a2 = 1 − (−2) = 3, a3 = 2 − (−4) = 6; = =
6 3 6
y − 10 z+2
17. a1 = 5 − 5 = 0, a2 = 10 − 1 = 9, a3 = −2 − (−14) = 12; x = 5, =
9 12
18. a1 = 5/6 − 1/3 = 1/2; a2 = −1/4 − 3/8 = −5/8; a3 = 1/5 − 1/10 = 1/10
x − 5/6 y + 1/4 z − 1/5
= =
1/2 −5/8 1/10
7.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space 527
x−4 y−6 z+7

19. parametric: x = 4 + 3t, y = 6 + t/2, z = −7 − 3t/2; symmetric: = =
3 1/2 −3/2
x−1 y−8
20. parametric: x = 1 − 7t, y = 8 − 8t, z = −2; symmetric: = , z = −2
−7 −8
x y z
21. parametric: x = 5t, y = 9t, z = 4t; symmetric: = =
5 9 4
x y+3 z − 10
22. parametric: x = 12t, y = −3 − 5t, z = 10 − 6t; symmetric: = =
12 −5 −6
23. Writing the given line in the form x/2 = (y − 1)/(−3) = (z − 5)/6, we see that a direction
vector is h2, −3, 6i. Parametric equations for the line are x = 6 + 2t, y = 4 − 3t, z = −2 + 6t.
24. A direction vector is h5, 1/3, −2i. Symmetric equations for the line are
(x − 4)/5 = (y + 11)/(1/3) = (z + 7)/(−2).
25. A direction vector parallel to both the xz- and xy-planes is i = h1, 0, 0i. Parametric equations
for the line are x = 2 + t, y = −2, z = 15.
26. (a) Since the unit vector j = h0, 1, 0i lies along the y-axis, we have x = 1, y = 2 + t, z = 8.
(b) Since the unit vector k = h0, 0, 1i is perpendicular to the xy-plane, we have x = 1, y = 2,
z = 8 + t.
27. Both lines go through the points (0, 0, 0) and (6, 6, 6). Since two points determine a line, the
lines are the same.
28. a and f are parallel since h9, −12, 6i = −3h−3, 4, −2i. c and d are orthogonal since h2, −3, 4i ·
h1, 4, 5/2i = 0.
29. In the xy-plane, z = 9 + 3t = 0 and t = −3. Then x = 4 − 2(−3) = 10 and

y = 1 + 2(−3) = −5. The point is (10, −5, 0). In the xz-plane, y = 1 + 2t = 0 and
t = −1/2. Then x = 4 − 2(−1/2) = 5 and z = 9 + 3(−1/2) = 15/2. The point is (5, 0, 15/2).
In the yz-plane, x = 4 − 2t = 0 and t = 2. Then y = 1 + 2(2) = 5 and z = 9 + 3(2) = 15.
The point is (0, 5, 15).
30. The parametric equations for the line are x = 1 + 2t, y = −2 + 3t, z = 4 + 2t. In the xy-plane,
z = 4 + 2t = 0 and t = −2. Then x = 1 + 2(−2) = −3 and y = −2 + 3(−2) = −8. The point
is (−3, −8, 0). In the xz-plane, y = −2 + 3t = 0 and t = 2/3. Then x = 1 + 2(2/3) = 7/3
and z = 4 + 2(2/3) = 16/3. The point is (7/3, 0, 16/3). In the yz-plane, x = 1 + 2t = 0
and t = −1/2. Then y = −2 + 3(−1/2) = −7/2 and z = 4 + 2(−1/2) = 3. The point is
(0, −7/2, 3).
31. Solving the system 4 + t = 6 + 2s, 5 + t = 11 + 4s, −1 + 2t = −3 + s, or t − 2s = 2, t − 4s = 6,

2t − s = −2 yields s = −2 and t = −2 in all three equations. Thus, the lines intersect at the
point x = 4 + (−2) = 2, y = 5 + (−2) = 3, z = −1 + 2(−2) = −5, or (2, 3, −5).
32. Solving the system 1 + t = 2 − s, 2 − t = 1 + s, 3t = 6s, or t + s = 1, t + s = 1, t − 2s = 0

yields s = 1/3 and t = 2/3 in all three equations. Thus, the lines intersect at the point
x = 1 + 2/3 = 5/3, y = 2 − 2/3 = 4/3, z = 3(2/3) = 2, or (5/3, 4/3, 2).
33. The system of equations 2 − t = 4 + s, 3 + t = 1 + s, 1 + t = 1 − s, or t + s = −2, t − s = −2,

t + s = 0 has no solution since −2 6= 0. Thus, the lines do not intersect.
34. Solving the system 3 − t = 2 + 2s, 2 + t = −2 + 3s, 8 + 2t = −2 + 8s, or t + 2s = 1, t − 3s = −4,

2t − 8s = −10 yields s = 1 and t = −1 in all three equations. Thus, the lines intersect at the
point x = 3 − (−1) = 4, y = 2 + (−1) = 1, z = 8 + 2(−1) = 6, or (4, 1, 6).
a·b 16
35. a = h−1, 2, −2i, b = h2, 3, −6i, a · b = 16, kak = 3, kbk = 7; cos θ = = ;
kak kbk 3·7
16
θ = cos−1 ≈ 40.37◦
21
√ √
36. a = h2, 7, −1i, b = h−2, 1, 4i, a · b = −1, kak = 3 6 , kbk = 21 ;
a·b −1 1 1
cos θ = = √ √ = − √ ; θ = cos−1 (− √ ) ≈ 91.70◦
kak kbk (3 6 )( 21 ) 9 14 9 14
37. A direction vector perpendicular to the given lines will be h1, 1, 1i × h−2, 1, −5i = h−6, 3, 3i.
Equations of the line are x = 4 − 6t, y = 1 + 3t, z = 6 + 3t.
38. The direction vectors of the given lines are h3, 2, 4i and h6, 4, 8i = 2h3, 2, 4i. These are parallel,
so we need a third vector parallel to the plane containing the lines which is not parallel to
them. The point (1, −1, 0) is on the first line and (−4, 6, 10) is on the second line. A third
vector is then h1, −1, 0i − h−4, 6, 10i = h5, −7, −10i. Now a direction vector perpendicular
to the plane is h3, 2, 4i × h5, −7, −10i = h8, 50, −31i. Equations of the line through (1, −1, 0)
and perpendicular to the plane are x = 1 + 8t, y = −1 + 50t, z = −31t.
39. 2(x − 5) − 3(y − 1) + 4(z − 3) = 0; 2x − 3y + 4z = 19
40. 4(x − 1) − 2(y − 2) + 0(z − 5) = 0; 4x − 2y = 0
41. −5(x − 6) + 0(y − 10) + 3(z + 7) = 0; −5x + 3z = −51
42. 6x − y + 3z = 0
43. 6(x − 1/2) + 8(y − 3/4) − 4(z + 1/2) = 0; 6x + 8y − 4z = 11
44. −(x + 1) + (y − 1) − (z − 0) = 0; −x + y − z = 2
45. From the points (3, 5, 2) and (2, 3, 1) we obtain the vector u = i + 2j + k. From the points
(2, 3, 1) and (−1, −1, 4) we obtain the vector v = 3i + 4j − 3k. From the points (−1, −1, 4)
and (x, y, z) we obtain the vector w = (x + 1)i + (y + 1)j + (z − 4)k. Then, a normal vector is

i j k

u × v = 1 2 1 = −10i + 6j − 2k.
3 4 −3
A vector equation of the plane is −10(x + 1) + 6(y + 1) − 2(z − 4) = 0 or 5x − 3y + z = 2.

