Quadratic Identities Trigonometry Progression

Quadratic Equation Progression Trigonometric Identities Spherical Trigonometry
Form: AM ∙ HM = (GM)2 Squared Identities: Sine Law:

2 sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 sin 𝑎
Ax + Bx + C = 0 2 2
sin A + cos A = 1
Arithmetic Progression: = =
Roots: 1 + tan2 A = sec 2 A sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐴
d = a 2 − a1 = a 3 − a 2
s 2 − 4AC
−B ± √B 1 + cot 2 A = csc 2 A Cosine Law for sides:
x= a n = a1 + (n − 1)d cos 𝑎 = cos 𝑏 cos 𝑐 + sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐 cos 𝐴
2A Sum & Diff of Angles Identities:
a n = a x + (n − x)d Cosine Law for angles:
Sum of Roots:
n sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B cos 𝐴 = − cos 𝐵 cos 𝐶 + sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶 cos 𝑎
B Sn = (a1 + a n )
x1 + x2 = − 2 cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B Spherical Polygon:
A
Harmonic Progression: tan A ± tan B πR2 E E = spherical excess
Product of Roots: - reciprocal of arithmetic tan (A ± B) =
C 1 ∓ tan A tan B AB = E = (A+B+C+D…) – (n-2)180°
progression 180°
x1 ∙ x2 = + Double Angle Identities:
A Geometric Progression: Spherical Pyramid:
1 minute of arc =
r = a 2 /a1 = a 3 /a2 sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A 1 πR3 E 1 nautical mile
Binomial Theorem cos 2A = cos 2 A − sin2 A V = AB H = 1 nautical mile =
a n = a1 r n−1 3 540°
6080 feet
Form:
a n = a x r n−x cos 2A = 2 cos 2 A − 1 1 statute mile =
(x + y)n cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A 5280 feet
1 − rn n-sided Polygon
rth term: Sn = a1 2 tan A # of diagonals:
1 knot =
r th
= nCm x n−m y m 1−r tan 2A = n Interior Angle, ɤ: 1 nautical mile
a1 1 − tan2 A d = (n − 3) (n − 2)180° per hour
where: m=r-1
S∞ = 2 γ=
1−r n
Deflection Angle, δ: Area = n ∙ ATRIANGLE
Worded Problems Tips Triangle Common Quadrilateral δ = 180° − γ 1
 Age Problems 1 Square: Rectangle: Area = n ∙ R2 sinβ
A = bh Central Angle, β: 2
→ underline specific time conditions A = s2 A = bh
2 360° 1
 Motion Problems P = 4s P = 2a + 2b β= Area = n ∙ ah
1 n 2
→a =0 A = ab sin C d = √2s d = √b 2 + h2
2
→s = vt Parallelogram:
1 sin B sin C Polygon Names
A = a2 A = bh 16 - hexadecagon
 Work Problems 3 - triangle
2 sin A A = ab sin θ 17 - septadecagon
Case 1: Unequal rate 4 - quad/tetragon 18 - octadecagon
work A = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) 1 5 - pentagon
A = d1 d2 sin θ 19 - nonadecagon
rate = 2 6 - hexagon/sexagon 20 - icosagon
time a+b+c 7 - septagon/heptagon 21 - unicosagon
Case 2: Equal rate s= Rhombus: 8 - octagon 22 - do-icosagon
→ usually in project management 2 A = ah 9 - nonagon 30 - tricontagon
→ express given to man-days or man-hours A = a2 sin θ 10 - decagon 31 - untricontagon
Trapezoid 1 11 - undecagon/ 40 - tetradecagon
 Clock Problems A = d1 d2 monodecagon 50 - quincontagon
11M − 60H 1 2 12 - dodecagon/ 60 - hexacontagon
+ if M is ahead of H
θ= - if M is behind of H
A = (a + b)h bidecagon 100 - hectogon
2 2
Ellipse 13 - tridecagon 1,000 - chilliagon
A1 n ma2 + nb 2 14 - quadridecagon 10,000 - myriagon
a2 + b2
Ex-circle- 1 1 1 1 = ;w = √ A = πab C = 2π√ 15 - quindecagon/ 1,000,000 - megagon
A2 m m+n 2 pentadecagon ∞ - aperio (circle)
= + +
In-circle 𝑟 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3
Triangle-Circle Relationship General Quadrilateral
Centers of Triangle Inscribed Circle:
Circumscribing Circle: Cyclic Quadrilateral: (sum of opposite angles=180°)
INCENTER abc AT = rs
- the center of the inscribed circle (incircle) AT = A = √(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)
of the triangle & the point of intersection of
4R
Escribed Circle: Ptolemy’s Theorem is applicable:
the angle bisectors of the triangle.
opposite side a+b+c+d
diameter = AT = R a (s − a) ac + bd = d1 d2 s=
sine of angle 2
a b c AT = R b (s − b) Non-cyclic Quadrilateral:
d= = = AT = R c (s − c) ε
sin A sin B sin C
A = √(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d) − abcd cos 2
2
Pappus Theorem
CIRCUMCENTER
- the center of the circumscribing circle Pappus Theorem 1: Prism or Cylinder Pointed Solid
(circumcircle) & the point of intersection of SA = L ∙ 2πR V = AB H = AX L 1
the perpendicular bisectors of the triangle. v
V = AB H
Pappus Theorem 2: LA = PB H = Px L 3
AB/PB → Perimeter or Area of base Right Circ. Cone Reg. Pyramid
V = A ∙ 2πR H → Height & L → slant height 1
AX/PX → Perimeter or Area of cross- LA = πrL LA = PB L
NOTE: It is also used to locate centroid of an area. section perpendicular to slant height 2
Spherical Lune: Spherical Wedge:

Special Solids Spherical Solids
ORTHOCENTER Alune 4πR2 4
Sphere: Vwedge 3 πR
3
- the point of intersection of the altitudes of Truncated Prism or Cylinder: =
4 θrad 2π =
the triangle. V = AB Have V = πR3 θrad 2π
LA = PB Have 3 Alune = 2θR2 2
LA = 4πR2 Vwedge = θR3
3
Frustum of Cone or Pyramid: Spheroid:
H 4 Spherical Zone:
V = πabc
V= (A + A2 + √A1 A2 ) 3
Azone = 2πRh
3 1 LA = 4π [
a2 + b2 + c 2
]
CENTROID Spherical Sector:
3
- the point of intersection of the medians of 1
the triangle. Prolate Spheroid: V = Azone R
3
4 2
V = πabb V = πR2 h
3
a2 + b2 + b2 3
Prismatoid:
LA = 4π [ ] Spherical Segment:
H 3
V = (A1 + 4AM + A2 ) For one base:
6 Oblate Spheroid: about major axis 1
EULER LINE 4
V = πh2 (3R − h)
V = πaab 3
- the line that would pass through the 3 For two bases:
orthocenter, circumcenter, and centroid of a2 + a2 + b2
LA = 4π [ ] 1
the triangle. 3 V = πh(3a2 + 3b2 + h2 )
about minor axis 6
Archimedean Solids Analytic Geometry Ellipse Hyperbola
- the only 13 polyhedra that are - the locus of point that moves such - the locus of point that moves such
convex, have identical vertices, and Slope-intercept form: Distance from a point to another point: that the sum of its distances from that the difference of its distances
their faces are regular polygons. y = mx + b d = √(y2 − y1 )2 + (x2 − x1 )2 two fixed points called the foci is from two fixed points called the foci
constant. is constant.
Nn Nn Point-slope form:
E= V= Distance from a point to a line: General Equation: General Equation:
2 v y − y1
where: s m= |Ax + By + C| Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 Ax 2 − Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
E → # of edges x − x1 d=
V → # of vertices √A2 + B 2 Standard Equation: Standard Equation:
N → # of faces Two-point form: (x − h)2 (y − k)2 (x − h)2 (y − k)2
n → # of sides of each face Distance of two parallel lines: − =1
v → # of faces meeting at a vertex y2 − y1 y − y2 a2
+
b2
=1
a2 b2
= |C1 − C2 |
x 2 − x1 x − x 2 d= (x − h)2 (y − k)2 (y − k)2 (x − h)2
Conic Sections
Point-slope form:
√A2 + B 2 b2
+
a2
=1
a2
−
b2
=1
General Equation: x y Angle between two lines:
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 + =1 m2 − m1
a b tan θ =
Based on discriminant: 1 + m1 m2
B 2 − 4AC = 0 ∴ parabola
B 2 − 4AC < 0 ∴ ellipse Parabola
B 2 − 4AC > 0 ∴ hyperbola - the locus of point that moves such that it is always equidistant from a
fixed point (focus) and a fixed line (directrix).
Based on eccentricity, e=f/d: Elements: Elements:
General Equation: Elements:
𝑒 = 0 ∴ circle 2 Eccentricity, e: Loc. of directrix, d:
Location of foci, c: Same as ellipse:
Length of LR,
𝑒 = 1 ∴ parabola y + Dx + Ey + F = 0 Location of foci, c: a c 2 = a2 + b2 Loc. of directrix, d
df
𝑒 < 1 ∴ ellipse x 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 e=
dd
=1 c 2 = a2 − b2 d= Eq’n of asymptote:
Eccentricity, e
e y − k = ±m(x − h)
𝑒 > 1 ∴ hyperbola Standard Equation: Length of LR:
Length of latus Eccentricity, e: where:
2
(x − h) = ±4a(y − k) rectum, LR: 2b2 c m is (+) for upward asymptote;
LR = 4a LR = e= m is (-) for downward
Circle (y − k)2 = ±4a(x − h) a a m = b/a if the transverse axis is horizontal;

m = a/b if the transverse axis is vertical
- the locus of point that moves such
that its distance from a fixed point 1 revolution
called the center is constant. Engineering Economy
= 2π rad Unit Circle
General Equation: = 360˚  Simple Interest:
Versed sine:
x 2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 I = P𝑖n where:
= 400 grads vers A = 1 − cos A F → future worth
Standard Equation: = 6400 mills Versed cosine: F = P(1 + 𝑖n) P → principal or present worth
i → interest rate per interest period
(x − h) + (y − k)2 = r 2
2
covers A = 1 − sin A r → nominal interest rate
 Compound Interest:
Tetrahedron n → no. of interest periods
Half versed sine: F = P(1 + 𝑖)n m → no. of interest period per year
Line Tangent to Conic Section 1 − cos A t → no. of years
hav A = r mt ER → effective rate
To find the equation of a line 2 2 F = P (1 + )
tangent to a conic section at a H = a√ Exsecant:
m
given point P(x1, y1):
3 I r m
exsec A = sec A − 1 ER = = (1 − ) − 1
In the equation of the conic 2 P m
equation, replace:
SA = a √3
 Inflation:  Rate of return:  Continuous Compounding Interest:
𝑥 2 → 𝑥𝑥1 √2 3 𝑖f = 𝑖 + f + 𝑖f annual net profit F = Pe rt
V=a RR =
𝑦 2 → 𝑦𝑦1 12 capital
ER = er − 1
 Break-even analysis: Annual net profit
𝑥 + 𝑥1 = savings – expenses
𝑥→ cost = revenue – depreciation (sinking fund)

