The Effectiveness of Mangrove (Rhizophoraceae) Species in Absorbing the Nitrate and

Phosphate Content of Water in Taal Lake

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the

thorough and in-depth search done by the researchers. This will also present

the synthesis of the art, theoretical and conceptual framework to fully

understand the research to be done and lastly the definition of terms for

better comprehension of the study.

2.1 RELATED LITERATURE

A. Taal Lake

As the country’s third largest lake, Taal Lake houses an extensive

watershed that borders Batangas and Cavite provinces, including the

famous tourist destination, Tagaytay City. The freshwater lake flows within

38 small rivers and streams. Surrounding lakeshore communities and their

fisher folk depend greatly on these bodies of water for the marine life they

carry. The lake is threatened by overexploitation through overfishing,

unregulated aquaculture, waste pollution from neighboring dumpsites,

sewage discharge systems, and increasing real estate development

projects. Taal Lake is home to a plethora of rare fauna and endemic marine

species. These species include the Hydrophis semperi, a freshwater

seasnake, as well as the Sardinella tawilis, a freshwater sardine. The

presence of these species makes the lake a preferred host for aquaculture.

Unfortunately, unregulated fish cages combined with improper solid waste

disposal in the lake pose extinction threats for this specie.

Furthermore, DENR-PAWB (2005) described Taal Lake as the third

largest lake in the country and the world’s smallest active volcano, was

declared as Taal Volcano Protected Landscape (TVPL) in 2003 under the

NIPAS. It is known for its beauty and tourist attractions and is the home to

the endemic species Saerdinas tawilis, the world’s only commercial

freshwater sardines, and hydrophis semperi locally known as duhol one of

only three freshwater sea snake in the world. The lake is also known to one

of the highest diversity of fish species of any lake in country, with at least 47

specie recorded in 2000. Many of the fish species are migratory, moving to

the coastal area to the lake through the Pansipit River as larvae the moving

back to the sea. The lake drains into the Pansipit River, the lake’s only

outflow which then empties into Balayan Bay (DENR-PAWB, 2005).

However, Luistro (2007) pointed that today, the lake is fast

deteriorating, fish catch is low and some of the native fish were gone. The

greatest threats to the lake are pollution and unregulated fish cage

operations. Fish cages are plentiful with the lake’s tilapia farms providing as

much as 68% of the annual production in Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal,

Quezon and directly employing around 1500 people. The practice of the fish
cages operator to overstock and overfeed has threatening the productivity

and quality of water in Taal Lake.

Yambot (2000) further explained that Philippine Lakes are constantly

being threatened with various stressor such as unregulated open fishing,

heavy metals, agricultural and domestic pollution and more recently, by fish

cage aquaculture. The reported fish kills in Taal Lake suggest a deteriorating

lake quality.

B. MANGROVES

Williams (2000) said that mangroves are a crossroad where oceans,

freshwater and land realms meet. It is most particularly found in tropical and

subtropical regions. It also provides protection and shelter against extreme

weather events such as storm winds and flood, as well as tsunamis.

Mangrove forests are rich in biodiversity providing a habitat for wide varieties

of animal and plant species. They are dynamic areas rich in food. Live and

decaying mangrove leaves and roots provide nutrient that nourish plankton

algae, fish, and shellfish. It is also a home for birds and mammals. Many of

fish are caught commercially in tropical regions. Traditional economic

activities vary from fishing and gathering of crustaceans to usage of the trees

for timber production. It may provide wood forest products, fishery, nursery,

and coastal protection against storms.

 Futhermore, Anderson (2000) explained that mangroves are fed by

absorbing nutrients and organics from the water, which in turn creates a

natural filter for cleaning water. Mangroves not only have the ability to

absorb nitrates, but phosphates and other organics as well. In fact, they

remove organics so well from the water that they act as a replacement for a

protein skimmer. When using mangroves you will notice your protein

skimmer working less and less all the time. The more the mangroves grow

and mature, the more they absorb the excess organics in your water, and

the skimmer has nothing to remove and becomes obsolete.

Based on Microsoft Encarta, mangrove, common name applied to

several kinds of tropical flowering plants that are members of three different

families. Mangroves are trees or shrubs that have the common trait of

growing in shallow and muddy salt water or brackish waters, especially

along quiet shorelines and in estuaries.