46. From the points (0, 1, 0) and (0, 1, 1) we obtain the vector u = k. From the points (0, 1, 1)
and (1, 3, −1) we obtain the vector v = i + 2j − 2k. From the points (1, 3, −1) and (x, y, z)
we obtain the vector w = (x − 1)i + (y − 3)j + (z + 1)k. Then, a normal vector is

i j k

u × v = 0 0 1 = −2i + j.
1 2 −2
A vector equation of the plane is −2(x − 1) + (y − 3) + 0(z + 1) = 0 or −2x + y = 1.
47. From the points (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) we obtain the vector u = i + j + k. From the points
(1, 1, 1) and (3, 2, −1) we obtain the vector v = 2i + j − 2k. From the points (3, 2, −1) and
(x, y, z) we obtain the vector w = (x − 3)i + (y − 2)j + (z + 1)k. Then, a normal vector is

i j k

u × v = 1 1 1 = −3i + 4j − k
2 1 −2
A vector equation of the plane is −3(x − 3) + 4(y − 2) − (z + 1) = 0 or −3x + 4y − z = 0.
48. The three points are not colinear and all satisfy x = 0, which is the equation of the plane.
49. From the points (1, 2, −1) and (4, 3, 1) we obtain the vector u = 3i + j + 2k. From the points
(4, 3, 1) and (7, 4, 3) we obtain the vector v = 3i+j+2k. From the points (7, 4, 3) and (x, y, z)
we obtain the vector w = (x − 7)i + (y − 4)j + (z − 3)k. Since u × v = 0, the points are
colinear.
50. From the points (2, 1, 2) and (4, 1, 0) we obtain the vector u = 2i − 2k. From the points
(4, 1, 0) and (5, 0, −5) we obtain the vector v = i − j − 5k. From the points (5, 0, −5) and
(x, y, z) we obtain the vector w = (x − 5)i + yj + (z + 5)k. Then, a normal vector is

i j k

u × v = 2 0 −2 = −2i + 8j − 2k
1 −1 −5
A vector equation of the plane is −2(x − 5) + 8y − 2(z + 5) = 0 or x − 4y + z = 0.
51. A normal vector to x + y − 4z = 1 is h1, 1, −4i. The equation of the parallel plane is
(x − 2) + (y − 3) − 4(z + 5) = 0 or x + y − 4z = 25.
52. A normal vector to 5x − y + z = 6 is h5, −1, 1, i. The equation of the parallel plane is
5(x − 0) − (y − 0) + (z − 0) = 0 or 5x − y + z = 0.
53. A normal vector to the xy-plane is h0, 0, 1i. The equation of the parallel plane is z − 12 = 0
or z = 12.
54. A normal vector is h0, 1, 0i. The equation of the plane is y + 5 = 0 or y = −5.
55. Direction vectors of the lines are h3, −1, 1i. and h4, 2, 1i. A normal vector to the plane is
h3, −1, 1i × h4, 2, 1i = h−3, 1, 10i. A point on the first line, and thus in the plane, is h1, 1, 2i.
The equation of the plane is −3(x − 1) + (y − 1) + 10(z − 2) = 0 or −3x + y + 10z = 18.
56. Direction vectors of the lines are h2, −1, 6i and h1, 1, −3i. A normal vector to the plane is
h2, −1, 6i×h1, 1, −3i = h−3, 12, 3i. A point on the first line, and thus in the plane, is (1, −1, 5).
The equation of the plane is −3(x − 1) + 12(y + 1) + 3(z − 5) = 0 or −x + 4y + z = 0.
57. A direction vector for the two lines is h1, 2, 1i. Points on the lines are (1, 1, 3) and (3, 0, −2).
Thus, another vector parallel to the plane is h1 − 3, 1 − 0, 3 + 2i = h−2, 1, 5i. A normal vector
to the plane is h1, 2, 1i × h−2, 1, 5i = h9, −7, 5i. Using the point (3, 0, −2) in the plane, the
equation of the plane is 9(x − 3) − 7(y − 0) + 5(z + 2) = 0 or 9x − 7y + 5z = 17.
58. A direction vector for the line is h3, 2, −2i. Letting t = 0, we see that the origin is on the line
and hence in the plane. Thus, another vector parallel to the plane is
h4 − 0, 0 − 0, −6 − 0i = h4, 0, −6i. A normal vector to the plane is
h3, 2, −2i × h4, 0, −6i = h−12, 10, −8i. The equation of the plane is
−12(x − 0) + 10(y − 0) − 8(z − 0) = 0 or 6x − 5y + 4z = 0.
59. A direction vector for the line, and hence a normal vector to the plane, is h−3, 1, −1/2i. The
equation of the plane is −3(x − 2) + (y − 4) − 12 (z − 8) = 0 or −3x + y − 12 z = −6.
60. A normal vector to the plane is h2 − 1, 6 − 0, −3 + 2i = h1, 6, −1i. The equation of the plane
is (x − 1) + 6(y − 1) − (z − 1) = 0 or x + 6y − z = 6.
61. Normal vectors to the planes are (a) h2, −1, 3i, (b) h1, 2, 2i, (c) h1, 1, −3/2i, (d) h−5, 2, 4i,
(e) h−8, −8, 12i, (f ) h−2, 1, −3i. Parallel planes are (c) and (e), and (a) and (f ).
Perpendicular planes are (a) and (d), (b) and (c), (b) and (e), and (d) and (f ).
62. A normal vector to the plane is h−7, 2, 3i. This is a direction vector for the line and the
equations of the line are x = −4 − 7t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 7 + 3t.
63. A direction vector of the line is h−6, 9, 3i, and the normal vectors of the planes are (a)
h4, 1, 2i, (b) h2, −3, 1i, (c) h10, −15, −5i, (d) h−4, 6, 2i. Vectors (c) and (d) are multiples of
the direction vector and hence the corresponding planes are perpendicular to the line.
64. A direction vector of the line is h−2, 4, 1i, and normal vectors to the planes are (a) h1, −1, 3i,
(b) h6, −3, 0i, (c) h1, −2, 5i, (d) h−2, 1, −2i. Since the dot product of each normal vector
with the direction vector is non-zero, none of the planes are parallel to the line.
65. Letting z = t in both equations and solving 5x − 4y = 8 + 9t, x + 4y = 4 − 3t, we obtain

x = 2 + t, y = 12 − t, z = t.
66. Letting y = t in both equations and solving x − z = 2 − 2t, 3x + 2z = 1 + t, we obtain

x = 1 − 35 t, y = t, z = −1 + 57 t or, letting t = 5s, x = 1 − 3s, y = 5s, z = −1 + 7s.
67. Letting z = t in both equations and solving 4x − 2y = 1 + t, x + y = 1 − 2t, we obtain