1
 Annuity:
2 RP = ′
𝑦 + 𝑦1 RR (1 + 𝑖)n − 1 where:
𝑦→ F = A[ ] F → future worth
2 𝑖 P → principal or present worth
Depreciation A → periodic payment
𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑥1 (1 + 𝑖)n − 1
′
i → interest rate per payment
𝑥𝑦 → BVm = FC − Dm P = A[ ] n → no. of interest periods
2 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n n’ → no. of payments
 Straight-Line: CALTECH:
Differential Calculus FC − SV Mode 3 2  Perpetuity:
x y
d= (time) (BV) A
Curvature: Radius of curvature: n P= = F(1 + 𝑖)−n
0 FC
y" 3
Dm = d(m) n SV 𝑖 where:
k= 3
[1 + (y′)2 ]2 C → capitalized cost
ρ=  Capitalized Cost: FC → first cost
[1 + (y′)2 ]2 𝑦"  Sinking Fund: where: OM → annual operation
FC → first cost OM RC − SV or maintenance cost
Maxima & Minima (Critical Points): (1 + i)n − 1 −1 SV → salvage cost C = FC + + RC → replacement cost
d = (FC − SV) [ ] d → depreciation 𝑖 (1 + 𝑖)n − 1 SV → salvage cost
𝑑𝑦 𝑖 per year
AC → annual cost
= y′ = 0 (+) minima m
(1 + i) − 1
n → economic life
m → any year before n
AC = C ∙ 𝑖
𝑑𝑥 (-) maxima Dm = d [ ] BVm → book value (RC − SV)𝑖
𝑖 after m years
AC = FC ∙ 𝑖 + OM +
Point of inflection: Dm → total depreciation
(1 + i)n − 1
 Sum-of-the-Years-Digit (SYD):
𝑑2 𝑦 n−m+1
= y" = 0 dm = (FC − SV) [ ] CALTECH:  Single-payment-compound-amount factor:
𝑑𝑥 2 ∑ years Mode 3 3
(F/P, 𝑖, n) = (1 + 𝑖)n
x y
(time) (BV)
∑nn−m+1 x 0 FC  Single-payment-present-worth factor:
Integral Calculus-The Cardioid Dm = (FC − SV) [ ] n SV −n
∑n1 x n+1 SV
(P/F, 𝑖, n) = (1 + 𝑖)
A = 1.5πa2  Equal-payment-series-compound-amount factor:
 Declining Balance (Matheson): ′
P = 8a BVm = FC(1 − k)m CALTECH: (1 + 𝑖)n − 1
Mode 3 6 (F/A, 𝑖, n) = [ ]
r = a(1 − sin θ) r = a(1 − cos θ) SV = FC(1 − k)n k → obtained x y 𝑖
(time) (BV)
r = a(1 + sin θ) r = a(1 + cos θ) Dm = FC − BVm 0 FC  Equal-payment-sinking-fund factor:
n SV ′ −1
 Double Declining Balance:
(1 + 𝑖)n − 1
(A/F, 𝑖, n) = [ ]
BVm = FC(1 − k)m 𝑖
k = 2/n k → obtained  Equal-payment-series-present-worth factor:
′
Dm = FC − BVm (1 + 𝑖)n − 1
where: (P/A, 𝑖, n) = [ ]
FC → first cost 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
 Service Output Method: SV → salvage cost
FC − SV d → depreciation per year  Equal-payment-series-capital-recovery factor:
Qn → qty produced during
d= ′ −1
Qn economic life
Qm → qty produced during
(1 + 𝑖)n − 1
up to m year
(A/P, 𝑖, n) = [ ]
D = dQ m Dm → total depreciation
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
Statistics Fractiles Transportation Engineering Traffic Accident Analysis
Measure of Natural Tendency  Range Design of Horizontal Curve  Accident rate for 100 million
= 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 vehicles per miles of travel in a
 Mean, x̅, μ → average
 Minimum radius of curvature segment of a highway:
→ Mode Stat 1-var  Coefficient of Range 2
→ Shift Mode ▼s Stat Frequency? on 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 v A (100,000,000)
= R= R=
→ Input 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 + 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 g(e + f) ADT ∙ N ∙ 365 ∙ L
→ AC Shift 1 var x̅ R → minimum radius of curvature
A → no. of accidents during period of analysis
 Quartiles e → superelevation
f → coeff. of side friction or ADT → average daily traffic
 Median, Me → middle no. when n is even
skid resistance N → time period in years
n+1 1 2 3 v → design speed in m/s L → length of segment in miles
Me th = Q1 = n Q2 = n Q3 = n g → 9.82 m/s2
2 4 4 4
 Accident rate per million entering
1 n n when n is odd  Centrifugal ratio or impact factor
Me th
= [( ) + ( + 1)] vehicles in an intersection:
2 2 2 1 1 1 2
Q1 = (n + 1) ; Q1 = (n + 1) ; Q1 = (n + 1) v A (1,000,000)
4 4 4 Impact factor = R=
 Mode, Mo → most frequent gR
 Interquartile Range, IQR
ADT ∙ N ∙ 365
R → minimum radius of curvature
Standard Deviation v → design speed in m/s A → no. of accidents during period of analysis
= 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
g → 9.82 m/s2 ADT → average daily traffic entering all legs
 Population standard deviation = Q3 − Q1 N → time period in years
→ Mode Stat 1-var Power to move a vehicle
 Coefficient of IQR  Severity ratio, SR:
→ Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on P = vR
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
→ Input = P → power needed to move vehicle in watts f∙i
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 + 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 SR =
→ AC Shift 1 var σx v → velocity of vehicle in m/s
Q − Q1 R → sum of diff. resistances in N
f∙i∙p
= 3
 Sample standard deviation
Q3 + Q1 f → fatal
Design of Pavement i → injury
→ Mode Stat 1-var  Quartile Deviation (semi-IQR) = IQR/2 p → property damage
→ Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on  Rigid pavement without dowels
→ Input  Outlier  Spacing mean speed, US:
→ AC Shift 1 var sx
→ extremely high or low data higher than 3W ∑d n
or lower than the following limits: t=√ Us = =
f ∑t ∑ 1
NOTE:
Q1 − 1.5IQR > x ( )
If not specified whether population/sample U1
in a given problem, look for POPULATION. Q 3 + 1.5IQR < x  Rigid pavement with dowels
Coefficient of Linear Correlation  Time mean speed, Ut:
 Decile or Percentile 3W 3W
or Pearson’s r d
m t=√ t=√ ∑
im = (n) 2f 4f ∑ U1
→ Mode Stat A+Bx
10 or 100 Ut = t =
→ Input (at the edge) (at the center) n n
→ AC Shift 1 Reg r t → thickness of pavement Ʃd → sum of distance traveled by all vehicles
Normal Distribution W → wheel load Ʃt → sum of time traveled by all vehicles
NOTE: f → allow tensile stress of concrete Ʃu1 → sum of all spot speed
-1 ≤ r ≤ +1; otherwise erroneous 1/Ʃu1 → reciprocal of sum of all spot speed
 Flexible pavement n → no. of vehicles
 Population standard deviation
W  Rate of flow:
Variance t=√ −r
 Z-score or
standard score → Mode Stat 𝜋f1 q = kUs
 standard deviation = σ
or variate → AC Shift 1 Distr f1 → allow bearing pressure of subgrade q → rate of flow in vehicles/hour
 variance = σ2 r → radius of circular area of contact
left of z → P( k → density in vehicles/km
x−μ between wheel load & pavement
 relative variability = σ/x z= uS → space mean speed in kph
σ right of z → R(
Mean/Average Deviation bet. z & axis → Q(  Thickness of pavement in terms  Minimum time headway (hrs)
x → no. of observations
μ → mean value, x̅ → Input of expansion pressure = 1/q
 Mean/average value σ → standard deviation expansion pressure
t=  Spacing of vehicles (km)
b pavement density
1 = 1/k
mv = ∫ f(x)dx Exponential Distribution
b−a a  Stiffness factor of pavement
 Peak hour factor (PHF)
P(x ≥ a) = e−λa = q/qmax
 Mean value
P(x ≤ a) = 1 − e−λa
Es 3 s
SF = √
1 b P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = e−λa − e−λb Ep
RMS = √ ∫ f(x)2 dx ES → modulus of elasticity of subgrade
b−a a EP→ modulus of elasticity of pavement
Discrete Probability Distributions Walli’s Formula

π
 Binomial Probability Distribution 2 [(m − 1)(m − 3)(m − 5) … (1 or 2)][(n − 1)(n − 3)(n − 5) … (1 or 2)]
P(x) = C(n, x) p q x n−x ∫ cosm θ sinn θ dθ = ∙α
0 (m + n)(m + n − 2)(m + n − 4) … (1 or 2)
where:
p → success NOTE:
q → failure
α = π/2 for m and n are both even
 Geometric Probability Distribution α =1 otherwise
x−1
P(x) = p(q ) Tip to remember:
Fibonacci Numbers
 Poisson Probability Distribution 𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
n n
x −μ 1 1 + √5 1 − √5 Mode Eqn 5
μ e
P(x) = an = [( ) −( ) ]
x! √5 2 2 𝑥=
1 ± √5
2
Period, Amplitude & Frequency

x = r cos θ
Period (T) → interval over which the graph of y = r sin θ
function repeats r = x2 + y2
Amplitude (A) → greatest distance of any point y
on the graph from a horizontal line which passes θ = tan−1
halfway between the maximum & minimum
x
values of the function
Frequency (ω) → no. of repetitions/cycles per unit
of time or 1/T
Function Period Amplitude

y = A sin (Bx + C) 2π/B A
y = A cos (Bx + C) 2π/B A
y = A tan (Bx + C) π/B A
Measurement measure lay-out too long Effect of Curvature & Refraction
too long add subtract e Azimuth
Corrections too short subtract add
CD = MD (1 + )
TL hcr = 0.067K 2 from South
Due to temperature: too short
e D2
(add/subtract); measured length Probable Errors h = h2 + (h − h2 ) − 0.067D1 D2
CD = MD (1 − ) D1 + D2 1
C = αL(T2 − T1 ) TL Reduction to
Probable Error (single):
Sea Level
Due to pull: Stadia Measurement Leveling
(add/subtract); measured length ∑(x − x̅) CD MD
E = 0.6745√ Horizontal: =
(P2 − P1 )L n−1 Elev𝐵 = Elev𝐴 + 𝐵𝑆 − 𝐹𝑆 R R+h
C=
EA D = d + (f + c) Inclined Upward:
Probable Error (mean):
Due to sag: 𝑓 error/setup = −eBS + eFS
(subtract only); unsupported length D = ( )s +C Subtense Bar
E ∑(x − x̅) 𝑖 Inclined Downward:
w 2 L3 Em = = 0.6745√ D = Ks + C error/setup = +eBS − eFS θ

C= √n n(n − 1) D = cot
24P 2 Inclined: Total Error: 2
Proportionalities of weight, w: eT = error/setup ∙ no. of setups
Due to slope: D = Ks cos θ + C
(subtract only); measured length E=error; d=distance; n=no. of trials
1 1 H = D cos θ
C 2 = S 2 − h2 Double Meridian Distance Method DMD
𝑤∝ 𝑤∝ 𝑤∝𝑛 V = D sin θ
𝐸2 𝑑 DMD𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = Dep𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
Normal Tension:
DMD𝑛 = DMD𝑛−1 + Dep𝑛−1 + Dep𝑛
0.204W√AE Area of Closed Traverse Area of Irregular Boundaries
PN = DMD𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = −Dep𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡
√PN − P Trapezoidal Rule: 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Lat)
Lat = L cos α
Dep = L sin α d
A= [h + hn + 2Σh]
Error of Closure:
2 1 Double Parallel Distance Method DPD
Parabolic Curves Simpson’s 1/3 Rule:
= √ΣL2 + ΣD2 DPD𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = Lat𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
Symmetrical: d DPD𝑛 = DPD𝑛−1 + Lat 𝑛−1 + Lat 𝑛
Relative Error/Precision: A = [h1 + hn + 2Σh𝑜𝑑𝑑 + 4Σh𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ]
L Error of Closure 3 DPD𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = −Lat 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡
H = (g1 + g 2 ) =
Perimeter Note: n must be odd 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Dep)
8
L 2
x 2 ( 2) 1 acre = Simple, Compound & Reverse Curves Spiral Curve
= L 4047 m2
y H 1
Unsymmetrical:
L1 L2
H= (g + g 2 )
2(L1 +L2 ) 1
g 3 (L1 +L2 ) = g1 L1 + g 2 L2
Note: Consider signs.
Earthworks
𝑑𝐿 0 𝑑𝑅
±𝑓𝐿 ±𝑓 ±𝑓𝑅 L2 180°
θ= ∙
f w I 2RLs π
A= (d + dR ) + (fL + fR ) T = R tan
2
2 L 4 θ Ls 2
I i= ; p=
Volume (End Area): E = R [sec − 1] 3 24R
2
L I
L3
Ve = (A1 + A2 ) m = R [1 − cos ] x=
2 2 6RLs
Volume (Prismoidal): L = 2R sin
I L5 LT → long tangent
ST → short tangent
2 Y=L− 2 R → radius of simple curve
L 40R2 Ls L → length of spiral from TS to any point
VP = (A1 + 4Am + A2 ) π along the spiral
6 Lc = RI ∙ Ls I Ls → length of spiral
180° Ts = + (R + p) tan I → angle of intersection
I c → angle of intersection of the simple
Prismoidal Correction: 2 2 curve
20 2πR p → length of throw or the distance from
= I tangent that the circular curve has been
L D 360° Es = (R + p) sec − R offset
CP = (c − c2 )(d1 − d2 ) 2 x → offset distance (right angle
12 1 1145.916 distance) from tangent to any point on
R= 0.036k 3 the spiral
xc → offset distance (right angle
VP = Ve − Cp D Ls = distance) from tangent to SC
R Ec → external distance of the simple
Volume (Truncated): 0.0079k 2
curve
θ → spiral angle from tangent to any
Σh e= point on the spiral
VT = ABase ∙ Have = A( ) R θS → spiral angle from tangent to SC
n i → deflection angle from TS to any point
A D L on the spiral
is → deflection angle from TS to SC
VT = (Σh1 + 2Σh2 + 3Σh3 + 4Σh4 ) = y → distance from TS along the tangent
n DC Ls to any point on the spiral
Stopping Sight Distance Parabolic Summit Curve Parabolic Sag Curve Underpass Sight Distance Horizontal Curve
L>S
v2 L>S L>S L>S
S = vt + A(S)2
2g(f ± G) L= 2 A(S)2 A(S)2 h1 + h2 S2
L= L= H= C− R=
a = g(f ± G) (deceleration) 200(√h1 + √h2 ) 122 + 3.5S 800H 2 8M
v L<S L<S L<S L<S
2
tb = (breaking time)
200(√h1 + √h2 ) 122 + 3.5S 800H L(2S − L)
g(f ± G) L = 2(S) − L = 2(S) − L = 2(S) − R=
A A A 8M
f
Eff = (100) L → length of summit curve A → algebraic difference A → algebraic difference of L → length of horizontal
fave S → sight distance of grades, in percent grades, in percent curve
v → speed in m/s h1 → height of driver’s eye L → length of sag curve L → length of sag curve S → sight distance
t → perception-reaction time h1 = 1.143 m or 3.75 ft S → sight distance A(K)2 R → radius of the curve
For passengers comfort,
f → coefficient of friction h2 → height of object L= where K is speed in KPH
M → clearance from the
G → grade/slope of road h2 = 0.15 m or 0.50 ft
395 centerline of the road
Properties of Fluids Pressure Dams Stability of Floating Bodies
s Mg 1 1
W= p𝑎𝑏𝑠 = p𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + p𝑎𝑡𝑚 F1 = ɤAh1 = ɤh1 2 ; F2 = ɤAh2 = ɤh2 2
2 2
W M p = ɤh 1
ɤ= ; ρ= U1 = ɤh2 B ; U2 = (h1 − h2 )ɤB
V V s. g.1 2
pg h2 = h h2
ɤ = ρg = s. g.2 1 RM = W1 (X1 ) + W2 (X2 )+. . . +W𝑛 (X𝑛 ) + F2 ( )
RT 3
h𝑤 = s. g.1 h1
V 1 h 1 2 MG = metacentric height
s. v. = = OM = F1 ( ) + U1 ( B) + U2 ( B) MG = MB𝑂 ± GB𝑂
M ρ 3 2 3 Use (-) if G is above BO and (+) if G is below BO.
Hydrostatic Forces Note that M is always above BO.
ɤ ρ Rx̅ = RM − OM
s. g. = = Ig ɤIg sin θ RM or OM = Wx
ɤ𝑤 ρ𝑤 e= e= RM μR𝑦
Aӯ F FS𝑂 = & FS𝑆 = = W(MG sin θ)
∆P 1 OM R𝑥
EB = − ; β= On plane surfaces: B2 tan2 θ
∆V EB B MB𝑂 = [1 + ]
V F = ɤh̅A 𝑒 = | − x̅| 12D 2
2 Stresses/Hoops
𝑑𝑦 FT On curved surfaces: vs I
μ=τ = B R𝑦 6𝑒 pD
𝑑𝑉 L2 Fℎ = ɤh̅A 𝑒< ; q=− [1 ± ] St = MB𝑂 = =
6 B B 2t VD sin θ VD
μ L2 F𝑣 = ɤV
B 2R 𝑦
υ= = 2T sg m
ρ T 𝑒> ; q= s= Buoyancy Abel = A
F = √ Fℎ + F𝑣 2 2 6 3x̅ pD sg l tot
pd B R𝑦 St = tensile stress BF = W
σ= NOTE:
𝑒= ; q=− p = unit pressure sg m
4 BF = ɤ𝑤 V𝑑 Vbel = V
ħ = vertical distance from cg of
submerged surface to liquid surface
6 B D = inside diameter sg l tot
4σcosθ h̅ = ӯ (for vertical only) 2R 𝑦 t = thickness of wall
h= 𝑒 = 0; q = s = spacing of hoops
ɤd B T = tensile force Celerity (velocity of sound)
(rigid pipes)
Relative Equilibrium of Fluids Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem Major Losses in Pipes
z = elevation head; P/ɤ = pressure head; v2/2g = velocity head
EB
c=√
Horizontal Motion: Rotation: Darcy Weisbach Eq’n: ρw
P1 v1 2 P2 v2 2
a ω2 x z1 + + = z2 + + + H. L. L v2
tan θ = tan θ = ɤ 2g ɤ 2g (non-rigid pipes)
g g H. L. = f
D 2g EB
with pump: c=√
E D
Inclined Motion: 2 2
ω x r2
x 2
0.0826 f L Q 2 ρw (1 + B )
Et
ah y= ; = P1 v1 2 P2 v2 2 H. L. =
2g h y z1 + + + HA = z2 + + + H. L. D5
tan θ = ɤ 2g ɤ 2g Water Hammer
g ± av 1 2 Manning’s Formula:
V= πr h with turbine:
∆Pmax = ρcv
Vertical Motion: 2 10.29 n2 L Q2
H. L. = 2L
a 1 rpm =
π
rad/sec P1 v1 2 P2 v2 2 D16/3 tc =
p = ɤh (1 ± ) 30 z1 + + − HE = z2 + + + H. L. c
g ɤ 2g ɤ 2g Hazen William’s Formula:
A. TIME of closure:
output QɤE
efficiency = ; HP = 10.64 L Q1.85 rapid/instantaneous
∆P = ∆Pmax
Series-Parallel Pipes input 746 H. L. = 1.85 4.87
Pump → Output & Turbine → Input
C D Slow Closure
tc
Series Connection: ∆P = ∆Pmax ( )
1 atm t actual
H. L.T = H. L.1 + H. L.2 +. . . +H. L.n Fluid Flow Most Efficient Sections = 101.325 KPa B. TYPE of closure:
Q = Av Rectangular: = 2166 psf Partial Closure (vf ≠ 0)
Q T = Q1 = Q 2 = Q n = 14.7 psi ∆P = ρc(vi − vf )
Q → discharge b = 2d
= 760 mmHg Total Closure (vf = 0)
Parallel Connection: → flow rate d = 29.9 inHg ∆P = ρcvi
→ weight flux R=
H. L.T = H. L.1 = H. L.2 = H. L.n 2
volume flow rate → m3/s
weight flow rate → N/s Trapezoidal: Open Channel
Q T = Q1 + Q 2 +. . . +Q n mass flow rate → kg/s
x = y1 + y2 Specific Energy: Manning Formula:
2 1 1/6
Constant Head Orifice Falling Head Orifice d v
R= E= +d C= R
2 2g n
Without headloss: Time to remove water from h1 to h2 with constant cross-section:
2As Bazin Formula:
t= (√h1 − √h2 ) Triangular: v = C√RS 87
v = √2gh C=
CAo √2g b = 2d Theoretically: m
1+
With headloss: A = d2 8g √R
Time to remove water from h1 to h2 with varying cross-section:
C=√
v = Cv √2gh
h1
As dh θ = 90° f
t=∫ Kutter Formula:
h2 CAo √2gh Semi-circular:
Q = CA o √2gh 1 0.000155
d = r (full) + 23 +
Time in which water surfaces of two tanks will reach same elevation: r C= n S
C = Cc C v (As1 )(As2 )
2 R= 1+
n
(23 +
0.000155
)
t= (√h1 − √h2 ) 2 √R S
a
Cc = CAo √2g (As1 + As2 ) Circular: TRAPEZOIDAL:
If C is not given, use Manning’s in V:
A Q max if d = 0.94D For minimum seepage:
θ 1 2/3 1/2
v Vmax if d = 0.81D
b = 4d tan v= R S
Cv = Hydrodynamics 2 n
vt
Force on Curve Vane/Blade: Force on the Jet
(at right angle):
v2 1
H. L. = [ − 1] ∑ Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1x )
2g Cv 2 F = ρQv
H. L. = ∆H[1 − Cv 2 ] ∑ Fy = ρQ(v2y − v1y )