C. 3 Species of Mangroves

Kalumpinay (Avicennia germania)

Black mangrove is a subtropical woody shrub that grows in salt

marshes. Mangroves are very hardy, having become adapted to harsh

environments where water and salinity levels fluctuate. Pneumatophores,

or breather roots, form a network collecting silt and debris and controlling
erosion. Plant height will vary from 4 to 9 feet. Leaves are 1 to 5 inches

long, elliptical, opposite, thick, leathery, dark green, glabrous (smooth)

above, and grayish with a tight felt-like pubescence beneath. Glands on the

underside secrete salt. Clusters of small sessile flowers with white petals,

approximately ½ inch in diameter, are borne on the leaf axils or growing tips

on the twigs. The fruits are flat, approximately 1 inch long, dark green and

glabrous beneath a velvety pericarp. The bark on the black mangrove is

thick, dark brown or blackish, with rough irregular flattened scales. Twigs

are grayish in color and smooth, with enlargements at the joints. Mangrove

detritus (dead leaves and twigs) in water feeds microorganisms that provide

food for young marine animals.

Furthermore, black mangrove is a unique plant species that, when

established properly and under applicable conditions, has provided land

stabilization due to the easy transport of seedlings, quick aerial root

production, underground root systems which increase sediment holding

capabilities. This plant also provides for wildlife and marine habitats.

More so, it is also used primarily for wildlife habitat along protected

Shorelines, intertidal salt marshes, and marshy barrier islands. Black

mangrove is also an effective land stabilizer used on interior tidal mudflats,

dredge-fill, and other artificial sites associated with wetland restoration.

When established on a barrier island, black mangrove provides habitat for

birds and marine organisms. Establishing to protected shorelines, black

mangrove provides an effective buffer that dissipates low wave energies,

reduces shoreline erosion, and traps suspended sediments and other solids

with their pneumatophores. Dense stands of mangroves produce significant

amount of organic matter. The cumulative effects of organic matter

production, sediment trapping, and erosion control not only provide

shoreline protection but also accelerate sediment accumulation.

Consequently, black mangrove is a sustainable and renewable

restoration resource, and when properly established, and in the appropriate

habitat, will persist and potentially remain effective indefinitely (Galliano,

February 2005)

Bakawang Babae (Rhizophora mucronata Lam)

Like other native mangrove trees, this species holds the muddy soil of

its habitat in place. Although it is usually much shorter in height, this tree

can grow to be as tall as 20 m (70 ft) or more. It has many arching, aerial

prop roots. The leaves are a lighter shade of green on top than its close

relative Malil (Rhizophora apiculata), with leaf margins often rolled under.

The flowers have four thin white petals (which fall off shortly after opening)

and four persistent, yellow sepals; branching clusters contain 3-10 flowers.

The viviparous fruits which sprout while they are still attached to the tree,

are very long on Roway and can grow to lengths of 30-90 cm (1-3 ft). This
kind of fruit solves the problem of establishing new plants in a substrate that

is underwater two times each day.

In addition, these species often grows at or near the seaward edge of

the mangroves in Yap or along the channels, and along estuaries and bays,

and on reef flats from areas in tropical Asia to the Western Pacific.

Furthermore, the dense and extremely hard wood is used in house for

rafters and sometimes for small posts. It is used also in stakes for fish traps,

because it resists sea-water and ship worm (Kiribati). The bark produces a

red dye, rich in tanin, but is not used to color cotton nets. The bark is used

to perfume coconut oil (cosmetic)” (Catala, 2007).

Saging-saging (Aegiceras corniculatum)

Aegiceras corniculatum, commonly known as Black Mangrove, River

Mangrove or Khalsi, is a species of shrub or tree mangrove in the Myrsine

family (or Primrose family) with a distribution in coastal and estuarine areas

ranging from India through South East Asia to southern China, New Guinea

and Australia. Aegiceras corniculatum grows as a shrub or small tree up to

7 m high, though often considerably less. Its leaves are alternate, obovate,

30–100 mm long and 15–50 mm wide, entire, leathery and minutely dotted.

Its fragrant, small, white flowers are produced as umbellate clusters of 10–

30, with a peduncle up to 10 mm long and with pedicels 10–18 mm long.

The calyx is 2–4 mm long and corolla 4–6 mm long. The fruit is curved and
cylindrical or horn-shaped, light green to pink in colour and 20–75 mm long.

It grows in mud in estuaries and tidal creeks, often at the seaward edge of

the mangrove zone.