x = 12 − 12 t, y = 21 − 32 t, z = t.
68. Letting z = t and using y = 0 in the first equation, we obtain x = − 12 t, y = 0, z = t.
69. Substituting the parametric equations into the equation of the plane, we obtain
2(1 + 2t) − 3(2 − t) + 2(−3t) = −7 or t = −3. Letting t = −3 in the equation of the line, we
obtain the point of intersection (−5, 5, 9).
(3 − 2t) + (1 + 6t) + 4(2 − 21 t) = 12 or 2t = 0. Letting t = 0 in the equation of the line, we
obtain the point of intersection (3, 1, 2).
1 + 2 − (1 + t) = 8 or t = −6. Letting t = −6 in the equation of the line, we obtain the point
of intersection (1, 2, −5).
4 + t − 3(2 + t) + 2(1 + 5t) = 0 or t = 0. Letting t = 0 in the equation of the line, we obtain
the point of intersection (4, 2, 1).
In Problems 73 and 74, the cross product of the normal vectors to the two planes will be a vector
parallel to both planes, and hence a direction vector for a line parallel to the two planes.
73. Normal vectors are h1, 1, −4i and h2, −1, 1i. A direction vector is
h1, 1, −4i × h2, −1, 1i = h−3, −9, −3i = −3h1, 3, 1i.
Equations of the line are x = 5 + t, y = 6 + 3t, z = −12 + t.
74. Normal vectors are h2, 0, 1i and h−1, 3, 1i. A direction vector is
h2, 0, 1i × h−1, 3, 1i = h−3, −3, 6i = −3h1, 1, −2i.
Equations of the line are x = −3 + t, y = 5 + t, z = −1 − 2t.
In Problems 75 and 76, the cross product of the direction vector of the line with the normal vector
of the given plane will be a normal vector to the desired plane.
75. A direction vector of the line is h3, −1, 5i and a normal vector to the given plane is h1, 1, 1i. A
normal vector to the desired plane is h3, −1, 5i × h1, 1, 1i = h−6, 2, 4i. A point on the line, and
hence in the plane, is (4, 0, 1). The equation of the plane is −6(x − 4) + 2(y − 0) + 4(z − 1) = 0
or 3x − y − 2z = 10.
76. A direction vector of the line is h3, 5, 2i and a normal vector to the given plane is h2, −4, −1i.
A normal vector to the desired plane is h−3, 5, 2i × h2, −4, −1i = h3, 1, 2i. A point on the line,
and hence in the plane, is (2, −2, 8). The equation of the plane is 3(x−2)+(y+2)+2(z−8) = 0
or 3x + y + 2z = 20.
z z z
77. x 78. x 6 79. x
10
2
y 6 y
6
x
2 y x
6
x
z z
80. x 81. x 82. x z
4
4 y
4
1 y
x 2 y
−6
x
x
7.6 Vector Spaces
1. Not a vector space. Axiom (vi) is not 2. Not a vector space. Axiom (i) is not
satisfied. satisfied.
3. Not a vector space. Axiom (x) is not 4. A vector space
satisfied.
5. A vector space 6. A vector space
7. Not a vector space. Axiom (ii) is not 8. A vector space
satisfied.
9. A vector space 10. Not a vector space. Axiom (i) is not
satisfied.
11. A subspace 12. Not a subspace. Axiom (i) is not
satisfied.
13. Not a subspace. Axiom (ii) is not sat- 14. A subspace
isfied.
15. A subspace 16. A subspace
17. A subspace 18. A subspace
19. Not a subspace. Neither axioms (i) nor 20. A subspace
(ii) are satisfied.
21. Let (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be in S. Then
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (at1 , bt1 , ct1 ) + (at2 , bt2 , ct2 ) = (a(t1 + t2 ), b(t1 + t2 ), c(t1 + t2 ))
is in S. Also, for (x, y, z) in S then k(x, y, z) = (kx, ky, kz) = (a(kt), b(kt), c(kt)) is also in S.
7.6 Vector Spaces 533
22. Let (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be in S. Then ax1 + by1 + cz1 = 0 and ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 0.
Adding gives a(x1 + x2 ) + b(y1 + y2 ) + c(z1 + z2 ) = 0 and so
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ) is in S. Also, for (x, y, z) then
ax + by + cz = 0 implies k(ax + by + cz) = k · 0 = 0 and a(kx) + b(ky) + c(kz) = 0.
this means k(x, y, z) = (kx, ky, kz) is in S.
23. (a) c1 u1 + c2 u2 + c3 u3 = 0 if and only if c1 + c2 + c3 = 0, c2 + c3 = 0, c3 = 0. The only

solution of this system is c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0.
(b) Solving the system c1 + c2 + c3 = 3, c2 + c3 = −4, c3 = 8 gives c1 = 7, c2 = −12, c3 = 8.

Thus a = 7u1 − 12u2 + 8u3 .
24. (a) The assumption c1 p1 +c2 p2 = 0 is equivalent to (c1 +c2 )x+(c1 −c2 ) = 0. Thus c1 +c2 = 0,
c1 − c2 = 0. The only solution of this system is c1 = 0, c2 = 0.
7 3
(b) Solving the system c1 + c2 = 5, c1 − c2 = 2 gives c1 = 2 , c2 = 2 . Thus
p(x) = 72 p1 (x) + 23 p2 (x)
25. Linearly dependent since h−6, 12i = − 32 h4, −8i
26. Linearly dependent since 2h1, 1i + 3h0, 1i + (−1)h2, 5i = h0, 0i
27. Linearly independent
28. Linearly dependent since for all x (1) · 1 + (−2)(x + 1) + (1)(x + 1)2 + (−1)x2 = 0.
29. f is discontinuous at x = −1 and at x = −3.

2π
Z 2π
30. (x, sin x) = x sin x dx = (−x cos x + sin x) = −2π

0
0
Z 2π 2π r
1 8 2π 3
31. kxk2 = x2 dx = x3 = π 3 and so kxk = 2 . Now

0 3 3 3
0
2π 2π 2π
1 1 1
Z Z
k sin xk2 = sin2 x dx = (1 − cos 2x) dx = x − sin 2x =π

0 2 0 2 2
0
√
and so k sin xk = π.
32. A basis could be 1, x, ex cos 3x, ex sin 3x.
33. We need to show that Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } is closed under vector addition and scalar multi-
plication. Suppose u and v are in Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. Then u = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn
and v = b1 x1 + b2 x2 + · · · + bn xn , so that
u + v = (a1 + b1 )x1 + (a2 + b2 )x2 + · · · + (an + bn )xn ,

which is in Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. Also, for any real number k,
ku = k(a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn ) = ka1 x1 + ka2 x2 + · · · + kan xn ,
which is in Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }. Thus, Span{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } is a subspace of V.
34. R2 is not a subspace of either R3 or R4 and R3 is not a subspace of R4 . The vectors in R2

are ordered pairs, while the vectors in R3 are ordered triples.
35. Since a basis for M22 is

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
B= , , , ,
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
the dimension of M22 is 4.
36. To show that the set of nonzero orthogonal vectors is linearly independent we set
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn = 0. For 0 ≤ i ≤ n,
(c1 v1 +c2 v2 +· · ·+ci vi · · ·+cn vn )·vi = c1 v1 ·vi +c2 v2 ·vi +· · ·+ci vi ·vi · · ·+cn vn ·vi = ci ||vi ||2 ,
so ci ||vi ||2 = 0 because
(c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + ci vi · · · + cn vn ) · vi = 0 · vi = 0.
Since vi is a nonzero vector, ci = 0. Thus, the assumption that c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cn vn = 0

leads to c1 = c2 = · · · = cn = 0, and the set is linearly independent.
37. We verify the four properties:
(i) (u, v) = u1 v1 + 4u2 v2 = v1 u1 + 4v2 u2 = (v, u)
(ii) (ku, v) = (ku1 )v1 + 4(ku2 )v2 = k(u1 v1 + 4u2 v2 ) = k(u, v)
(iii) (u, u) = u21 + 4ku22 > 0 for u 6= 0. Furthermore, u21 + 4ku22 = 0 if and only if u1 = 0 and
u2 = 0, or equivalently, u = 0.
(iv) (u, v+w) = u1 (v1 +w1 )+4u2 (v2 +w2 ) = (u1 v1 +4u2 v2 )+(u1 w1 +4u2 w2 ) = (u, v)+(u, w)
38. (a) Let u = h2, 1i and v = h2, −1i be nonzero vectors in R2 . With respect to the standard
inner or dot product on R2 ,
u · v = h2, 1i · h2, −1i = 2 · 2 + 1 · (−1) = 3.
We see that u and v are not orthogonal with respect to that inner product. But using
the inner product in Problem 37, we have
(u, v) = 2 · 2 + 4(1) · (−1) = 0,
and so u and v are orthogonal with respect to that inner product.