2
x
y= Force on Pipe’s Bend & Reducer:
4Cv 2 h
(same as on Curve Vane/Blade)
Unit Weight: Specific Gravity of Solid: m1 − m2 V1 − V2
ɤs SL = − ɤw
(Gs + Gs ω)ɤw Gs = m2 m2
ɤ= ɤw
1+e e m2
(Gs + Se)ɤw Bulk Specific Gravity: SL = ; SR =
ɤ= Gs V2 ɤw
1+e g = Gs (1 − n)
When S=0:
1
Gs ɤw
Relative Compaction: Atterberg Limits G𝑠 =
ɤd 1
ɤd = R= PI = LL − PL − SL
1+e SR
Volume Weight ɤd 𝑚𝑎𝑥
When S=100%:
Se = Gs ω ω − PL GI = (F − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)]
(Gs + e)ɤw Relative Density/ LI = +0.01(F − 15)(PI − 10)
Vv Ww W ɤsat = LL − PL
e= ω= ɤ= 1+e Density Index:
Vs Ws V e𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e LI State
ɤsub = ɤsat − ɤw Dr = SI = PL − SL LI < 0 Semisolid PI Description
Vv WS e𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e𝑚𝑖𝑛 0 < LI < 1 Plastic 0 Non-plastic
n= 0<e<∞
n ɤd = (Gs − 1)ɤw LL − ω
CI = LI > 1 Liquid 1-5 Slightly plastic
V e= V ɤsub = 1 1
1−n 1+e − LL − PI 5-10 Low plasticity
Vw ɤ ɤd 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ɤd qu Ac Class 10-20 Medium plasticity
0<n<1 ɤd = Dr = PI
S= e 1+ω Gs ɤw 1 1 Ac = ; St = und AC < 0.7 Inactive 20-40 High plasticity
Vv n= ɤzav = −
ɤd 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ɤd 𝑚𝑎𝑥
μ q u rem 0.7 < AC < 1.2 Normal >40 Very High plastic
1+e 1 + Gs ω μ = % passing 0.002mm AC > 1.2 Active
Permeability Stratified Soil Dr (%) Description

Sieve Analysis
0 – 20 Very Loose
∆h v Sorting
20 – 40 Loose Uniformity Coeff. of Gradation
v = ki ; i = ; v𝑠 = Coefficient:
L n 40 – 70 Medium Dense Coefficient: or Curvature:
70 – 85 Dense
Q = vA = kiA 85 – 100 Very Dense
D60 (D30 )2 D75
Cu = Cc = So = √
Constant Head Test: D10 D60 ∙ D10 D25
QL Pumping Test: Suitability Number:
k=
Aht Unconfined: 3 1 1
Falling/Variable Head Test: r1 Sn = 1.7√ + +
for Parallel flow:
aL h1 Q 𝑙𝑛 (D50 ) 2 (D20 ) 2 (D10 )2
h1 k1 + h2 k 2 +. . . +hn k n r2
k= 𝑙𝑛 k eq = k=
At h2 H π(h1 2 − h2 2 )
Hazen Formula Casagrande: for Perpendicular flow: Confined: Compressibility of Soil
k = c ∙ D10 2 k = 1.4e2 k 0.85 H r
Q 𝑙𝑛 1 Compression Index, CC: Swell Index, CS:
Kozeny-Carman: Samarasinhe: k eq = r2
h1 h2 h k= Cc = 0.009(LL − 10%) 1
2
e n
e + +. . . + n 2πt(h1 − h2 ) Cs = Cc
k = C1 ∙
1+e
k = C3 ∙
1+e
k1 k 2 kn e − e′ 5
Cc =
∆P + Po
Stresses in Soil NOTE: Flow Net / Seepage 𝑙𝑜𝑔
Po
Quick
Effective Stress/ condition: Isotropic soil: For normally consolidated clay:
Intergranular Stress: Nf Flow line ---- 1
pE = 0 q = kH
2
3 e − e′
pE = pT − pw Nd S= H (for one layer only)
Capillary Rise:
Equipotential line ----
4 1+e
Pore Water Pressure/
C Non-Isotropic soil: 1 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10 Cc H ∆P + Po
Neutral Stress: hcr =
eD10 Nf S= 𝑙𝑜𝑔
pw = ɤw hw q = √k x k z H 1+e Po
Nd Nf → no. of flow channels [e.g. 4]
Total Stress: Nd → no. of potential drops [e.g. 10] With Pre-consolidation pressure, Pc:
pT = ɤ1 h1 + ɤ2 h2 +. . . +ɤn hn when (△P+Po) < Pc:
Cs H ∆P + Po
AT REST:
S= 𝑙𝑜𝑔
Lateral Earth Pressure Shear Strength of Soil 1 + eo Po
k o = 1 − sin Ø
ACTIVE PRESSURE: Ө → angle of failure in shear when (△P+Po) > pc:
1 Ø → angle of internal friction/shearing resistance Cs H Pc Cc H ∆P + Po
pa = k a ɤH 2 − 2cH√k a C → cohesion of soil S= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔
2 1+e Po 1 + e Pc
Ø
For Inclined: θ = 45° + Over Consolidation Ratio (OCR):
2 pc
cos β − √cos 2 β − cos 2 Ø
k a = cos β TRI-AXIAL TEST: OCR = ; OCR = 1 (for normally consolidated soil)
cos β + √cos 2 β − cos 2 Ø σ1 → maximum principal stress
po
→ axial stress Coefficient of Compressibility:
For Horizontal:
△σ → additional pressure ∆e
1 − sin Ø → deviator stress
△e → change in void ratio
ka = av = △P → change in pressure
1 + sin Ø → plunger pressure ∆P
σ3 → minimum principal stress Coefficient of Volume Compressibility:
If there is angle of friction α bet. wall and soil: → confining pressure
2
cos Ø → lateral pressure ∆e
ka = 2
→ radial stress
mv = ∆P
sin(Ø + α) sin Ø → cell pressure 1 + eave
cos α [1 + √ ] → chamber pressure
cos α Coefficient of Consolidation:
 Normally consolidated: Hdr → height of drainage path
PASSIVE PRESSURE: r Hdr 2 Tv → thickness of layer if drained 1 side
1 sin Ø = Cv = → half of thickness if drained both sides
pP = k P ɤH 2 + 2cH√k P σ3 + r t Tv → factor from table
2 Coefficient of Permeability: t → time consolidation
For Inclined:  Cohesive soil:
r k = mv Cv ɤw
cos β + √cos 2 β − cos 2 Ø sin Ø =
k P = cos β x + σ3 + r
DIRECT SHEAR TEST:
cos β − √cos 2 β − cos 2 Ø c σn → normal stress  Normally consolidated soil:
For Horizontal:
tan Ø = σs → shear stress
x σS
1 + sin Ø tan Ø =
kP =  Unconsolidated- σN
1 − sin Ø undrained test:
 Cohesive soil:
If there is angle of friction α bet. wall and soil: c=r
2 σS c
cos Ø tan Ø = =
kP =  Unconfined x + σN x
2 compression test:
sin(Ø − α) sin Ø
cos α [1 − √ ] σS = c + σN tan ∅
cos α σ3 = 0
Terzaghi‘s Bearing Capacity (Shallow Foundations) Soil Stability
 General Shear Failure  Bearing Capacity Factor  Analysis of Infinite Slope
(dense sand & stiff clay)
Ø Factor of safety against sliding (without seepage)
Square Footing: Nq = tan2 (45° + ) eπ tan Ø C tan ∅
2
qult = 1.3cNaSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
c + qNq + 0.4ɤBNɤ FS = +
Nc = (Nq − 1) cot Ø ɤ H sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 tan 𝛽 β
Circular Footing:
Factor of safety against sliding (with seepage) where:
qult = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3ɤBNɤ Nɤ = (Nq − 1) tan 1.4Ø C → cohesion
C ɤ′ tan ∅ β → angle of backfill from horizontal
Strip Footing:  Parameters FS = + Ø → angle of internal friction
qult → ultimate bearing capacity ɤ𝑠𝑎𝑡 H sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 ɤ𝑠𝑎𝑡 tan 𝛽 H → thickness of soil layer
qult = cNc + qNq + 0.5ɤBNɤ qu → unconfined compressive strength
c → cohesion of soil  Analysis of Finite Slope
 Local Shear Failure
(loose sand & soft clay) qu Factor of safety against sliding
c= Ff + Fc
Square Footing: 2
′ ′ ′ FS =
qult = 1.3c′Nc + qNq + 0.4ɤBNɤ q = ɤDf (for no water table)
W sin 𝜃
β θ
Circular Footing: qult Pallow Maximum height for critical equilibrium
where:
qult = 1.3c′Nc ′ + qNq ′ + 0.3ɤBNɤ ′ qallow = = (FS=1.0) Ff → frictional force; Ff = μN
FS A
4𝐶 sin 𝛽 cos ∅ Fc → cohesive force
Strip Footing: qult − q Hcr = [ ] Fc = C x Area along trial failure plane
qult = c′Nc ′ + qNq ′ + 0.5ɤBNɤ ′ qnet = ɤ 1 − cos(𝛽 − ∅) W → weight of soil above trial failure plane
FS
Stability No.: Stability Factor:
EFFECT OF WATER TABLE: C 1 H H
m= SF = − = BC
ɤH m tan 𝜃 tan 𝛽
Capacity of Driven Piles (Deep Foundations)