More so, River Mangrove is one of the most common mangrove

plants. These plants often grow together to form a thicket that can be up to

4 m tall. It has no obvious above-ground roots. The leaves are oval and

about 7 cm long. There are glands on the leaves for secreting salt. The

flowers are small, white, arranged in bunches and smell like rotten bananas.

The propagules are up to 5 cm long, pencil thick, slightly curved and have a

pointed tip. The end of the fruit that is attached to the tree has a spiral

patterned cap. The fruits are green, ripening to red in the summer months.

Found on river banks over a wide range of salinities.

Furthermore, these species is widespread and common. It is

threatened by the loss of mangrove habitat throughout its range, primarily

due to extraction and coastal development, and there has been an estimated

21% decline in mangrove area within this species range since 1980.

Mangrove species are more at risk from coastal development and extraction

at the extremes of their distribution, and are likely to be contracting in these

areas more than in other areas. It is also likely that changes in climate due

to global warming will further affect these parts of the range. Although there

are overall range declines in many areas, they are not enough to reach any

of the threatened category thresholds.

D. Nitrate

Nitrates (NO3) are compounds composed of a nitrogen and three

oxygen atoms and are often the final stage in the nitrogen cycle of fresh

and saltwater aquariums if there are not nitrate removing plants, algae, or

nitrate reducing anaerobic bacteria present.

On the other hand, nitrogen is essential for plant growth, but

excessive amounts in water supplies can result in nutrient pollution. Nitrates,

in conjunction with phosphate, stimulate the growth of algae creating water

quality problems. Nitrogen compounds may enter water as nitrates or be

converted to nitrates from agricultural fertilizers, sewage, industrial and

packing house wastes, drainage from the livestock, feeding areas and

manure. Nitrates in large amounts in drinking water can cause “blue baby

syndrome” (methomoglobenemia) in infants in less than 6 months of age

and other health problems. US Public Health Service Drinking Water

Standards that 44 ppm nitrate should not be exceeded. To the sanitary and

industrial engineer, concentrations of less than 4 ppm are acceptable.

Nitrates are the conjugate base (chemical substance that releases a

proton in the backward chemical reaction) of nitric acid (HNO3), consisting

of one central nitrogen atom surrounded by three identical oxygen atoms.

The presence or production of large amounts nitrates can result in the

presence of Nitric acid according to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and

bases which will in turn affect an aquariums pH and KH (which can result in

dangerous pH swings).Nitrate (NO3) as a nitrogen compound can cause

stress making a fish’s organs work harder to adjust to their environment,

especially at levels higher than 100 ppm in many fish. The increasing stress

results in the loss of ability to fight diseases, the ability to heal itself, and the

ability to reproduce. Long term high nitrates are potentially dangerous due

to the effects on the water chemistry and on a healthy environment for your

fish while nitrates are accumulating. The higher the nitrate levels, the higher

and more severe the consequences due to the stress on your fish and the

favorable conditions for a serious algae outbreak.

Phosphate

Phosphate (PO4) is an inorganic chemical and is a salt of phosphoric

acid. Its role in aquariums is that it contains phosphorus, an essential

nutrient for plants (that includes algae) and as a useful buffering agent within

animal cells.

The Fresh Aquarium (2003) added that phosphates naturally occur as

wastes are broken down within the aquarium. Fortunately phosphates do

not directly harm your fish, even at high levels. However, the algae blooms

that result from elevated phosphates can ultimately cause problems for the

aquarium inhabitants. For instance, green water can deplete the oxygen,
which in turn can harm the fish. Phosphates naturally occur as wastes are

broken down within the aquarium.

Phosphate itself is colorless and not easily determined from water

samples with typical spectrophotometric techniques (which determine

concentration based on color intensity.) due to the reactive nature of

phosphate, one can easily convert to a colored compound through chemical

reaction which can then be directly detected. In this lab we will be using an

ammonium vanadomolybdate reagent.

Phosphorus is an important nutrient for aquatic plants. The amount

found in water is generally not more than 0.1 ppm unless the water has

become polluted from waste water sources or excessive drainage from

agricultural areas. When phosphorus is present in excess of the

concentrations required for normal aquatic plant growth, a process called

eutrophication takes place. This creates a favorable environment for the

increase in algae and weeds. When algae cells die, oxygen is used in the

decomposition and fish kills often result. Rapid decomposition of dense

algae scums with associated organisms give rise to foul odors and hydrogen

sulfide gas.
2.2 RELATED STUDIES

According to Nanda (2011), socio-economic issues are some of the

major issues of concern today for environment conservation and

restoration. The managers make all efforts to make people understand the

needs of conservation and restoration to improve social and economic

conditions of all stakeholders in the specific environmental conditions.