7.7 Gram–Schmidt Orthogonalization Process 535
(b) Consider f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x in C[0, 2π]. Since
2π 2π
1 1 2π 1
Z Z
sin x cos x dx = sin 2x dx = − cos 2x = − (1 − 1) = 0,

0 2 0 4 0 4
these functions are orthogonal in C[0, 2π].
7.7 Gram–Schmidt Orthogonalization Process

12 5

5 12

1. Letting w1 = 13 , 13 and w2 = 13 , − 13 , we have

12 5 5 12
w1 · w2 = + − = 0,
13 13 13 13
so the vectors are orthogonal. Also,

s s
12 2
2 2 2
5 5 12
||w1 || = + = 1 and ||w2 || = + − = 1,
13 13 13 13
so the basis is orthonormal. To express u = h4, 2i in terms of w1 and w2 we compute

12 5 12 5 58
u · w1 = h4, 2i · , = (4) + (2) =
13 13 13 13 13

5 12 5 12 4
u · w2 = h4, 2i · ,− = (4) + (2) − =− ,
13 13 13 13 13
so
58 4
w1 − u= w2 .
13 13
√ √ √ √ √
2. Letting w1 = h1/ 3, 1/ 3, −1/ 3i, w2 = h0, −1/ 2, −1/ 2i, and
√ √ √
w3 = h−2/ 6, 1/ 6, −1/ 6i, we have

1 1 1 1 1
w1 · w2 = √ (0) + √ −√ + −√ −√ =0
3 3 2 3 2

1 2 1 1 1 1
w1 · w3 = √ −√ + √ √ + −√ −√ =0
3 6 3 6 3 6

2 1 1 1 1
w2 · w3 = (0) − √ + −√ √ + −√ −√ = 0,
6 2 6 2 6
so the vectors are orthogonal. Also,
s 2 2 2
1 1 1
||w1 || = √ + √ + −√ = 1,
3 3 3
s 2 2
1 1
||w2 || = 02 + −√ + −√ = 1,
2 2
and
s 2 2 2
2 1 1
||w3 || = −√ + √ + −√ = 1,
6 6 6
so the basis is orthonormal. To express u = h5, −1, 6i in terms of w1 , w2 , and w3 we compute

1 1 1 1 1 1 2
u · w1 = h5, −1, 6i · √ , √ , − √ = (5) √ + (−1) √ + (6) − √ = −√
3 3 3 3 3 3 3

1 1 1 1 5
u · w2 = h5, −1, 6i · 0, − √ , − √ = (5)(0) + (−1) − √ + (6) − √ = −√
2 2 2 2 2

2 1 1 2 1 1 17
u · w3 = h5, −1, 6i · − √ , √ , − √ = (5) − √ + (−1) √ + (6) − √ = −√
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
so
2 5 17
u = − √ w1 − √ w2 − √ w3 .
3 2 6
Since the basis vectors in Problems 3 and 4 are orthogonal but not orthonormal, the result of
Theorem 7.7.1 must be slightly modified to read
u · w1 u · w2 u · wn
u= w1 + w2 + · · · + wn .
||w1 ||2 ||w2 ||2 ||wn ||2
The proof is very similar to that given in the text for Theorem 7.7.1.
3. Letting w1 = h1, 0, 1i, w2 = h0, 1, 0i, and w3 = h−1, 0, 1i we have
w1 · w2 = (1)(0) + (0)(1) + (1)(0) = 0

w1 · w3 = (1)(−1) + (0)(0) + (1)(1) = 0
w2 · w3 = (0)(−1) + (1)(0) + (0)(1) = 0
so the vectors are orthogonal. We also compute
||w1 ||2 = 12 + 02 + 12 = 2
||w2 ||2 = 02 + 12 + 02 = 1
||w3 ||2 = (−1)2 + 02 + 12 = 2
and, with u = h10, 7, −13i,
u · w1 = (10)(1) + (7)(0) + (−13)(1) = −3

u · w2 = (10)(0) + (7)(1) + (−13)(0) = 7
u · w3 = (10)(−1) + (7)(0) + (−13)(1) = −23.
Then, using the result given before the solution to this problem, we have
3 23
u = − w1 + 7w2 − w3 .
2 2
4. Letting w1 = h2, 1, −2, 0i, w2 = h1, 2, 2, 1i, w3 = h3, −4, 1, 3i, and w4 = h5, −2, 4, −9i we
have
w1 · w2 = (2)(1) + (1)(2) + (−2)(2) + (0)(1) = 0

w1 · w3 = (2)(3) + (1)(−4) + (−2)(1) + (0)(3) = 0
w1 · w4 = (2)(5) + (1)(−2) + (−2)(4) + (0)(−9) = 0
w2 · w3 = (1)(3) + (2)(−4) + (2)(1) + (1)(3) = 0
w2 · w4 = (1)(5) + (2)(−2) + (2)(4) + (1)(−9) = 0
w3 · w4 = (3)(5) + (−4)(−2) + (1)(4) + (3)(−9) = 0
so the vectors are orthogonal. We also compute
||w1 ||2 = 22 + 12 + (−2)2 + 02 = 9

||w2 ||2 = 12 + 22 + 22 + 12 = 10
||w3 ||2 = 32 + (−4)2 + 12 + 32 = 35
||w4 ||2 = 52 + (−2)2 + 42 + (−9)2 = 126
and, with u = h1, 2, 4, 3i,
u · w1 = (1)(2) + (2)(1) + (4)(−2) + (3)(0) = −4

u · w2 = (1)(1) + (2)(2) + (4)(2) + (3)(1) = 16
u · w3 = (1)(3) + (2)(−4) + (4)(1) + (3)(3) = 8
u · w4 = (1)(5) + (2)(−2) + (4)(4) + (3)(−9) = −10.
Then, using the result given before the solution to this problem, we have
4 8 8 5
u = − w1 + w2 + w3 − w4 .
9 5 35 63
5. (a) We have u1 = h−3, 2i and u2 = h−1, −1i. Taking v1 = u1 = h−3, 2i, and using u2 ·v1 = 1
and v1 · v1 = 13 we obtain

u2 · v1 1 10 15
v2 = u2 − v1 = h−1, −1i − h−3, 2i = − , − .
v1 · v1 13 13 13
Thus, an orthogonal basis is h−3, 2i, − 10 15

13 , − 13 and an orthonormal basis is {w1′ , w2′ },
where
′ 1 1 3 2
w1 = h−3, 2i = √ h−3, 2i = − √ , √
||h−3, 2i|| 13 13 13
and

1 10 15 1 10 15 2 3
w2′ = − ,− = √ − ,− = −√ , −√ .
10
||h− 13 , − 15
13 i||
13 13 5/ 13 13 13 13 13
(b) We have u1 = h−3, 2i and u2 = h−1, −1i. Taking v1 = u2 = h−1, −1i, and using
u1 · v1 = 1 and v1 · v1 = 2 we obtain

u1 · v1 1 5 5
v2 = u1 − v1 = h−3, 2i − h−1, −1i = − , .
v1 · v1 2 2 2
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {h−1, −1i, h− 52 , 25 i} and an orthonormal basis is {w3′′ , w4′′ },
where
′′ 1 1 1 1
w3 = h−1, −1i = √ h−1, −1i = − √ , − √
||h−1, −1i|| 2 2 2
and
1 5 5 1 5 5 1 1
w4′′ = 5 5 − , = √ − , = −√ , √ .
||h− 2 , 2 i|| 2 2 5/ 2 2 2 2 2
(c) 4 1 1
w4
u w1
2 0.5 0.5
−4 −2 2 4 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0.5 1

v−2
−0.5 −0.5
w2 w3
−4 −1 −1
6. (a) We have u1 = h−3, 4i and u2 = h−1, 0i. Taking v1 = u1 = h−3, 4i, and using u2 · v1 = 3

u2 · v1 3 16 12
v2 = u2 − v1 = h−1, 0i − h−3, 4i = − , − .
v1 · v1 25 25 25

16 12
Thus, an orthogonal basis is h−3, 4i, − 25 , − 25 and an orthonormal basis is {w1′ , w2′ },
where
′ 1 1 3 4
w1 = h−3, 4i = h−3, 4i = − ,
||h−3, 4i|| 5 5 5
and