 Pile in Sand Layer  Pile in Clay Layer
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Q f = PAkμ Q Q f = CLαP

q = ɤ(Df − d)+ɤ′d q = ɤDf q = ɤDf
where: where:
3rd term ɤ = ɤ′ 3rd term ɤ = ɤ′ 3rd term ɤ = ɤave P → perimeter of pile C → cohesion
A → area of pressure diagram dc L → length of pile
for d ≤ B
k → coefficient of lateral pressure α → frictional factor
ɤave ∙ B = ɤd + ɤ′(B − d) μ → coefficient of friction P → perimeter of pile
NOTE: for d > B
Q tip = pe Nq Atip Qf Q tip = cNc Atip
ɤ′= ɤ𝑠𝑢𝑏 = ɤ − ɤ𝑤 ɤave = ɤ (AKA Qbearing) (AKA Qbearing)
where: where:
Group of Piles  Alternate Equation for Group pe → effective pressure at bottom QTIP c → cohesion
Efficiency (sand only) Nq → soil bearing factor Nc → soil bearing factor
 Group Efficiency (sand or clay) Atip → Area of tip Atip → Area of tip
2(m + n − 2)s + 4d Critical depth, dc:
Q des−group Eff = Q T = Q f + Q tip Loose 10 (size of pile)
Eff = mnπD Dense 20 (size of pile) Q T = Q f + Q tip
Q des−indiv where:
m → no. of columns QT QT
n→ no. of rows Q des = Q des =
s → spacing of piles F. S. F. S.
D → diameter of pile
Weirs Froude Number Critical Depth

v For all sections:
NF = where:
√gdm Q2 Ac 3 Q → flow rate m3/s
where: g → 9.81 m/s2
v → mean velocity (Q/A)
= AC → critical area
g → 9.81 m/s2 g Bc BC → critical width
dm → hydraulic depth (A/B)
B → width of liquid surface NOTE:
E is minimum for critical depth.
 Rectangular Q2 ∙ B c
NF = √ 3 For rectangular sections ONLY:
Considering velocity of approach: where: Ac ∙ g
2 va 3/2 va 3/2 W → channel width Take note that it is only derived from 3 q2
dc = √ = Ec
2
Q = C√2g L [(H + ) −( ) ] L → weir length the critical depth equation.
g 3
3 2g 2g Z → weir height Critical Flow NF = 1
Neglecting velocity of approach: H → weir head Subcritical Flow NF < 1 Q
2 Supercritical Flow NF > 1 q=
PARAMETERS: B where:
Q = C√2g L H 3/2 q → flow rate or discharge
3 C → coefficient of discharge
Reynold’s Number v2 per meter width
EC → specific energy at
va → velocity of approach m/s E𝑐 = + d𝑐 critical condition
Considering velocity of approach: m → weir factor
2g vC → critical velocity
Dv Dvρ
va 3/2 va 3/2 NR = = vc = √gdc
Q = m L [(H + ) −( ) ]  Triangular (symmetrical only) υ μ
2g 2g
Neglecting velocity of approach: 8 θ Laminar Flow (NR ≤ 2000) Hydraulic Jump
3/2 Q= C√2g tan H 5/2 64
Q=mLH 15 2 Height of the jump: Power Lost:
hf =
Q = m H 5/2 NR ∆d = d2 − d1 P = QɤE
Francis Formula (when C and m is not given)
Considering velocity of approach: When θ=90° Length of the jump:
Turbulent Flow (NR > 2000) NF1 −1
va 3/2 va 3/2 Q = 1.4H 5/2 L v 2 L = 220 d1 tanh
22
Q = 1.84 L′ [(H + ) −( ) ] hf = f
2g 2g  Cipolletti (symmetrical, slope 4V&1H) D 2g Solving for Q:
Neglecting velocity of approach: θ = 75°57’50”
2
Q = 1.84 L′ H 3/2
Q = 1.859 L H 3/2 0.0826 f L Q For all sections:
hf =
NOTE: D5 ɤQ
 with Dam: P2 − P1 = (v − v2 )
L’ = L for suppressed
Neglecting velocity of approach:
Boundary Shear Stress g 1
L’ = L – 0.1H for singly contracted
3/2 τ = ɤRS P = ɤh̅A
L’ = L – 0.2H for doubly contracted Q = 1.71 L H
Boundary Shear Stress For rectangular sections ONLY:
Time required to discharge:
(for circular pipes only) q2 1
2As 1 1 f = (d1 ∙ d2 )(d1 + d2 )
t= [ − ] τo = ρv g 2
mL √H2 √H1 8
Load Combinations Strength Reduction Factors, Ø Working Strength Design (WSD)
→ choose largest U in design
(a) Flexure w/o axial load ……………………… 0.90 or Alternate Strength Design (ASD)
Basic Loads: (b) Axial tension & axial tension w/ flexure .… 0.90
(c) Axial comp. & axial comp. w/ flexure: Allowable Stresses (if not given):
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿
(1) Spiral ……………………………….………. 0.75  Horizontal members  Vertical members
With Wind Load: (2) Tie …………………….…………….………. 0.70 (i.e. beam, slab, footing, etc.) (i.e. column, wall, etc.)
𝑈 = 0.75(1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿 + 1.7𝑊) (d) Shear & torsion ……………………….………. 0.85 fc = 0.45 f’c fc = 0.25 f’c
(e) Bearing on concrete ……………….…,……. 0.70 fs = 0.50 fy fs = 0.40 fy
𝑈 = 0.9𝐷 + 1.3𝑊
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿 where:
Design Conditions Values f’c → compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
With Earthquake Load: Over-reinforced: fy → axial strength of steel
Choose Smaller Value/ Structural Grade ASTM Gr.33 / PS Gr.230 fy = 230 MPa
𝑈 = 1.32𝐷 + 1.1𝑓1 𝐿 + 1.1𝐸 → concrete fails first Round-down Intermediate Grade ASTM Gr.40 / PS Gr.275 fy = 275 MPa
→ fs < fy (USD) → Moment Capacity
𝑈 = 0.99𝐷 + 1.1𝐸 → Ms > Mc (WSD)
High Carbon Grade ASTM Gr.60 / PS Gr.415 fy = 415 MPa
→
With Earth Pressure Load: → 424.3.2 for fy = 275 MPa; fs ≤ 140 MPa
Under-reinforced:
for fy = 415 MPa; fs ≤ 170 MPa
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿 + 1.7𝐻 → steel fails first Choose Larger Value/
→ fs > fy (USD) Round-up
𝑈 = 0.9𝐷 → Ms < Mc (WSD)
Modular Ratio, n (if not given):
→
𝑈 = 1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿 → Estronger Esteel 200,000
Balance Condition: n= = =
With Structural Effects: → concrete & steel Eweaker Econcrete 4700√fc′
simultaneously fail
𝑈 = 0.75(1.4𝐷 + 1.7𝐿 + 1.4𝑇) → fs = fy (USD) 424.6.4 n must be taken as the nearest whole number & n ≥ 6
𝑈 = 1.4(𝐷 + 𝑇) → Ms = Mc (WSD) 424.6.5 for doubly, use n for tension & use 2n for compression
Internal Couple Method: Solutions for Cracked Section (Singly): Solutions for Cracked Section (Doubly):
 Location of neutral axis, NA:  Location of neutral axis, NA:

Factor k:
n Factor j: Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA
k= 1 x x
fs j= 1− k bx ( ) = nAs (d − x) bx ( ) + (2n − 1)A′s (x − d′ ) = nAs (d − x)
n+ 3 2 2
fc
x → obtained x → obtained
Moment Resistance Coefficient, R:
1  Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA:  Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA:
R = fc kj
2 bx 3 bx 3
Moment Capacity:
INA = + nAs (d − x)2 INA = + (2n − 1)A′s (x − d′ )2 + nAs (d − x)2
3 3
1
Mc = C ∙ jd = fc kdb ∙ jd = Rbd2 INA → obtained INA → obtained
2
 Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment:  Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment:
Ms = T ∙ jd = As fs ∙ jd
For concrete: For tension steel: For concrete: For tension steel: For comp. steel:
Provisions for Uncracked Section:

Mc ∙ x fs Ms ∙ (d − x) Mc ∙ x fs Ms ∙ (d − x) fs′ Ms′ ∙ (x − d′)
fc = = fc = = =
 Solve for inertia of gross section, Ig.
INA n INA INA n INA 2n INA
 Solve for cracking moment, Mcr.
 Solve for actual moment, Ma: Solutions for Gross Section (Singly): Solutions for Uncracked Section (By Sir Erick):
2
wL  Location of neutral axis, NA:
Ma = (for simply supported beam)
8 Ay̅above NA = Ay̅below NA
409.6.2.3. if Ma < Mcr, no crack; Ig = Ie x d−x
if Ma > Mcr, w/ crack; solve for Ie bx ( ) = b(d − x) ( ) + (n − 1)As (d − x)
2 2
 Solve for inertia of cracked section:
x → obtained
bx 3
Icr = + nAs (d − x)2  Location of neutral axis, NA:
 Solve transferred moment of inertia at NA:
3 bx 3
b(d − x) 3
 Solve for effective moment of inertia, Ie:
h INA = + + (n − 1)As (d − x)2
yt = ; y → obtained 3 3
Mcr 3 Mcr 3 2 t INA → obtained
Ie = ( ) ∙ Ig + [1 − ( ) ] ∙ Icr  Solve moment of inertia of gross section at NA:
Ma Ma  Solve for Stresses or Resisted Moment:
3
bx For concrete: For tension steel:
409.6.2.4. For simply supported, Ie = Ie (mid) Ig =
For cantilever, Ie = Ie (support) 12 Mc ∙ x fs Ms ∙ (d − x)
Ig → obtained fc = =
Ie mid + Ie support INA n INA
Ie =
2  Solve for cracking moment:
409.6.2.5. Factor for shrinkage & creep due

Mcr ∙ yt
to sustained loads:
fr = 0.7√fc′ =
time-dep factor, ξ: Ig
𝜉 5 yrs + 2.0
Mcr → obtained
𝜆= 12 mos 1.4
1 + 50𝜌′ 6 mos 1.0
3 mos 1.0
 Solve for instantaneous deflection:
4
5wL
δi = (for uniformly distributed load)
384Ec Ie
 Solve for additional deflection:
δadd = δsus ∙ 𝜆
δadd = (% of sustained load)δi ∙ 𝜆
Say, 70% of load is sustained after n yrs.
δadd = 0.7δi ∙ 𝜆
 Solve for final deflection:
δfinal = δi + δadd
Ultimate Strength Design Steel Ratio
 Based in Strain Diagram:  Ultimate Moment Capacity: Steel ratio for balance condition:
εs 0.003 Mu = ∅Mn 0.85fc′ β1 600