Thus, he said that mangrove forests thrive in silt-rich, saline habitats

worldwide, generally along large river deltas, estuaries, and coastal areas.

It is characterized by low tree diversity and with a low broken canopy.

Moreover, the study of Yambot (2000) revealed that Taal lake is

constantly being threatened with various stressors such as unregulated

open fishing, heavy metal pollution, agricultural and domestic pollution and

more recently, by fish cage aquaculture. Prevailing winds and thermal

stratification of the lake’s deep water brought heavy loads of organic

sediment to the surface. This resulted in oxygen depletion, and raised levels

of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and nitrite levels in the lake, contributing to

the fish kill.

Furthermore, Wheatley (2001) said that fish and aquatic insects

can be affected indirectly by increased nitrate concentrations in the water.

Basically, any excess nitrate in the water is a source of fertilizer for

aquatic plants and algae. In many cases, the amount of nitrate in the water
is what limits how much plants and algae can grow. If there is an excess

level of nitrates, plants and algae will grow excessively.

Excess plants in a body of water can create many problems. An

excess in the growth of plants and algae create an unstable amount of

dissolved oxygen. During the day, there will be usually be high levels of

dissolved oxygen, and at night the levels of oxygen can decrease

dramatically.

Likewise, his study said that phosphate will stimulate the growth of

plankton and aquatic plants which provide food for larger organisms,

including zooplankton, fish, humans, and other mammals. Plankton

represents the base of the food chain. Initially, this increased productivity

will cause an increase in the fish population and overall biological diversity

of the system. But as the phosphate loading continues and there is a build-

up of phosphate in the lake or surface water ecosystem, the aging process

of lake or surface water ecosystem will be accelerated. The overproduction

of lake or water body can lead to an imbalance in the nutrient and material

cycling process (Ricklefs, 2003). Eutrophication is enhanced production of

primary producers resulting in reduced stability of the ecosystem. Excessive

nutrient inputs, usually nitrogen and phosphate, have been shown to be the

main cause of eutrophication over the past 30 years. This aging process can
result in large fluctuations in the lake water quality and trophic status and in

some cases periodic blooms of cyanobacteria.

2.3 SYNTHESIS

Based on preliminary data gathered, it is clearly stated by Anderson

in the year 2000 that mangroves are fed by absorbing nutrients such as

nitrate and phosphate. Similarly, a reading from the Merriam Dictionary

tells that mangroves are tropical trees that have roots which grow in

shallow salt water or brackish water. After the La Motte Laboratory testing,

having three different kind of mangrove species as experimental groups,

experimental group 3 or the Kalumpinay was proved to be the most

effective one.

2.4 HYPOTHESIS

There is no significant difference in the nitrate and phosphate

absorption ability of the three species of mangroves.

There is no significant difference in the level of nitrate and phosphate

in the controlled and experimental groups.

2.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This study is based on the hypothesis that the one of the three

species of mangroves is effective in absorbing the nitrate and phosphate

content of water in Taal Lake.

Figure 1 presents the Research paradigm.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Analysis of Nitrate and
Phosphate content of
water in Taal Lake
3 Species of Mangroves
 Avicennia Germania
 Rhizophora
mucronata Lam
 Aegiceras
corniculatum
Determine the nitrate
and phosphate ability
Laboratory of the 3 species of
mangroves. (Avicennia
Experiment Germania, Rhizophora
(La Motte Smart 3 mucronata Lam.,
Aegiceras
Colorimeter)
corniculatum)

Figure 1.Research Paradigm

The effectiveness of mangroves species in absorbing the nitrate and

phosphate content in Taal Lake was determined in the input using the

analysis of the PO4 and NO3 content of water and identification of the

different mangrove species that can survive in the water of the said lake
which belongs to the input box. Laboratory tests were conducted to test the

content of nitrate and phosphate. To test the nitrate content, zinc reduction

method is used and for the phosphate content, ascorbic acid reduction

method is done. It will help the researcher to see the specie’s

effectiveness. Lastly, the output box contains the result of the study. In this

part, the changes in the level of nitrate and phosphate present in the water

of Taal Lake.