1 16 12 1 16 12 4 3
w2′ = 16 12 − ,− = − ,− = − ,− .
||h− 25 , − 25 i|| 25 25 4/5 25 25 5 5
(b) We have u1 = h−3, 4i and u2 = h−1, 0i. Taking v1 = u2 = h−1, 0i, and using u1 · v1 = 3
u1 · v1 3
v2 = u1 − v1 = h−3, 4i − h−1, 0i = h0, 4i .
v1 · v1 1
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {h−1, 0i, h0, 4i} and an orthonormal basis is {w3′′ , w4′′ },
where
1 1
w3′′ = h−1, 0i = h−1, 0i = h−1, 0i
||h−1, 0i|| 1
and
1 1
w4′′ = h0, 4i = h0, 4i = h0, 1i .
||h0, 4i|| 4
(c) u 4 1 1 w4
w1
2 0.5 0.5
v w3
−4 −2 2 4 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0.5 1
−2 −0.5 −0.5
w2
−4 −1 −1
7. (a) We have u1 = h1, 1i and u2 = h1, 0i. Taking v1 = u1 = h1, 1i, and using u2 · v1 = 1 and
v1 · v1 = 2 we obtain

u2 · v1 1 1 1
v2 = u2 − v1 = h1, 0i − h1, 1i = ,− .
v1 · v1 2 2 2
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {h1, 1i, h 21 , − 12 i} and an orthonormal basis is {w1′ , w2′ },
where
′ 1 1 1 1
w1 = h1, 1i = √ h1, 1i = √ , √
||h1, 1i|| 2 2 2
and

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
w2′ = √ , −√ = √ , −√ = √ , −√ .
||h √12 , − √12 i|| 2 2 1 2 2 2 2
(b) We have u1 = h1, 1i and u2 = h1, 0i. Taking v1 = u2 = h1, 0i, and using u1 · v1 = 1 and
v1 · v1 = 1 we obtain
u1 · v1 1
v2 = u1 − v1 = h1, 1i − h1, 0i = h0, 1i .
v1 · v1 1
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {h1, 0i, h0, 1i}, which is also an orthonormal basis.
(c) 2
1 1w
1.5 4
w1
1 u
0.5 0.5
0.5 w3
v
−2 −1 1 2 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0.5 1
−0.5
−0.5 w2 −0.5
−1
−1.5
−1 −1
−2
8. (a) We have u1 = h5, 7i and u2 = h1, −2i. Taking v1 = u1 = h5, 7i, and using u2 · v1 = −9

u2 · v1 9 119 85
v2 = u2 − v1 = h1, −2i − h5, 7i = ,− .
v1 · v1 74 74 74
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {h5, 7i, h 119 85 ′ ′

74 , − 74 i} and an orthonormal basis is {w1 , w2 },
where
′ 1 1 5 7
w1 = h5, 7i = √ h5, 7i = √ , √
||h5, 7i|| 74 74 74
and

1 119 85 1 119 85 7 5
w2′ = 119 85 ,− = √ ,− = √ , −√ .
||h 74 , − 74 i|| 74 74 17/ 74 74 74 74 74
(b) We have u1 = h5, 7i and u2 = h1, −2i. Taking v1 = u2 = h1, −2i, and using u1 · v1 = −9

u1 · v1 9 34 17
v2 = u1 − v1 = h5, 7i − h1, −2i = , .
v1 · v1 5 5 5
Thus, an orthogonal basis is {h1, −2i, 34 17

′′ ′′
5 , 5 } and an orthonormal basis is {w3 , w4 },
where
′′ 1 1 1 2
w3 = h1, −2i = √ h1, −2i = √ , − √
||h1, −2i|| 5 5 5
and
1 34 17 1 34 17 2 1
w4′′ = 34 17 , = √ , = √ ,√ .
||h 5 , 5 i|| 5 5 17/ 5 5 5 5 5
(c) 8
1 1
6 u
w1 w4
4 0.5 0.5
2
−7.5−5−2.5 2.5 5 7.5 −1 −0.5 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0.5 1
−2 v
−4 −0.5 −0.5
w2
−6 w3
−1 −1
−8
9. We have u1 = h1, 1, 0i, u2 = h1, 2, 2i, and u3 = h2, 2, 1i. Taking v1 = u1 = h1, 1, 0i and using
u2 · v1 = 3 and v1 · v1 = 2 we obtain

u2 · v1 3 1 1
v2 = u2 − v1 = h1, 2, 2i − h1, 1, 0i = − , , 2 .
v1 · v1 2 2 2
Next, using u3 · v1 = 4, u3 · v2 = 2, and v2 · v2 = 29 , we obtain

u3 · v1 u3 · v2 4 2 1 1 2 2 1
v3 = u3 − v1 − v2 = h2, 2, 1i − h1, 1, 0i − − , ,2 = ,− , .
v1 · v1 v2 · v2 2 9/2 2 2 9 9 9
Thus, an orthogonal basis is

1 1 2 2 1
B′ = h1, 1, 0i , − , , 2 , ,− , ,
2 2 9 9 9
and an orthonormal basis is

1 1 1 1 4 2 2 1
B ′′ = √ , √ ,0 , − √ , √ , √ , ,− , .
2 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 3
10. We have u1 = h−3, 1, 1i, u2 = h1, 1, 0i, and u3 = h−1, 4, 1i. Taking v1 = u1 = h−3, 1, 1i and
using u2 · v1 = −2 and v1 · v1 = 11 we obtain

u2 · v1 −2 5 13 2
v2 = u2 − v1 = h1, 1, 0i − h−3, 1, 1i = , , .
v1 · v1 11 11 11 11
49 18
Next, using u3 · v1 = 8, u3 · v2 = 11 , and v2 · v2 = 11 , we obtain

u3 · v1 u3 · v2 8 49/11 5 13 2
v3 = u3 − v1 − v2 = h−1, 4, 1i − h−3, 1, 1i , ,
v1 · v1 v2 · v2 11 18/11 11 11 11

1 1 2
= − , ,− .
18 18 9

5 13 2 1 1 2
B ′ = h−3, 1, 1i , , , , − , ,− ,
11 11 11 18 18 9

3 1 1 5 13 2 1 1 4
B ′′ = −√ , √ , √ , √ , √ , √ , − √ , √ , √ .
11 11 11 3 22 3 22 3 22 3 2 3 2 3 2
11. We have u1 = h 12 , 12 , 1i, u2 = h−1, 1, − 21 i, and u3 = h−1, 12 , 1i. Taking v1 = u1 = h 12 , 12 , 1i and

using u2 · v1 = − 21 and v1 · v1 = 23 we obtain

u2 · v1 1 −1/2 1 1 5 7 1
v2 = u2 − v1 = −1, 1, − − , ,1 = − , ,− .
v1 · v1 2 3/2 2 2 6 6 6
Next, using u3 · v1 = 43 , u3 · v2 = 45 , and v2 · v2 = 12

25
, we obtain

u3 · v1 u3 · v2 1 3/4 1 1 5/4 5 7 1
v3 = u3 − v1 − v2 = −1, , 1 − , ,1 − − , ,−
v1 · v1 v2 · v2 2 3/2 2 2 25/12 6 6 6

3 9 3
= − , − , .
4 20 5

′ 1 1 5 7 1 3 9 3
B = , ,1 , − , ,− , − ,− , ,
2 2 6 6 6 4 20 5

′′ 1 1 2 1 7 1 1 3 4
B = √ ,√ ,√ , −√ , √ , − √ , −√ , − √ , √ .
6 6 6 3 5 3 5 3 2 5 2 5 2
12. We have u1 = h1, 1, 1i, u2 = h9, −1, 1i, and u3 = h−1, 4, −2i. Taking v1 = u1 = h1, 1, 1i and
using u2 · v1 = 9 and v1 · v1 = 3 we obtain
u2 · v1 9
v2 = u2 − v1 = h9, −1, 1i − h1, 1, 1i = h6, −4, −2i .
v1 · v1 3
Next, using u3 · v1 = 1, u3 · v2 = −18, and v2 · v2 = 56, we obtain

u3 · v1 u3 · v2 1 −18
v3 = u3 − v1 − v2 = h−1, 4, −2i − h1, 1, 1i − h6, −4, −2i
v1 · v1 v2 · v2 3 56

25 50 125
= , ,− .
42 21 42

′ 25 50 125
B = h1, 1, 1i , h6, −4, −2i , , ,− ,
42 21 42

′′ 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 4 5
B = √ ,√ ,√ , √ , −√ , −√ , √ , √ , −√ .
3 3 3 14 14 14 42 42 42
13. We have u1 = h1, 5, 2i, and u2 = h−2, 1, 1i. Taking v1 = u1 = h1, 5, 2i and using u2 · v1 = 5

u2 · v1 5 13 1 2
v2 = u2 − v1 = h−2, 1, 1i − h1, 5, 2i = − , , .
v1 · v1 30 6 6 3
Thus, an orthogonal basis is B ′ = h1, 5, 2i , − 13 1 2