= ρb =
d−c c Mu = ∅R n bd2 fy (600 + fy )
d−c 10 Maximum & Minimum steel ratio:
εs = 0.003 ( ) Mu = ∅fc′ bd2 ω(1 − ω)
17
c fy ρmax = 0.75ρb Minimum Concrete Covers:
d−c ω=ρ ′ As max = 0.75As b
fs = 600 ( ) fc 20 mm → slab
c
 Coefficient of resistance, Rn: 1.4 √fc′ 40 mm → beam
a = β1 c ρmin = ρmin = → column
10 fy 4fy
a → depth of compression block Rn = fc′ ω(1 − ω)
c → distance bet. NA &
17
(choose larger between the 2) 75 mm → column footing
extreme compression fiber Mu → wall footing
Rn = → retaining wall
∅bd2
Provisions for β1: Singly or Doubly ?
0.65 ≤ β1 ≤ 0.85  Steel reinforcement ratio, ρ:
Singly Reinforced Beam (SRB) Balance Condition for Doubly
* 1992 NSCP As
ρ= ρ < ρmax (rectangular only)
β1 = 0.85 − 0.008(fc′ − 30) bd As′
* 2001 NSCP As < As max (any section) ρb 𝑑 = ρb 𝑠 +
0.05  Combined ρ & Rn: bd
β1 = 0.85 − (fc′ − 30) Doubly Reinforced Beam (DRB) As ′
7
* 2010 NSCP 0.85fc′ 2R n ρ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑 = 0.75ρb 𝑠 +
0.05 ρ= [1 − √1 − ] ρ > ρmax (rectangular only) bd
β1 = 0.85 − (fc′ − 28) fy 0.85fc′
7 As > As max (any section) As 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ρ𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑 bd
𝑑
Singly Reinforced Beam Singly Reinforced Beam Doubly Reinforced Beam Doubly Reinforced Beam
INVESTIGATION DESIGN Investigation INVESTIGATION
Computing MU with given As:
if SRB or DRB:
Computing As with given WD & WL: Computing MU with given As:
(1st) Compute for ab:
(1st) Compute for a: (1st) Compute ultimate moment, Mu: (1st) Compute for a:
d − c𝑏
C=T WU = 1.4WD + 1.7WL fs = fy = 600 [ ] Cc + Cs = T
c𝑏
0.85fc′ ab = As fs WU L2 Thus, 0.85fc′ ab + As ′fs ′ = As fs
(assume tension steel yields fs=fy)
MU = (for simply supported)
8 600d (assume tension steel yields fs=fs’=fy)
0.85fc′ ab = As fy c𝑏 =
600 + fy 0.85fc′ ab + As ′fy = As fy
(2nd) Solve for coeff. of resistance, Rn:
a → obtained c𝑏 → obtained a → obtained
MU
Rn =
(2nd) Check if assumption is correct: ∅bd2 a 𝑏 = β1 c𝑏 (2nd) Check if assumption is correct:
a = β1 c a 𝑏 → obtained a = β1 c
(3rd) Solve for steel ratio, ρ:
c → obtained c → obtained
(2nd) Solve for Asmax:
0.85fc′ 2R n
d−c ρ= [1 − √1 − ] C=T d−c
fs = 600 [ ] fy 0.85fc′ fs = 600 [ ]
c 0.85fc′ a 𝑏 b = As 𝑏 fy c
fs → obtained Check: fs → obtained
As 𝑏 → obtained
ρmin ≤ ρ ≤ ρmax
If fs > fy, tension steel yields; correct a. If fs > fy, tension steel yields; correct a.
If fs < fy, tension steel does not yield; If ρmin < ρ < ρmax, use ρ. As max = 0.75As 𝑏 If fs < fy, tension steel does not yield;
compute for new a. If ρmin > ρ, use ρmin. compute for new a.
If ρ > ρmax, design doubly. (2nd) Solve for given As
(2nd-b) Recomputation: & compare: c − d′
fs ′ = 600 [ ]
C=T (4th) Solve for area of steel c
If As < As max
reinforcement, As and required no. of
0.85fc′ ab = As fs bars, N: Solve the given beam fs ′ → obtained
d−c using SRB Investigation
0.85fc′ β1 cb = As ∙ 600 [ ] As = ρbd If fs’ > fy, compression steel yields;
c procedure.
correct a.
c → obtained As ρbd If fs’ < fy, compression steel does not
N= =
Ab π 2 If As > As max yield; compute for new a.
d
a = β1 c 4 b Solve the given beam
a → obtained using DRB Investigation (2nd-b) Recomputation:
procedure. C=T
(3rd) Solve for Moment Capacity: 0.85fc′ ab + As ′fs ′ = As fs
a Doubly Reinforced Beam (4th) Solve for # of tension bars: NOTE: Use fs & fs’ as
Mu = ∅(C or T) [d − ]
2 DESIGN As As1 + As2 fs = 600 [
d−c
]
a Computing As with given Mu: N= = c
Mu = ∅(0.85fc′ ab) [d − ] or Ab π 2
d c−d′
2 fs ′ = 600 [ ]
a (1st) Solve for nominal M1:
4 b c
Mu = ∅(As fs ) [d − ]
2 0.85fc′ β1 600 (5th) Solve for fs’: c → obtained
ρb =
fy (600 + fy ) c − d′
fs ′ = 600 [ ] a = β1 c
ρmax = 0.75ρb c a → obtained
As1 = 0.75ρb ∙ bd If fs’ > fy, compression steel yields;
a As’ = As2. (3rd) Solve for Moment Capacity:
M1 = (As1 fy ) [d − ] If fs’ < fy, compression steel does not a
2 Mu = ∅Cc [d − ] + ∅Cc [d − d′]
yield; Use fs’ to solve for As’. 2
(2nd) Solve for nominal M2: a
(6th) Solve for As’: Mu = ∅(0.85fc′ ab) [d − ]
MU 2
M2 = − M1 As ′fs ′ = As2 fy
∅ + ∅(As ′fs ′)[d − d′] or
(7th) Solve for # of compression bars:
(3rd) Solve for As2: a
As As′ Mu = ∅T [d − ]
M2 = (As2 fy )[d − d′] N= = 2
Ab π d 2 a
As2 → obtained 4 b Mu = ∅(As fs ) [d − ]
2
Design of Beam Stirrups T-Beam Thickness of One-way Slab & Beam
NSCP Provisions for effective flange width: NSCP Provisions for minimum thickness:
i. Interior Beam: ii. exterior Beam: Canti- Simple One Both

L L lever Support End Ends
(1st) Solve for Vu: bf = bf = bw +
NSCP Provisions for 4 12 Slab L/10 L/20 L/24 L/28
ΣFv = 0 max. stirrups spacing: s1 s2 s1
bf = bw + + bf = bw + Beams L/8 L/16 L/18.5 L/21
Vu = R − wu d 1 2 2 2
2Vc = √fc ′bw d fy
wu L 3 bf = bw + 8t f bf = bw + 6t f Factor: [0.4 + ] [1.65 − 0.0003𝜌𝑐 ]
Vu = − wu d 700
(for lightweight concrete only)
2 i. when Vs < 2Vc,
(2nd) Solve for Vc: d Minimum Steel Ratio
1 smax = or 600mm
Vc = √fc ′bw d 2
For one-way bending:
6 k → steel ratio
ii. when Vs > 2Vc,
(3rd) Solve for Vs: d i. fy = 275 MPa,
Vu = ∅(Vc + Vs ) smax = or 300mm
4 k = 0.0020
Vs → obtained ii. fy = 415 MPa,
iii. & not greater than to: k = 0.0018
(4th) Theoretical Spacing: 3Av fy iii. fy > 415 MPa,
n
dA v fy smax = 400
s= n b k = 0.0018 [ ]
fy
Vs
NOTE: For two-way bending:
ρ → steel ratio
fyn → steel strength for shear reinforcement
Av → area of shear reinforcement
1.4 √fc′
n → no. of shear legs ρmin = ρmin =
π 2 fy 4fy
Av = d ∙n
4 (choose larger between the 2)
Design of One-way Slab

LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN BARS TEMPERATURE BARS/
(1st) Compute ultimate moment, Mu:
SHRINKAGE BARS
WU = 1.4WD + 1.7WL (6th) Compute steel ratio, ρ:
As (11th) Solve for As:
WU L2 ρ=
MU = bd As = kb⫠ h
8
(7th) Check for minimum steel ratio: NSCP Provision for k:
(2nd) Solve for slab thickness, h: i. fy = 275 MPa, k = 0.0020
See NSCP Provisions for minimum thickness. 1.4 √fc′ ii. fy = 415 MPa, k = 0.0018
ρmin = & ρmin = iii. fy > 415 MPa, k = 0.0018 (400/fy)
fy 4fy
(3rd) Solve for effective depth, d:
(12th) Determine # of req’d temp. bars:
db If ρmin < ρ, use ρ.
d = h − cc − If ρmin > ρ, use ρmin & recompute As. As As
2 N= =
(8th) Determine # of req’d main bars:
Ab π d 2
(4th) Solve for a: 4 b
a
As As
Mu = ∅(C) [d − ] N= = 2 (13th) Determine spacing of temp. bars:
2 Ab π
a d b
4 b
Mu = ∅(0.85fc′ ab) [d − ] s=
2 (9th) Determine spacing of main bars:
N
a → obtained b (14th) Check for max. spacing of temp. bars:
s=
(5th) Solve for As: N smax = 5h or 450mm
C=T
(10th) Check for max. spacing of main bars:
0.85fc′ ab = As fy smax = 3h or 450mm
As → obtained
Design of Column TIED COLUMN SPIRAL COLUMN
P = PC + PS PN = 0.8P PN = 0.85P
PU = ∅0.8P ; ∅ = 0.7 PU = ∅0.85P ; ∅ = 0.75
P = 0.85fc′ (Ag − Ast ) + Ast fy
PU = (0.7)(0.8)[0.85fc′ (Ag − Ast ) + Ast fy ] PU = (0.75)(0.85)[0.85fc′ (Ag − Ast ) + Ast fy ]
Ast
ρ= No. of main bars: Spacing of bars: fc′ Ag volume of spiral
Ag ρs = 0.45 [ − 1] =
Ast fy Ac volume of core
Thus, N= s = 16db
P Ab s = 48dt
Ag = π
′
0.85fc (1 − ρ) + ρfy N is based on Pu. s = least dimension (dsp )2 ∙ π(Dc −dsp ) 4Asp
s=4 π =
0.01Ag < Ast < 0.08Ag NOTE: If spacing of main bars < 150mm, use 1 tie per set. (D )2 ∙ ρs Dc ρs
4 c
Design of Footing WIDE BEAM SHEAR PUNCHING/DIAGONAL TENSION SHEAR BENDING MOMENT
VU1 = qU (B)(x) VU2 = PU − qU (a + d)(b + d) x
qA = qS + qC + qsur + qE MU = qU (B)(x) ( )
2
P PU √fc′ √fc′ ** design of main bars and
qE = ; qU = VU1 ≤ ∅Vwb = ∅ Bd VU2 ≤ ∅Vpc = ∅ b d
A ftg Aftg 6 3 o temperature bars –
Same as slab.
where: VU1 VU2
qA → allowable bearing pressure τwb = τpc =
∅Bd ∅bo d
qS → soil pressure
qC → concrete pressure
qsur → surcharge
√fc′ √fc′
τwb(allw) = τpc(allw) =
qE → effective pressure 6 3
qU → ultimate bearing pressure
Ø = 0.85
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TYPES OF PROBLEMS WORKING STRESS DESIGN (WSD) Stress of Concrete
where:
CONCRETE 1. Design - given the load, determine the size Mc (kd)
DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE fc = Mc - resisting moment
a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock or other 2. Investigation - given the size, determine the load IN.A. of concrete
aggregates held together in a rock-like mass with a b b fc = 0.45 fc'
paste of cement and water.
kd C
Stress of Steel
ADMIXTURES MODES OF FAILURE IN BENDING N.A.
materials added to concrete to change certain h
characteristics such as workability, durability and time 1. Crushing of Concrete - when the strain concrete d-kd fs = Ms (d - kd) where:
of hardening. reaches the ultimate strain of 0.003 mm/mm. T n IN.A. Ms - resisting moment
As z nAs fc/n of steel
JOSEPH ASPDEN 2. Yielding of Steel - when the actual tensile stress of
an English bricklayer who obtained a patent for steel "fs" reaches the yield stress "fy" Beam Section Transformed Stress Diagram
Portland cement Section Compressive force of Concrete
3. Simultaneous crushing of concrete and
JOSEPH MONIER Yielding of Steel where:
C = 1/2 fc kd b
a Frenchman who invented reinforced concrete a h = overall depth of the beam (mm)
received a patent for the const. of concrete basins and z = steel covering (measure from the centroid of bar)
tubs and reservoirs reinforced w/ wire mesh and iron TYPES OF DESIGN d = effective depth of the beam (mm) Tensile force of Steel
wire in 1867. 1. Overreinforced - when failure is due to crushing of d = h -z
concrete. As = area of the reinforcement ( square millimeters)
T = As fs
DESIGN METHODS: fc' = compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
2. Underreinforced - when failure is initiated by yielding fs = tensile strength of steel (MPa)
1. WSD - Working Stress Design, Alternate of steel. b = base of the beam (mm)
Stress Design,or Straight-Line Design n = modular ratio(always a whole number) Moment Arm ( jd )
3. Balanced Design - when failure is caused by n = Es /Ec
2. USD - Ultimate Stress Design or Strength Design
simultaneous crushing of concrete and d = jd + kd/3
yielding of steel Location of the neutral axis (kd) j = 1 - k/3
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS: S MN.A. = 0
CONCRETE: FACTORED LOAD COMBINATION b(kd)(kd/2) - nAs (d - kd) = 0
Constant ( k )
fc - allowable compressive stress of conc. (NSCP C101-01) kd = --------
- 0.45 fc' ( beams/slabs/footings) k = n ( For Design Only )
- 0.25 fc' ( columns) Moment of Inertia of the Transformed Section n + fs/fc
1. U = 1.4DL + 1.7LL
fc' - specified compressive strength of conc.
at 28 days curing (MPa) 2. U = 0.75(1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7 W)
> (# 1)
I N.A.= (1/3)(b)(kd)³ + nAs (d - kd)²
gconc.- unit weight of concrete U = 0.90DL + 1.3W k = 2rn + (rn)² - rn (For Investigation)
- 23.54 KN/m 3 Only )
3. U = 1.1DL + 1.3LL + 1.1E)
Ec - modulus of elasticity of concrete > (# 1) Resisting Moment of Concrete:
U = 0.90DL + 1.1E Steel Ratio
- 4700 fc' (MPa)
4. U = 1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7H Mc = C(jd)
STEEL : U = 0.90DL
> (# 1)
Mc = fc/2 (b)(kd)(jd) r = As
bd
fs - allowable tensile stress of steel (MPa) Mc = (1/2)(fc)(kj)(bd²)
fs - 0.50 fy ( beams/slabs/footings)
fs - 0.40 fy ( columns)
DL - Dead Load E - Earthquake Load
fy - yield stress of steel (MPa) Resisting Moment of Steel:
LL - Live Load H - Earth Pressure
gsteel - unit weight of steel
W - Wind Load
- 77 KN/m3 Ms = T jd
Ec - modulus of elasticity of concrete
Ms = As fs jd
- 200,000 MPa
CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 1/20 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 2/20
ULTIMATE STRENGTH DESIGN (USD)

2. Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam where:
FOR SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM
A. BEAMS (FLEXURAL STRESS) (Reinforced in Tension/Compression) a = depth of equivalent stress block
As = area of tension reinforcement, square millimeters A. Computing Mu with given tension
1. Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beam
b 0.85 fc' b = width of the compression face of member
(Reinforced in Tension Only) steel area (As)
C' c = distance from extreme compression fiber to N.A. (mm)
As' a
b 0.85 fc' C d = distance from extreme compression fiber to
d centroid of tension reinforcement (mm) I. Solve for r = As
C = 0.85 fc'ab bd
a N.A. d' = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme
c
tension fiber to center of the bar or wire, (mm) II. Check if steel yields by computing rb
d T
d - a/2 fc' = specified compressive stress of concrete (MPa)
N.A. Mn As rb = 0.85 fc' b1600
fy = specified yield strength of steel (MPa)
fy ( 600 + fy)
As Mn = nominal moment, (N-mm)
T = As fy b 0.85 fc' If r < rb steel yields , proceed to step III
Mu = factored moment at section, (N-mm)
Beam Section Elevation a/2 r = ratio of tension reinforcement = As/bd If r > rb steel does not yield , proceed to
C
rb= balance steel ratio step IV
a = b1 c d - a/2 f = strength reduction factor III. r < rb
As1 Mu1 r fy
For fc' < 30 MPa , use b1 = 0.85 w =
T1 = As 1 fs fc'
For fc' > 30 MPa ,
Mu = f fc' bd w ( 1 - 0.59 w )
2
1st STAGE C. SHEAR STRESS AND DIAGONAL
b1 = 0.85 - 0.008 (fc' - 30) TENSION
but should not be less than 0.65 As' fs' d' IV. r > rb (fy = fs)
C'
As fy As' Vu = f Vn b 0.85 fc' 0.003
a =
0.85 fc' b Mu2
d - d'
where f = 0.85 a
C = 0.85 fc'ab
c c
As2 Vn = Vc + Vs d
r fy d - a/2
w = T2 = As 2 fs' N.A. Mn d-c
fc' Vc =1/6 fc' bd
2nd STAGE As T = As fy e = fs/Es
Mu = f Ru bd
2
(Resisting Moment) Spacing of Stirrups: Es = 200,000
fc' w ( 1 - 0.59 w) 1st STAGE 2nd STAGE Solve for fs from the strain diagram:
Ru = Av fy d
S= fs/Es 0.003 d-c
Forces: Forces: Vs = ; fs = 600
r = 0.85 fc' 1 - 1-
2Ru
C 1 = 0.85 fc' ab C' = As' fs'
d-c c c
fy 0.85 fc' T = As 1 fs T1 = As 2 fs (d-d') Solve for c by summing up forces along hor.
NSCP/ACI Code Specs:
As = r bd Resisting Moment: Resisting Moment: T = C ; a = b1 c
If Vs < 1/3 fc' bd ,Smax = d/2 or 600mm 2
600 As (d-c) = 0.85 b1 f'c b c
Mu1 = f 0.85fc'ab (d-a/2) Mu2 =f As'fs' (d-d')
If Vs > 1/3 fc' bd , Smax = d/4 or 300mm
Mu1 = f As1 fs (d-a/2) f
Mu2 = As2 fs(d-d')
( rb )
Use quadratic formula to solve for "c"
Balanced Steel Ratio Av min = bS/3fy Then, solve for fs and "a" with known "c"
TOTAL :
rb = 0.85 fc'b1 600 fs = 600
d-c
; a = b1c
T = T1 + T2 A S = As 1 + As2 c
fy ( 600 + fy) Vu = factored or ultimate shear
MU= MU1 + MU2 Finally, solve for Mu:
Vc = shear force provided by conc.
Maximum and Minimum Steel Ratio M u = f 0.85fc'ab (d-a/2) or
Vn = nominal shear
M u = f As fs (d-a/2)
rmax = 0.75 r Avmin = area of steel to resist shear
b
= 2 Asteel
rmin = 1.4 / fy
B. Computing the required tension steel VERTICAL STIRRUP DESIGN

IV. Verify of compression will yield. III. Verify if Compression steel will yield
area (As) of beam with given Mu
b ec
d' where: fs' = 600 c - d'
I. Solve for rmax and M umax c As' c-d' es' = fs'/Es
c I. Compute the factored shear force, Vu
If fs' > fy, proceed to step IV.
II. Calculate the shear strength provided
rmax = 0.75 0.85 fc' b1600
N.A.
=
r c-d
If fs' < fy, proceed to step V.
As es by concrete, Vc
fy ( 600 + fy)
Mumax = with considered factored load Es = 200,000 IV. Since fs' > fy, compression steel yields Vc =1/6 fc' bd
r fy c - d'
w = = ________ fs' = 600
c
MU= MU1 + MU2 If Vu > f Vc , stirrups is necessary,
fc'
MU = f As1 fy (d-a/2) + f As' fy(d-d') proceed to to Step III.
2 If fs' > fy, proceed to step V.
M umax = f fc' bd w ( 1 - 0.59 w ) If Vu < f Vc , but Vu > 1/2 f Vc
If fs' < fy, proceed to step VI. V. Since fs' < fy, assumption is wrong proceed to to Step V
If Mu < Mumax design as Single Reinforced
V. fs' > fy, then use fs' = fy 0.85 fc' If Vu < 1/2 fV c , stirrups are not needed
then, proceed to step II. d' C2 = As'fs'
(compression steel yields) a c
If Mu > Mumax design as Doubly Reinforced NA
C1 III. Calculate the shear strength Vs to be
As' = As2 d - a/2 provided by the stirrup.
II. Solve for r VI. fs' < fy, then use fs' 1. Vn = Vu /f
T = As fy
(compression steel will not yield) 2. Vs = Vn - Vc = Vu /f - V c
Mu = f Ru bd
2
(Solve for Ru)
C2 = T2 c - d'
fs' = 600
c If VS < 2/3 fc' bW d , proceed to IV.
r = 0.85 fc' 1 - 1-
2Ru
= ____
As' fs' = As 2 fy From stress diagram.
fy 0.85 fc' As' = ________ If VS > 2/3 fc' bW d , adjust the size
[ C1 + C2 = T ]
of the beam
As = r bd = _________ 0.85 fc' ab + As' fs' = As fy
a = b1 c IV. Spacing of stirrups:
B. Computing Mu of a Doubly Reinforced
c - d'
FOR DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM Beam with given As and As' 0.85 fc' b1 c b + As' 600 c = As fy Spacing, S = Av fy d
Vs
A. Computing As and As' of a Doubly b 0.85 fc' As' fs' Solve for c by quadratic formula
a/2 C' d'
If S < 25mm, increase the value of Av.
Reinforced Beam with given Mu. As' a C Solve for fs' and "a" either by bigger bar or shear area.
d d-d'
Solve for Mu :
d-a/2
b 0.85 fc' As' fs' Maximum spacing, s:
As' C
a/2 C' d'
Mu = f 0.85fc'ab (d-a/2) + f As' fs' (d-d')
As T1 = As 1 fy T2 = As fy
d
d-a/2 Mu2
d-d' If Vs < 1/3 fc' bd ,Smax = d/2 or 600mm
Mu1 I. Assume Compression steel yield If Vs > 1/3 fc' bd , Smax = d/4 or 300mm
As T1 = As 1 fs T2 = As 2 fs' (fs' = fy)
V. If Vu < f Vc , but Vu > 1/2 f Vc
As 2 = As' = _______
I. Solve for As 1 = r maxbd As 1 = As - As' = _______ Av min = bw S /3fy
II. Solve for "a" and "c": C 1 = T1 II. Solve for a and c: where S = d/2 or 600mm (whichever
0.85 f'c ab = As1 fy ; a = ____ [ C1 = T1 ] is smaller
a = b1 c ; c = ______ 0.85 fc' ab = As1 fy ; a = ____
a = b1 c ; c = ______
III. Solve for MU1, MU2 and As2
Mu1 = f As1 fy ( d-a/2 )
Mu2 = MU1 - MU
Mu2 = f As2 fy(d-d') ; As2 = ____
TYPICAL RESISTANCE FACTORS ARE AS FOLLOWS: SHEARING STRESS OF RC BEAMS For members subjected to significant axial tension: For Interior Beam
SITUATION 1) b = L/4
Nominal Shear Strength Provided by Concete: Vc = 1 0.30N u
Flexure, without axial load 0.90 fc' bw d 1 + 2) b = 16t + bw choose the
6 Ag smallest
Axial tension and axial tension w/ flexure 0.90
Vn = Vc + Vs where: 3) b = S1 /2 + S2 /2 + b w
Shear and torsion 0.85 Nu/Ag = expressed in MPa
where: For End Beam
Compression members, spirally reinforced 0.75 Nu is negative for tension
Vn = nominal shear strength of RC section
Other Compression members 0.70 For shear reinforcement, fy < 414 MPa. 1) b' = L/12 + b'w
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete
Bearing on concrete 0.70 Vs = nominal shear strength of the shear reinforcement Distance of Stirrups from support: 2) b' = 6t + b'w choose the
smallest
Plain Concrete: flexure, compression, shear 0.65 For members subjected to shear and flexure only: a. 0.50 S from face of column support
3) b' = S3 /2 + b'w
and bearing
b. 0.25 S from face of beam support
Vc = 1 fc' bw d For Symmetrical Interior Beam
6
CODE PROVISIONS: FOR DESIGN OF
For members subjected to axial compression: T - BEAMS 1) b = L/4
SINGLY-REINFORCED BEAMS choose the
2) b = 16t + b w
Vc = 1 fc' b w d 1 + Nu smallest
3) b = center-center
rmax 6 14Ag
To ensure yield failure: = 0.75 rb Code Requirements for T-beams spacing of beams
where:
To avoid sudden tensile failure : rmin = 0.25 fc' > 1.4 Ag = gross area of section in sq.mm 1. In T-beam construction, the flange and web 4. Isolated beams in which T-shape are used to
Nu = factored axial load occurring with Vu provide a flange for additional compression
fy fy shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively
To control deflection: r < 0.18 fc'
(- ) for compression, (+) for tension
bonded together. area shall a flange thickness not less than 1/2
fy Nu/Ag = expressed in MPa
the width of the web and an effective flange
2. The width of slab effective as a T-beam shall width not more than four times the width of
BALANCED STEEL RATIOS For members subjected to shear and flexure: not exceed 1/4 of the span of the beam, and the web.
effective overhanging flange on each side of the
1 fc' + 120 rw Vu d
b
Vc = bw d web shall not exceed:
1. BEAM REINFORCED FOR TENSION 7 Mu t
but shall not be greater than b1 b2
a) 8 times the slab thickness and
rb = 0.85 fc'b1 600
b) 1/2 the clear distance to the next web
fy ( 600 + fy) Vc = 0.30 fc' bw d
where:
Vu d < 1.0 3. For beams with slab on one side only, the
2. BEAM REINFORCED FOR COMPRESSION
Mu Mu = factored moment ocurring effective overhanging flange shall not exceed: bw
Checking Ductility
rw = As simultaneously w/ Vu a) 1/12 the span length of the beam,
bw d
r = rb + r ' where: r '= As'
b) 6 times the slab thickness
bd For members subjected to axial compression: c) 1/2 the clear distance to the next web
if r < r , tension steel yields fs = fy t > bw /2
4h - d b b'
For compression steel Mm = Mu - N u b < 4b w
8
rlim = 0.85 b fc' d' 600 + r'
but shall not be greater than b1 b2 b3
fy d (600-fy) t
0.30N u
if r < rlim , compression steel yields fs = fy Vc = 0.30 fc' bw d 1+
Ag S1 bw S2 S3 bw'
Substitute Mm for Mu and Vud/Mu not limited to 1.0

Interior Beam End Beam
where, h = overall thickness of member
A. Steps in determining the Tension Steel III. a > t B. Steps in Determining Mu of a T-Beam Solve for z:
Area As of a T-Beam with given Mu with given As. Ac = A f + bw z
b 0.85 fc' (see Steps I for values of Ac and Af)
I. Assume that the entire flange is in compression I. Assume steel yields (fs = fy) and compute the
t 1 C1 t/2 0.85 fc' area of compression concrete, Ac Verify if steel yields:
and solve for Mu1: z
a
d 2 C2 a = t + z = _____
Compression force in concrete: d' d-t/2 d'-z/2 C=T c = a / b1 = ______ fs = 600(d-c)/c = _____
C = 0.85 fc' b f t As T1 = As 1 fy T2 = As 2 fy
0.85 fc' Ac = As fy
Mu1 = f C(d - t/2) bw Ac = _____ If fs > fy, steel yields (correct assumption)
Mu1 Mu2
If fs < fy, steel does not yield (seldom happen)
Mu1 = f 0.85 fc' bf t(d - t/2) Area of compression flange, Af = bf t
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
Mu1 = _____________ If Ac < Af, a < t, proceed to Step II Mu1 = f C1 (d - t / 2)
Mu1 = the same value in Step 1 If Ac > Af, a > t, proceed to Step III
Mu1 = f 0.85 fc' A f (d - t / 2)
If Mu1 > Mu, then a < t, proceed to Step II Mu2 = Mu - Mu1
If Mu1 < Mu, then a > t, proceed to Step III Mu2 = f C2 (d'-a/2) Mu2 = f C2 (d' - z / 2)
II. a < t
Mu2 = f 0.85 fc' bw z (d' - z / 2)
Mu2 = f 0.85 fc' bw z (d'-z/2) b 0.85 fc'
t a C =0.85 fc' ab
II. a < t
b 0.85 fc' z = _______ d d-a/2 Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
t a C =0.85 fc' ab
d d-a/2 T=C T = As fy
As fy = C1 + C2 ACI/NSCP Coefficients for Continuous
T = As fy Solve for a:
As fy = 0.85 fc' b t + 0.85 fc' bw z
Beams and Slabs
Solve for a: As = _______ Ac = bf x a
Mu = f C (d-a/2) a = ____ Requirements:
Mu = f 0.85 fc' ab (d-a/2) Solve fo r min = 1.4 / fy and compare with As Mu = f As fy (d-a/2) 1. Two or more spans
bw d
2. Loads are uniformly distributed
a = _______
If As > r min , design is OK! Verify if steel yields(this may not be necessary) 3. Beams or slabs are prismatic
bw d
T=C c = a / b1 fs = 600 (d-c) / c 4. L - S < 20%S
As fy = 0.85 fc' ab
If As < r min , use r = r min(seldom) If fs > fy, steel yields (correct assumption)
5. 1.7 wll < 3.0
As = _______ bw d 1.4 wdl
Solve for r max and compare with

As As = r min b w d If fs < fy, steel does not yield (seldom happen)
w (kN/m)
bf d
If As < r max , design is OK! Solve for Asmax .
bf d III. a > t L1 L2 L3 L4
If As > r max , beam needs compression a = b1