6 ,6,3 , and an orthonormal basis is

′′ 1 5 2 13 1 4
B = √ ,√ ,√ , −√ ,√ ,√ .
30 30 30 186 186 186
14. We have u1 = h1, 2, 3i, and u2 = h3, 4, 1i. Taking v1 = u1 = h1, 2, 3i and using u2 · v1 = 14
u2 · v1 14
v2 = u2 − v1 = h3, 4, 1i − h1, 2, 3i = h2, 2, −2i .
v1 · v1 14
Thus, an orthogonal basis is B ′ = {h1, 2, 3i , h2, 2, −2i} , and an orthonormal basis is

′′ 1 2 3 1 1 1
B = √ ,√ ,√ , √ , √ , −√ .
14 14 14 3 3 3
15. We have u1 = h1, −1, 1, −1i, and u2 = h1, 3, 0, 1i. Taking v1 = u1 = h1, −1, 1, −1i and using
u2 · v1 = −3 and v1 · v1 = 4 we obtain

u2 · v1 −3 7 9 3 1
v2 = u2 − v1 = h1, 3, 0, 1i − h1, −1, 1, −1i = , , , .
v1 · v1 4 4 4 4 4
Thus, an orthogonal basis is B ′ = h1, −1, 1, −1i , 74 , 94 , 34 , 41 , and an orthonormal basis is

′′ 1 1 1 1 7 9 3 1
B = ,− , ,− , √ , √ , √ , √ .
2 2 2 2 2 35 2 35 2 35 2 35
16. We have u1 = h4, 0, 2, −1i, u2 = h2, 1, −1, 1i, and u3 = h1, 1, −1, 0i. Taking
v1 = u1 = h4, 0, 2, −1i and using u2 · v1 = 5 and v1 · v1 = 21 we obtain

u2 · v1 5 22 31 26
v2 = u2 − v1 = h2, 1, −1, 1i − h4, 0, 2, −1i = , 1, − , .
v1 · v1 21 21 21 21
74 122
u3 · v1 u3 · v2
v3 = u3 − v1 − v2
v1 · v1 v2 · v2

2 74/21 22 31 26 1 24 18 40
= h1, 1, −1, 0i − h4, 0, 2, −1i − , 1, − , = − , ,− ,− .
21 122/21 21 21 21 61 61 61 61

′ 22 31 26 1 24 18 40
B = h4, 0, 2, −1i , , 1, − , , − , ,− ,− ,
21 21 21 61 61 61 61

4 2 1 22 21 31 26
B ′′ = √ , 0, √ , − √ , √ ,√ , −√ ,√ ,
21 21 21 2562 2562 2562 2562

1 24 18 40
− √ , √ ,− √ ,− √ .
2501 2501 2501 2501
17. We have u1 = 1, u2 = x, and u3 = x2 . Taking v1 = u1 = 1 and using

Z 1 Z 1
2
(u2 , v1 ) = 1 · x dx = 0 and (v1 , v1 ) = x · x dx = 2
−1 −1
we obtain
(u2 , v1 ) 0
v2 = u2 − v1 = x − x = x.
(v1 , v1 ) 2
Next, using
1 1
2
Z Z
(u3 , v1 ) = x2 · 1 dx = , (u3 , v2 ) = x2 · x dx = 0,
−1 3 −1
and
1
2
Z
(v2 , v2 ) = x · x dx = ,
−1 3
we obtain
(u3 , v1 ) (u3 , v2 ) 2/3 0 1
v3 = u3 − v1 − v2 = x 2 − 1− x = x2 − .
(v1 , v1 ) (v2 , v2 ) 2 2/3 3
Thus, an orthogonal basis is B ′ = 1, x, x2 − 31 .

18. We have u1 = x2 − x, u2 = x2 + 1, and u3 = 1 − x2 . Taking v1 = u1 = x2 − x and using

1 1
16 16
Z Z
2 2
(u2 , v1 ) = (x + 1)(x − x) dx = and (v1 , v1 ) = (x2 − x)(x2 − x) dx =
−1 15 −1 15
we obtain
(u2 , v1 ) 16/15 2
v2 = u 2 − v1 = x 2 + 1 − (x − x) = x + 1.
(v1 , v1 ) 16/15
Next, using
1 1
4 4
Z Z
(u3 , v1 ) = (1 − x2 )(x2 − x) dx = , (u3 , v2 ) = (1 − x2 )(x + 1) dx = ,
−1 15 −1 3
and
1
8
Z
(v2 , v2 ) = (x + 1)(x + 1) dx = ,
−1 3
we obtain
(u3 , v1 ) (u3 , v2 ) 4/15 2 4/3 5 1 1
v3 = u 3 − v1 − v2 = 1 − x 2 − (x − x) − (x + 1) = − x3 − x + .
(v1 , v1 ) (v2 , v2 ) 16/15 8/3 4 4 2
Thus, an orthogonal basis is B ′ = x2 − x, x + 1, − 45 x3 − 14 x + 21 .

19. Using the solution of Problem 17 and computing

Z 1 1
2
Z
2 2
||v1 || = (v1 , v1 ) = 1 · 1 dx = 2, ||v2 || = (v2 , v2 ) = x · x dx = ,
−1 −1 3
and 1
1 1 8
Z
2 2 2
||v3 || = (v3 , v3 ) = x − x − dx = ,
−1 3 3 45
we see that an orthonormal basis is
( )
x2 − 1/3

1 x 1 3 15 1
′′
B = √ ,p , p = √ , √ x, √ x2 − .
2 2/3 8/45 2 6 2 10 3
20. Using the solution of Problem 18 and computing

Z 1
16
||v1 ||2 = (v1 , v1 ) = (x2 − x)(x2 − x) dx = ,
−1 15
Z 1
2 8
||v2 || = (v2 , v2 ) = (x + 1)(x + 1) dx = ,
−1 3
and
1
5 3 1 1 5 3 1 1 1
Z
2
||v3 || = (v3 , v3 ) = − x − x+ − x − x+ dx = ,
−1 4 4 2 4 4 2 3
we see that an orthonormal basis is
(√ √ )
15 3 3
B ′′ = (x2 − x), √ (x + 1), (−5x2 − x + 2) .
4 2 6 4
√ √ √
21. Using w1 = 1/ 2, w2 = 3x/ 6, and w3 = (15/2 10)(x2 − 1/3), and computing
Z 1
1 √
(p, w1 ) = (9x2 − 6x + 5) √ dx = 8 2,
−1 2
Z 1
3 √
(p, w2 ) = (9x2 − 6x + 5) √ x dx = −2 6
−1 6
Z 1
2 15 2 1 12
(p, w3 ) = (9x − 6x + 5) √ x − dx = √
−1 2 10 3 10
we find from Theorem 7.7.1

√ √ 12
p(x) = 9x2 − 6x + 5 = (p, w1 )w1 + (p, w2 )w2 + (p, w3 )w3 = 8 2 w1 − 2 6 w2 + √ w3 .
10
√ √ √
22. Using w1 = ( 15/4)(x2 − x), w2 = (3/2 6)(x + 1), and w3 = −( 3/4)(5x2 + x − 2), and
computing
"√ #
1
15 2 41
Z
(9x2 − 6x + 5)

(p, w1 ) = x − x dx = √ ,
−1 4 15
1 √

3
Z
2
(p, w2 ) = (9x − 6x + 5) √ (x + 1) dx = 3 6
−1 2 6
Z 1 " √ #
3 1
(p, w3 ) = (9x2 − 6x + 5) − (5x2 + x − 2) dx = √ ,
−1 4 3
we find from Theorem 7.7.1

41 √ 1
p(x) = 9x2 − 6x + 5 = (p, w1 )w1 + (p, w2 )w2 + (p, w3 )w3 = √ w1 + 3 6 w2 + √ w3 .
15 3
23. Since u3 depends on u1 and u2 we would expect the Gram-Schmidt process to yield a pair
of orthogonal vectors v1 and v2 , with a third vector v3 that is 0. This is because u3 lies in
the subspace W2 of R3 spanned by u1 and u2 , and hence the projection of u3 onto W2 is u3
itself. In other words,
u3 · v1 u3 · v2 u3 · v1 u3 · v2
u3 = projW3 u3 = v1 + v2 so v3 = u3 − v1 + v2 = 0.
v1 · v1 v2 · v2 v1 · v1 v2 · v2
To carry out the orthogonalization process we take v1 = u1 = h1, 1, 3i. Then, using u2 ·v1 = 8

u2 · v1 8 3 36 13
v2 = u2 − v1 = h1, 4, 1i − h1, 1, 3i = , ,− .
v1 · v1 11 11 11 11
402 134

u3 · v1 u3 · v2 2 402/11 3 36 13
v3 = u3 − v1 − v2 = h1, 10, −3i − h1, 1, 3i − , ,−
v1 · v1 v2 · v2 11 134/11 11 11 11
= h0, 0, 0i .
3 36 13
In this case {v1 , v2 } = {h1, 1, 3}, h 11 , 11 , − 11 i} is an orthogonal subset of R3 containing the
third vector u3 = h1, 10, −3i.
Chapter 7 in Review
1. True; we use Theorem 7.3.2 with cos θ < 0 for π/2 < θ < π.
2. False; the points must be non-collinear.
3. False; since a normal to the plane is h2, 3, −4i which is not a multiple of the direction vector
h5, −2, 1i of the line.
4. True 5. True 6. True 7. True 8. True 9. True
10. True; since a × b and c × d are both normal to the plane and hence parallel (unless a × b = 0
or c × d = 0.)
11. 9i + 2j + 2k 12. orthogonal
13. −5(k × j) = −5(−i) = 5i 14. i · (i × j) = i × k = 0
p
15. (−12)2 + 42 + 62 = 14
16. (−1 − 20)i − (−2 − 0)j + (8 − 0)k = −21i + 2j + 8k
17. −6i + j − 7k
18. The coordinates of (1, −2, −10) satisfy the given equation.
19. Writing the line in parametric form, we have x = 1 + t, y = −2 + 3t, z = −1 + 2t. Substituting
into the equation of the plane yields (1 + t) + 2(−2 + 3t) − (−1 + 2t) = 13 or t = 3. Thus,
the point of intersection is x = 1 + 3 = 4, y = −2 + 3(3) = 7, z = −1 + 2(3) = 5, or (4, 7, 5).
p √ 1 4 3 1
20. |a| = 42 + 32 + (−5)2 = 5 2 ; u = − √ (4i + 3j − 5k) = − √ i − √ j + √ k
5 2 5 2 5 2 2
21. x2 − 2 = 3, x2 = 5; y2 − 1 = 5, y2 = 6; z2 − 7 = −4, z2 = 3; P2 = (5, 6, 3)
22. (5, 1/2, 5/2)

√
23. (7.2)(10) cos 135◦ = −36 2
24. 2b = h−2, 4, 2i; 4c = h0, −8, 8i; a · (2b + 4c) = h3, 1, 0i · h−2, −4, 10i = −10
25. 12, −8, 6

a·b 1 1
26. cos θ = = √ √ = ; θ = 60◦
|a||b| 2 2 2
√
1 3 10
27. A = |5i − 4j − 7k| =
2 2
28. From 3(x − 3) + 0(y − 6) + (1)(z − (−2)) = 0 we obtain 3x + z = 7.
Chapter 7 in Review 547
29. | − 5 − (−3)| = 2
30. parallel: −2c = 5, c = −5/2; orthogonal: 1(−2) + 3(−6) + c(5) = 0, c = 4

i j k
1 0 1 0 1 1
31. a × b = 1 1 0 =

i − 1 1 j + 1 −2 k = i − j − 3k

1 −2 1 −2 1
A unit vector perpendicular to both a and b is
a×b 1 1 1 3
=√ (i − j − 3k) = √ i − √ j − √ k.
ka × bk 1+1+9 11 11 11
p 3 1/2 2 1/2 2
32. kak = 1/4 + 1/4 + 1/6 = ; cos α = = , α ≈ 48.19◦ ; cos β = = ,
4 3/4 3 3/4 3
β ≈ 48.19◦ ;
−1/4 1
cos γ = = − , γ ≈ 109.47◦
3/4 3
33. compb a = a · b/kbk = h1, 2, −2i · h4, 3, 0i/5 = 2
34. compa b = b · a/kak = h4, 3, 0i · h1, 2, −2i/3 = 10/3

proja b = (compa b)a/kak = (10/3)h1, 2, −2i/3 = h10/9, 20/9, −20/9i
35. a + b = h1, 2, −2i + h4, 3, 0i = h5, 5, −2i

√
compa (a + b) = (a + b) · a/ 1 + 4 + 4 = 31 (a · a + b · a) = 13 [(1 + 4 + 4) + (4 + 6 + 0)] = 19
3
19 1 2 2
proja (a + b) = [compa (a + b)](a/kak) = 3 h3, 3, −3i = h 19 38 38
9 , 9 ,− 9 i
36. a − b = h1, 2, −2i − h4, 3, 0i = h−3, −1, −2i

√
compb (a − b) = (a − b) · b/ 16 + 9 = 51 (a · b − b · b) = 15 [(4 + 6 + 0) − (16 + 9)] = −3
projb (a − b) = [compb (a − b)](b/kbk) = −3h 54 , 35 , 0i = h− 12 9
5 , − 5 , 0i
37. Let a = ha, b, ci and r = hx, y, zi. Then
(a) (r − a) · r = hx − a, y − b, z − ci · hx, y, zi = x2 − ax + y 2 − by + z 2 − zc = 0
a b c a2 + b2 + c2
implies (x − )2 + (y − )2 + (z − )2 = .
2 2 2 4
The surface is a sphere.
(b) (r − a) · a = hx − a, y − b, z − ci · ha, b, ci = a(x − a) + b(y − b) + c(z − c) = 0.