600 d
bf d steel (seldom happen) 600 + fy b 0.85 fc' wL1 /2 wL/2 wL/2 1.15wL/2
As max = 0.75 A sb C1 t/2
Solve fo r min = 1.4 / fy and compare with As
t 1 0.85 fc'
a
bw d d z 2 C2
0.85 fc' ( b f t + (a-t) bw d' d-t/2 d'-z/2
V-D
If As > r min , design is OK! As max = 0.75
fy
bw d As
-1.15wL/2 -wL/2 -wL/2 -wL4 /2
T1 = As 1 fy T2= As 2 fy
If As < r min , use r = r min (seldom) If As < As max , value is OK bw Mu1 Mu2 2
wL1 /14
2
wL2 /16
2
wL3 /16
2
wL4 /11
bw d
If As > As max , the beam needs 2 2 2
As = r min b w d
-wL /10 -wL /11 -wL /11 2
compression steel (seldom happens) 2
-wL1 /16
2
-wL /11
2
-wL /11
2
-wL /10
-wL4 /24
Note:
L = the average span between adjacent
spans in shear and negative moment
COLUMNS ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN

2. SPIRAL COLUMNS
Classification of column as to: P
Minimum spiral steel ratio : rs
ex
A. REINFORCEMENT Dc D
ey
1. TIED COLUMNS rs = 0.45 [ (D/Dc)2 - 1 ] fc'/fy x
Pu S = spacing of spiral ties
Applied Axial Load:
s rs = 4 A sp (Dc - db ) y
longitudinal bars
Pu = 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL s 2
s s Dc P P P
P P
where:
Resisting Axial Load: ex ey
Asp = area of the spiral reinforcement
Pu = f 0.80 Ag [0.85fc'(1- rg )+ rg fy)] Applied Axial Load: rs = spiral steel ratio P
Mx = Pey
Dc = core diameter (mm) P

Pu = 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
f = 0.70 for tied column Note: My = Pex My = Pex
rg = gross steel area
To be safe, Pu act. < Pu res.
= As/Ag 3. COMPOSITE COLUMN
Resisting Axial Load: A. Compression plus Uniaxial
ACI Code specs: As = total steel area
db = bar diameter
rg = 0.01 - 0.08 Pu = f 0.85 Ag [0.85fc'(1- rg )+ rg fy)] Bending
1. Steel
2. Minimum side cover = 40 mm Section
3. Minimum vertical bars
f = 0.75 for spiral column emin = 0.10 h for rectangular section
emin = 0.05 D for circular section
4 - 16mm dia. - for rec. section To be safe, Pu act. < Pu res.
6 - 16mm dia. - for round section where:
4. Minimum lateral tie bar dia. ACI Code specs: h = column dimension parallel to
10mm dia.- for < 32 db main bar eccentricity (mm)
12mm dia.- for > 32 db main bar 1. rg= 0.01 - 0.06 B. SLENDERNESS
D = column diameter (mm)
5. Spacing of lateral ties (use the smallest) 2. minimum diameter = 250 mm 1. Short Column
a. 16 vert. bar diameter 3. min. vertical bars = 6-16 mm Klu/r < 34 - 12 M1/M2
4. minimum spiral = 10 mm
b. 48 lateral tie bar diameter 5. clear distance between vertical bars 2. Slender Column
a) 1.5 times bar diameter 1. e = 0 Pu
c. least column dimension Klu/r > 34 - 12 M1/M2
b) 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate
6. Minimum side dimension of 6. spacing of spirals c.g.
column = 200 mm a) not more that 75 mm C. SECTION
b)not less than 25 mm
7. Clear distance between longitudinal bars c) not less than 1.5 times coarse aggregate 1. Square/rectangular
a) 1.5 times bar diameter d) not more than one-sixth
b) 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate 2. Round/Circular
Axially Load:
8. Minimum covering of ties 7. Spacing of spiral tie:
a) 40 mm for interior columns D. LOAD
b) 50 mm for exterior columns Pu = f 0.80 Ag [0.85fc'(1- rg )+ rg fy)]
c) 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate 4A sp 1. Axially Loaded
s =
9. When there are more than four vertical bars, rs Dc 2. Eccentrically loaded
additional ties shall be provided so that every
longitudinal bar will be held firmly in position. No a. Uniaxial bending Pu = f 0.85 Ag [0.85fc'(1- rg )+ rg fy)]
bar can be located at a greater distance than 150 mm b. Biaxial bending
clear in either side from a laterally supported bar.
Compression plus Uniaxial Bending: ACI Moment Magnifier Method

2. e = e min Pu Pn
e e Pu Factored Design Moment:
c.g.
emin As As'
pc Mc = dbM 2b + ds M2s
where:
Axially loaded (Neglect the effect of moment) pc
e
Pn b = bending
s = sidesway
Pu = f 0.80 Ag [0.85fc'(1- rg )+ rg fy)] d = moment magnification factor
b
As As'
Moment Magnifiers
0.85fc'
Pu = f 0.85 Ag [0.85fc'(1- rg )+ rg fy)] d T1 T2 Cm
where:
db = > 1.0
C1' C2' Pn - nominal load cap.of column at 1 - Pu
0.85fc'
C ex and ey f Pc
es1 Pno - nominal load cap.of column at
3. e min < e < eb T es2 e=0
C C'
Cm
es'1 es'2 Pnx - nominal load cap.of ds = > 1.0
Pu a
ec ey and ex 1 - S Pu
e
c
Pny - nominal load cap.of column at fS Pc
Eccentrically loaded d-c c e & e =0
c.g.
Consider effect of moment es
emin es'
Failure by crushing of concrete
SLENDER COLUMNS
d'
fs' = fy Cm = 0.60 + 0.40 M1/M2 > 0.40
d-c c A. Columns braced against sidesway
fs < fy
4. e = e b (for braced without transversed loads)
Gross Steel Ratio: 1. When Klu/r < 34 -12 M1 /M 2 , column is short.
Pu rg = (As + As') / Ag 2. When Klu/r > 34 -12 M 1 /M 2 , column is slender. Cm = 1.0 (for all other cases)
e
Eccentrically loaded Ag = bh B. Unbraced Columns M1 /M 2 = smaller end moment
c.g. 1. When Klu/r < 22, column is short. bigger end moment
eb Consider effect of moment Mn = Pn (e)
2. When Klu/r > 22, column is slender. where: = + for single curvature
fs' = fy Mu = f Mn = - for double curvature
fs = fy
Effective length factor, k
Mn = nominal moment Condition Value of k
5. e b < e
Mu = ultimate moment pinned at both ends 1.0
Pu
e
Eccentrically loaded
fixed at both ends
fixed at one end, pinned at the other
0.5
0.7 Pc =
p 2 EI EI =
Ec Ig / 2.5
c.g. Consider effect of moment SHORT ECCENTRICALLY LOADED fixed at one end, free at the other 2.0 (Klu) 2 1 +bd
eb k 1.0 for braced frames, no sidesway
Failure initiated by yielding ROUND COLUMNS k > 1.0 for unbraced frames, with sidesway
of tension steel k = 1.0 for compression members in frames braced against where:
sidesway unless a theoretical analysis shows that a
fs = fy Column Interaction Eqtn: (Homogenous Mat'l.) lesser value can be used.
Ec = 4700 fc' (MPa)
Ig = bh3 /12
6. e b <<< e fa + fbx + fby < 1.0 For slender columns (to consider PD - effect factored axial dead load
Fa Fbx Fby or secondary moment) bd =
factored axial total load
Pu Very large moment and 1. When Mu(A) < Pu(15 + 0.03h), Klu/r = slenderness ratio
e negligible axial load Bresler's Eqtn: (Reinf. Conc.-Composite Mat'l.)
c.g. Column behaves like a use Mu = Pu (15 + 0.03 h) r = 0.30h for rectangular
eb beam
Pn Pn Pn
+ + < 1.0 2. When Mu(A) > Pu(15 + 0.03h), = 0.25D for round column
Pnx Pny Pno
use Mu = Mu(A) Pu = Pdl + Pll
A. BEARING ON SOIL D. TWO -WAY OR PUNCHING SHEAR For top bars:

FOOTINGS
q = P / Af Applied Punching Shear Force: Ld is multiplied by a factor 1.4
Types of Footing:
2 2
Vp = qu [ L - (c + d) ]
1. Spread Footing (Isolated Footing) To be safe, q < q all For 35 mmØ and smaller bars
2. Wall Footing Resisting Shear force of Concrete:
where:
3. Combined Footing 0.02 Ab fy
4. Mat and Raft Foundation q = bearing stress on soil (MPa) Vp = vpc (Ap)
Ld =
q all = allow. bearing stress on soil (MPa) fc'
5. Footing on Piles
P = column load Resisting Shear stress of Concrete in Punching:
Minimum Ld = 300 mm
SPREAD FOOTING Af = area of soil in contact with bearing vpc = f [ 1 + 2 / bc ] 1/6 fc' < f1/3 fc'
stress of soil (mm 2) For 45 mmØ bars
Modes of failure:
B. BENDING OR FLEXURE To be safe, Vp < vpc
1. Bearing of soil 25 A b fy
Applied Moment: Ld =
2. Bending or Flexure where: fc'
2
3. One-way Shear or Beam Shear Mu = qu ( Lx ) / 2 L = side dimension of footing (m)
4. Two-way Shear of Punching Shear c = column dimension (mm) Minimum Ld = 300 mm
Resisting Moment of steel: qu = net upward soil bearing stress or pressure (MPa)
For 55 mmØ bars
SPREAD FOOTING (ISOLATED FOOTING) Mu = f As fs (d-a/2) 1.4 PDL + 1.7 PLL
qu = 40 fy
Af Ld =
P Resisting Moment of Concrete: fc'
Ap = 4 (c + d) d
Mu = f r fy bd2 [ 1 - 0.59 r fy / fc'] Minimum Ld = 300 mm
To be safe, Mu act < Mu resist. CHECK DEVELOPMENT LENGTH B. STEEL IN COMPRESSION
C. ONE -WAY OR BEAM SHEAR

d 0.02 Ab fy 0.02 Ab fy
t
Applied Ultimate Shear:
Ldreqd = Ld =
q fc' fc'
Vu act = qu ( H z )
c+d Minimum Ld = 0.04 dbfy or 300 mm
Vu act - critical shear force 'd" from the
c.s.for bending
face of support
DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS
d/2
H c+d c
c.s.for punching shear Resisting Ultimate Shear Force of concrete A. STEEL IN TENSION
d/2
c.s.for beam shear
f Vc = f 1/6 fc' bd
0.02 Ab fy
Ld =
dz where: fc'
x
f = capacity or strength reduction
L factor
= 0.85 for shear and torsion Minimum Ld = 0.06 dbfy or 300 mm
Vc = nominal shear force capacity

of concrete
b,d = beam dimensions (mm)
CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION To be safe, Vu act < Vc 15/20 CECC-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 16/20
STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA STEEL DESIGN FORMULAS AND PRINCIPLES BY: NTDEGUMA
EULER'S CRITICAL LOAD AND STRESS Maximum Allowable compressive stress of conc. 2. Average Shearing Stress in the Web 5. Allowable Shear Stress
For Hinged-Ended Columns: On full area of a concrete support bf
fv1
a. When h/tw < 998/ Fy
fv2
Load Stress Fp = 0.35 fc' tf Allowable shear stress
Pc =
p EI
2
Fa =
p E
2
On less than the full area of a concrete support h
tw
d
Fv = 0.40 Fy
L2 (L / r) 2 tw
b. When h/tw > 998/ Fy
d
Fp = 0.35 fc' A 2 /A 1 < 0.70 fc'
Allowable shear stress
For Fixed - Ended Columns:
B. BENDING OF BASE PLATE Fv = Fy Cv/2.89 < 0.40 Fy
Load Stress
If n > m, fvave
4p EI 4p2 E If m > n,
2
Pc = Fa =
L2 (L / r) 2 2
3 fp n 2 SPACING OF RIVETS OR BOLTS
t = 3 fp m t = where:
where: Fb Fb VQ1
fv1 = Ib
Q1 = Q f + Q w
RI
kL/r = max. effective slenderness ratio Q2 = Q f S =
k = effective length factor where: VQ
VQ2
k = 1 for columns hinged at both sides fp = P/ A B fv2 = Ib where:
k = 0.50 fixed-fixed Fb = 0.75 Fy
R = shear capacity of each bolts
k = 0.70 hinged-fixed V = maximum shear of beam
2
fvave = fv2 + 3
(fv1 - fv2 ) Q = statical moment area
SHEARING STRESS OF BEAMS MOMENT REDUCTION DUE TO THE PRESENCE

COLUMN BASE PLATE: OF HOLE IN BOTH FLANGE
1. Maximum Web Shear Stress
3. Maximum Vert./Hor. Shear Stress - holes in beam generally will reduce its capacity. When the
m holes are located in the beam web, it reduces its shear
bf
capacity while holes in the beam flanges reduce its moment
tf capacity.
VQ
fvh = Ib
bf
0.95D tw Afn = net flange area

d Dh Dh Afg = gross flange area
where: Ah = Ag - area of holes
D tw
Area of hole = (Dh)(tf)
V = maximum shear of beam Dh = db + 3 mm
Dh Dh
m Q = statical moment area db = diameter of the bolt
I = moment of inertia (mm^4) tf
n 0.80B n b = base sheared
Vmax NGCP SPECS:

A. BEARING ON CONCRETE fv =
d tw 4. Shear flow
1. Reduction of hole is neglected
Actual/Applied Bearing stress:
When 0.50 Fu Afn > 0.60 Fy Afg
where: VQ
q = I 2. Reduction of holes must be considered
P
fp = Ap V = max. shear force
d = depth of the beam When 0.50 Fu Afn < 0.60 Fy Afg
tw = web thickness where:
Effective tension flange section:
where: q = shear flow (N/m)
P = column load (kN) 5 Fu Afn
Afe =
6 Fy
Ap = contact surface between the
base plate and conc. pedestal
Afn = Afg - area of holes
C. BENDING/FLEXURAL MEMBERS 4. When Lb < Lc 2. When Lb > Lc and Lb > Lu 2. SHEARING STRESS
Actual/Applied bending stress: Fb = 0.66 Fy Vx Q x Vy Qy