The surface is a plane.
38. h4, 2, −2i − h2, 4, −3i = h2, −2, 1i; h2, 4, −3i − h6, 7, −5i = h−4, −3, 2i;
h2, −2, 1i · h−4, −3, 2i = 0
The points are the vertices of a right triangle.
39. A direction vector of the given line is h4, −2, 6i. A parallel line containing (7, 3, −5) is
(x − 7)/4 = (y − 3)/(−2) = (z + 5)/6.
40. A normal to the plane is h8, 3, −4i. The line with this direction vector and through (5, −9, 3)
is x = 5 + 8t, y = −9 + 3t, z = 3 − 4t.
41. The direction vectors are h−2, 3, 1i and h2, 1, 1i. Since h−2, 3, 1i · h2, 1, 1i = 0, the lines are
orthogonal. Solving 1 − 2t = x = 1 + 2s, 3t = y = −4 + s, we obtain t = −1 and s = 1. The
point (3, −3, 0) obtained by letting t = −1 and s = 1 is common to the two lines, so they do
intersect.
42. Vectors in the plane are h2, 3, 1i and h1, 0, 2i. A normal vector is
h2, 3, 1i × h1, 0, 2i = h6, −3, −3i = 3h2, −1, −1i. An equation of the plane is 2x − y − z = 0
43. The lines are parallel with direction vector h1, 4, −2i. Since (0, 0, 0) is on the first line and
(1, 1, 3) is on the second line, the vector h1, 1, 3i is in the plane. A normal vector to the plane
is thus h1, 4, −2i × h1, 1, 3i = h14, −5, −3i. An equation of the plane is 14x − 5y − 3z = 0.
44. Letting z = t in the equations of the plane and solving −x + y = 4 + 8t, 3x − y = −2t, we
obtain x = 2 + 3t, y = 6 + 11t, z = t. Thus, a normal to the plane is h3, 11, 1i and an equation
of the plane is
3(x − 1) + 11(y − 7) + (z + 1) = 0 or 3x + 11y + z = 79.
a 10 √ √
45. F = 10 = √ (i + j) = 5 2 i + 5 2 j; d = h7, 4, 0i − h4, 1, 0i = 3i + 3j
kak 2
√ √ √
W = F · d = 15 2 + 15 2 = 30 2 N-m
√ √ √ √
46. F = 5 2 i + 5 2 j + 50i = (5 2 + 50)i + 5 2 j; d = 3i + 3j
√ √ √
W = 15 2 + 150 + 15 2 = 30 2 + 150 N-m ≈ 192.4 N-m
√ √ √ √ √
47. Since F2 = 200(i + j)/ 2 = 100 2 i + 100 2 j, F3 = F2 − F1 = (100 2 − 200)i + 100 2 j
and
√ √ √
q q
2 2
kF3 k = (100 2 − 200) + (100 2) = 200 2 − 2 ≈ 153 lb.
48. Let kF1 k = F1 and kF2 k = F2 . Then F1 = F1 [(cos 45◦ )i + (sin 45◦ )j] and √
F2 = F2 [(cos 120◦ )i + (sin 120◦ )j], or F1 = F1 ( √12 i + √12 j) and F2 = F2 (− 21 i + 23 j). Since
w + F1 + F2 = 0,
√ ! √ !
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
F1 √ i + √ j +F2 − i + j = 50j, √ F1 − F2 i+ √ F1 + F2 j = 50j
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
and √
1 1 1 3
√ F1 − F2 = 0, √ F1 + F2 = 50.
2 2 2 2
√ √ √
Solving, we obtain F1 = 25( 6 − 2 ) ≈ 25.9 lb and F2 = 50( 3 − 1) ≈ 36.6 lb.
Chapter 7 in Review 549
49. Not a vector space. Axiom (viii) is not satisfied.
50. The vectors are linearly independent. The only solution of the system
c1 = 0, c1 + 2c2 + c3 = 0, 2c1 + 3c2 − c3 = 0
is c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0.
d2 p1 d2 p2
51. Let p1 and p2 be in Pn such that 2
= 0 and = 0. Since
dx dx2
d2 p1 d2 p2 d2 d2 p1 d2
0= 2
+ 2
= 2 (p1 + p2 ) and 0=k 2
= 2 (kp1 )
dx dx dx dx dx
we conclude that the set of polynomials with the given property is a subspace of Pn . A basis
for the subspace is 1, x.
52. The intersection W1 ∩ W2 is a subspace of V . If x and y are in W1 ∩ W2 then x and y are in

each subspace and so x + y is in each subspace. That is, x + y is in W1 ∩ W2 . Similarly, if
x is in W1 ∩ W2 then x is in each subspace and so kx is in each subspace. That is, kx is in
W1 ∩ W2 for any scalar k.
The union W1 ∪ W2 is generally not a subspace. For example, W1 = {hx, yi | y = x} and
W2 = {hx, yi | y = 2x} are subspaces of R2 . Now h1, 1i is in W1 and h1, 2i is in W2 but
h1, 1i + h1, 2i = h2, 3i is not in W1 ∪ W2 .

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Chapter 7

7.1 Vectors in 2-Space

P1P2 = 〈2, −3〉

−−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−−→ −−→

22. We want −3b = a, so c = −3(9) = −27.

23. h6, 15i

27. kak = 5; (a) u = 15 h0, −5i = h0, −1i; (b) −u = h0, 1i

28. kak = 1 + 3 = 2; (a) u = 2

33. − 43 a = h−3, −15/2i 34. 5(a + b) = 5h0, 1i = h0, 5i

37. x = −(a + b) = −a − b 38. x = 2(a − b) = 2a − 2b

41. From 2i + 3j = k1 b + k2 c = k1 (i + j) + k2 (i − j) = (k1 + k2 )i + (k1 − k2 )j we obtain the

(b) θ = tan−1 0.6 ≈ 31◦

48. Place one corner of the parallelogram at the origin

−−→ −→ 1 −−→ −−→ −→ 1 −→ 1 −→ A C

and krk ≈ 260.09 miles.

7.2 Vectors in 3-Space

(6, −2, 0) (6, 0, 0)

7. A plane perpendicular to the z-axis, 5 units above the xy-plane

8. A plane perpendicular to the x-axis, 1 unit in front of the yz-plane

9. A line perpendicular to the xy-plane at (2, 3, 0)

10. A single point located at (4, −1, 7)

(b) (−2, 5, −2)

14. We find planes that are parallel to coordinate planes:

(b) x = 1 and y = −1;

15. The union of the planes x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0

16. The origin (0, 0, 0)

17. The point (−1, 2, −3)

18. The union of the planes x = 2 and z = 8

19. The union of the planes z = 5 and z = −5

35. (x1 + 2)/2 = −1; (y1 + 3)/2 = −4; (z1 + 6)/2 = 8

The coordinates of P1 are (−4, −11, 10).

36. (−3 + (−5))/2 = x3 ; (4 + 8)/2 = y3 = 6; (1 + 3)/2 = z3 = 2

The coordinates of P3 are (−4, 6, 2).

42. 2a − (b − c) = h2, −6, 4i − h−3, −5, −8i = h5, −1, 12i

44. 4(a + 2c) − 6b = 4h5, 9, 20i − h−6, 6, 6i = h26, 30, 74i

7.3 Dot Product

11. a · (a + b + c) = 2(4) + (−3)5 + 4(8) = 25

12. (2a) · (a − 2b) = 4(4) + (−6)(−7) + 8(−6) = 10

15. a and f, b and e, c and d

16. (a) a · b = 2 · 3 + (−c)2 + 3(4) = 0 or c=9

(b) a · b = c(−3) + 12 (4) + c2 = c2 − 3c + 2 = (c − 2)(c − 1) = 0 or c = 1, 2

Thus, the diagonals are perpendicular.

30. If a and b are orthogonal, then a · b = 0 and

32. We want cos α = cos β = cos γ or a1 = a2 = a3 . Letting a1 = a2 = a3 = 1 we obtain the

33. compb a = a · b/kbk = h1, −1, 3i · h2, 6, 3i/7 = 5/7

39. compb a = a · b/kbk = (−5i + 5j) · (−3i + 4j)/5 = 7

41. compb a = a · b/kbk = (−i − 2j + 7k) · (6i − 3j − 2k)/7 = −2

comp(a+b) a = a · (a + b)/ka + bk = (4i + 3j) · (3i + 4j)/5 = 24/5

46. We identify d = −i + 3j + 8k. Then W = F · d = h4, 3, 5i · h−1, 3, 8i = 45 N-m.

47. (a) Since w and d are orthogonal, W = w · d = 0.

48. Using d = 6i + 2j and F = 3( 35 i + 45 j), W = F · d = h 59 , 12

51. ka + bk2 = (a + b) · (a + b) = a · a + 2a · b + b · b = kak2 + 2a · b + kbk2

and the vectors are perpendicular. Thus, n is perpendicular to the line.

7.4 Cross Product

is perpendicular to both a and b.

is perpendicular to both a and b.

a · (a × b) = h5, −2, −1i · h14, 37, 4i = 70 − 74 + 4 = 0;

(b) a · c = (i − j + 2k) · (3i + j + k) = 4; (a · c)b = 4(2i + j + k) = 8i + 4j + 4k

(b) a · c = (3i − 4k) · (−i + 5j + 8k) = −35; (a·c)b = −35(i+2j−k) = −35i−70j+35k;

19. (2i) × j = 2(i × j) = 2k

20. i × (−3k) = −3(i × k) = −3(−j) = 3j

21. k × (2i − j) = k × (2i) + k × (−j) = 2(k × i) − (k × j) = 2j − (−i) = i + 2j

23. [(2k) × (3j)] × (4j) = [2 · 3(k × j) × (4j)] = 6(−i) × 4j = (−6)(4)(i × j) = −24k