703000Cb < Lb > 3520000 Cb fV = ±
Ix b Iy b
200 bf Fy rt Fy
Mc M Lc =
fb = I
= S Fy 3
1170 x 10 Cb
Fb = 2
3. USING INTERACTION EXPRESSION
Lb = unbraced length of compression flange (Lb/rt) use bigger value of Fb
ALLOWABLE STRESSES: but should be a. f bx f by
+ < 1.0
3 Fbx Fby
5. When Lb > Lu 83 x 10 Cb < 0.60 Fy
A. LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS: Fb =
Lb(d/Af) b. For compact laterally supported shapes:
1. Compact Sections Fb = 0.60 Fy f bx f by
+ < 1.0
where: 0.66Fy 0.60 F y
Fb = 0.66 Fy 137,900 Af rt = radius of gyration of a section
Lu =
Fy d comprising the compression flange plus
1/3 of the compression web about the For doubly symmetrical I and H shape members with
vertical axis. compact flanges continuously connected to the web and
Flange width - thickness ratio 6. When Lb > Lc and Lb < Lu bent about their weak axis, the allowable bending stress is
2
bf 170 bf Cb = 1.75 + 1.05 (M1 / M2 ) + 0.30 (M1 /M 2 ) 0.75 Fy.
<
bf Cb < 2.3 Note: Consideration should be given to the question of
2tf Fy
Fb = Fy ( 0.79 - 0.00076 Fy M1 = smaller end moment lateral support for the compression flange which
tw d 2tf will indicate wether compact or non-compact
M2 = bigger end moment sections.
Web depth - thickness ratio
tf M1 /M2 = negative (-) for single curvature
d 1680
< B. LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED BEAMS: M1 /M2 = positive (+) for double curvature TENSION WITH BENDING
tw Fy
1. When Lb > Lc and Lb > Lu
2. Non-compact Sections BENDING IN BOTH AXIS
bf 170 703000Cb < Lb < 3520000 C b Beams Bending in Both Axis
Fb = 0.6 Fy when > T
Fy rt Fy (Unsymmetrical Bending) T
2tf Fy
2
2 - Fy ( Lb/rt ) 1. BENDING STRESS T MC
Fb = Fy f = ±
3. Partially compact Sections 3 6 a. If lateral loads pass thru the centroid of the beam section A I
10.55 x 10 Cb
bf M x Cx M y Cy
fb = ±
Fb = Fy ( 0.79 - 0.00076 Fy 83 x 10 Cb
3 Ix Iy Members subject to both axial tension and bending shall be
2tf Fb = P proportioned at all points along their length to satisfy the
Lb(d/Af) Mx My Mx
fb = ± following equation:
Sx Sy
Flange width - thickness ratio 1. BENDING IN ONE AXIS ONLY
bf 170 b. If lateral loads applied at the top flange and does not
> passes thru the centroid of the beam section
2tf Fy Use biggest value of Fb but should be P
fa
+
f bx
< 1.0
Mx My Ft Fbx
Web depth - thickness ratio < 0.60 Fy fb = ±
Sx Sy /2
where:
bf 250 Mx Ft = allow. tensile stress
> fa = computed axial stress
note: fa = T/A = 0.60 Fy
2tf Fy Only one half of the section modulus about Fbx = allow. bending
fb = computed bending stress
the y-axis is considered stress
2. BENDING IN BOTH AXIS

LOCAL WEB YIELDING WEB CRIPPING SIDESWAY WEB BUCKLING
fa f bx f by - occurs when heavy concentrated loads produces stress at A. When the concentrated load is applied at a distance - the web will be subjected to compression if a compressive
+ + < 1.0
Ft Fbx Fby the junction of the flange and web of the beam where not less than d/2 from the end of the member. force will be applied to braced the compression flanges as
the load is being transferred from the relatively wide a result the tension flange will buckle
flange to the narrow web. R
where: tf bf
Ft = allowable tensile stress
= 0.60 Fy
R
Fbx = 0.66 Fy (for compact section) K
R
Fbx = 0.60 Fy (for non-compact section) web toes dc h d
Fby = 0.75 Fy web toes of fillets 2.5K N 2.5K d
of fillets tw
k
2.5K N 2.5K d tw
tw
K
critical
A. If the loaded flange is restrained against rotation and
section
N + 5K 1.5
dc/tw is less than 2.30
N tw Fyw tf
R R = 177.2 tw² 1 + 3 L/bf
d tf tw
N 2.5K
3
where: dc/tw
Fyw = specified minimum yield stress of beam R = 46880 tw² 1 + 0.4
a. Stress at the end of the member h L/bf
web in MPa
R
< 0.66 Fy B. When the concentrated load is applied at a distance
tw ( N + 2.5 K)
less than d/2 from the end of the member.
B. If the loaded flange is not restrained against rotation
and
b. Stress at the concentrated load dc/tw
is less than 1.70
L/bf
d
R tw
< 0.66 Fy K
tw ( N + 5 K) 3
dc/tw
R = 46880 tw² 0.4
Bearing stiffeners shall be provided if the compressive stress h L/bf
at the web toe of the fillets resulting from concentrated loads R
exceeds 0.66 Fy.
N 2.5K
where:
R = concentrated load or reaction in Newtons
tw = thickness of wed in mm
N = length of bearing (not less than K for end 1.5
reactions) N tw Fyw tf
K = distance from outer face of flange to web R = 89.3 tw² 1 + 3
toe of fillet in mm
d tf tw
NSCP Specs: If stiffeners are provided and extend at

least one half the web depth, equations A
and B need not to ckeck.
BEARING PLATES AXIAL LOAD WITH BENDING Magnification Factor ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS USING
SECANT FORMULA
- beams maybe supported by connections to other Cm
structural members or they may rest on concrete or A. DESIGN FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION AND MF = > 1.0
masonry supports such as walls. When the support is 1 - fa / Fe' Critical Column Stress
BENDING
weaker than steel, it is usually necessary to spread the
load over a larger area so as not to exceed the allowable P MC ( Bending in one axis only)
f = ± P ec
bearing stress of the weaker material. A I smax = A
1+
r²
sec q
Reduction Coefficient (Modification factor)
P M x Cx M y Cy ( Bending in both axis)
ALLOWABLE BEARING STRESS OF CONCRETE WALL: f = ± ± q=
L P
A Ix Iy Cm = 0.60 - 0.40 (M 1 /M 2 ) 2r EA
On full area of a concrete support Cm = 0.85 - for members whose ends are ec
= eccentricity ratio
B. NSCP SPECS FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION restrained against rotation in the plane r²
Fp = 0.35 fc' of bending
AND BENDING P = total axial load
On less than the full area of a concrete support Cm = 1.0 - for members whose ends are
unrestrained against rotation in the r= I (radius of gyration)
Fp = 0.35 fc' A 2 /A 1 < 0.70 fc' plane of bending A
A. SMALL AXIAL COMPRESSION ( fa/Fa < 0.15 ) L = unsupported length of column
where:
M1 = smaller moment
A. MINIMUM WIDTH OF BEARING PLATE : (N) fa fbx fby M2 = bigger moment
+ + < 1.0 PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
1. Due to web yielding Fa Fbx Fby
P P P fy fy
R
N = - 2.5K
0.66 Fy tw B. LARGE AXIAL COMPRESSION ( fa/Fa > 0.15 ) M2 M2 M2
fa Cm fb Cm fb
2. Due to web yielding + + < 1.0 fy fy
Fa (1 - fa/Fe') Fb (1 - fa/Fe') Fb
x y Section Elastic Distribution Plastic Distribution
of Stress of Stress
Strength interaction criterion:
1.5
N tw Fyw tf Plastic Neutral Axis
R = 89.30 tw² 1 + 3 fa fbx fby
d tf tw + + < 1.0 M1 M1
- the plastic neutral axis of a section is the line that
0.60 Fy Fbx Fby divide the section into two equal areas.
P P P
where: M1 = 12 M2 M1 = M2 M1 = 0 Yield Moment
Fyw = Fy if not specified Cm = 0.40 Cm = 1.0 Cm = 0.60 - moment that will just produce the yield stress in the
Amplification Factor M1/M2 is positive M1/M2 is negative outermost fiber of the section
Reversed Curvature Single Curvature My = S Fy where:
B. THICKNESS OF BEARING PLATE: 1 S = section modulus
AF =
1 - fa / Fe' where: Plastic Moment
fa = computed axial stress
fb = computed bending stress - moment that will produce full plasticity in a member
Fa = allowable axial stress cross section and create plastic hinge.
t = 2n fp Fb = allowable bending stress if bending
Fy 12p 2 E moment alone existed Mp = Z Fy where:
Fe' =
23 (KLb/rb) 2 K = effective length factor Z = plastic section modulus
Lb = actual unbraced length in the plane of
bending Shape Factor
rb = corresponding radius of gyration
Z
Shape factor =
S
Measurement measure lay-out too long Effect of Curvature & Refraction
too long add subtract e Azimuth
Corrections too short subtract add
CD = MD (1 + )
TL hcr = 0.067K 2 from South
Due to temperature: too short
e D2
(add/subtract); measured length Probable Errors h = h2 + (h − h2 ) − 0.067D1 D2
CD = MD (1 − ) D1 + D2 1
C = αL(T2 − T1 ) TL Reduction to
Probable Error (single):
Sea Level
Due to pull: Stadia Measurement Leveling
(add/subtract); measured length ∑(x − x̅) CD MD
E = 0.6745√ Horizontal: =
(P2 − P1 )L n−1 Elev𝐵 = Elev𝐴 + 𝐵𝑆 − 𝐹𝑆 R R+h
C=
EA D = d + (f + c) Inclined Upward:
Probable Error (mean):
Due to sag: 𝑓 error/setup = −eBS + eFS
(subtract only); unsupported length D = ( )s +C Subtense Bar
E ∑(x − x̅) 𝑖 Inclined Downward:
w 2 L3 Em = = 0.6745√ D = Ks + C error/setup = +eBS − eFS θ

C= √n n(n − 1) D = cot
24P 2 Inclined: Total Error: 2
Proportionalities of weight, w: eT = error/setup ∙ no. of setups
Due to slope: D = Ks cos θ + C
(subtract only); measured length E=error; d=distance; n=no. of trials
1 1 H = D cos θ
C 2 = S 2 − h2 Double Meridian Distance Method DMD
𝑤∝ 𝑤∝ 𝑤∝𝑛 V = D sin θ
𝐸2 𝑑 DMD𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = Dep𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
Normal Tension:
DMD𝑛 = DMD𝑛−1 + Dep𝑛−1 + Dep𝑛
0.204W√AE Area of Closed Traverse Area of Irregular Boundaries
PN = DMD𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = −Dep𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡
√PN − P Trapezoidal Rule: 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Lat)
Lat = L cos α
Dep = L sin α d
A= [h + hn + 2Σh]
Error of Closure:
2 1 Double Parallel Distance Method DPD
Parabolic Curves Simpson’s 1/3 Rule:
= √ΣL2 + ΣD2 DPD𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = Lat𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
Symmetrical: d DPD𝑛 = DPD𝑛−1 + Lat 𝑛−1 + Lat 𝑛
Relative Error/Precision: A = [h1 + hn + 2Σh𝑜𝑑𝑑 + 4Σh𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ]
L Error of Closure 3 DPD𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = −Lat 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡
H = (g1 + g 2 ) =
Perimeter Note: n must be odd 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Dep)
8
L 2
x 2 ( 2) 1 acre = Simple, Compound & Reverse Curves Spiral Curve
= L 4047 m2
y H 1
Unsymmetrical:
L1 L2
H= (g + g 2 )
2(L1 +L2 ) 1
g 3 (L1 +L2 ) = g1 L1 + g 2 L2
Note: Consider signs.
Earthworks
𝑑𝐿 0 𝑑𝑅
±𝑓𝐿 ±𝑓 ±𝑓𝑅 L2 180°
θ= ∙
f w I 2RLs π
A= (d + dR ) + (fL + fR ) T = R tan
2
2 L 4 θ Ls 2
I i= ; p=
Volume (End Area): E = R [sec − 1] 3 24R
2
L I
L3
Ve = (A1 + A2 ) m = R [1 − cos ] x=
2 2 6RLs
Volume (Prismoidal): L = 2R sin
I L5 LT → long tangent
ST → short tangent
2 Y=L− 2 R → radius of simple curve
L 40R2 Ls L → length of spiral from TS to any point
VP = (A1 + 4Am + A2 ) π along the spiral
6 Lc = RI ∙ Ls I Ls → length of spiral
180° Ts = + (R + p) tan I → angle of intersection
I c → angle of intersection of the simple
Prismoidal Correction: 2 2 curve
20 2πR p → length of throw or the distance from
= I tangent that the circular curve has been
L D 360° Es = (R + p) sec − R offset
CP = (c − c2 )(d1 − d2 ) 2 x → offset distance (right angle
12 1 1145.916 distance) from tangent to any point on
R= 0.036k 3 the spiral
xc → offset distance (right angle
VP = Ve − Cp D Ls = distance) from tangent to SC
R Ec → external distance of the simple
Volume (Truncated): 0.0079k 2
curve
θ → spiral angle from tangent to any
Σh e= point on the spiral
VT = ABase ∙ Have = A( ) R θS → spiral angle from tangent to SC
n i → deflection angle from TS to any point
A D L on the spiral
is → deflection angle from TS to SC
VT = (Σh1 + 2Σh2 + 3Σh3 + 4Σh4 ) = y → distance from TS along the tangent
n DC Ls to any point on the spiral
Stopping Sight Distance Parabolic Summit Curve Parabolic Sag Curve Underpass Sight Distance Horizontal Curve
L>S
v2 L>S L>S L>S
S = vt + A(S)2
2g(f ± G) L= 2 A(S)2 A(S)2 h1 + h2 S2
L= L= H= C− R=
a = g(f ± G) (deceleration) 200(√h1 + √h2 ) 122 + 3.5S 800H 2 8M
v L<S L<S L<S L<S
2
tb = (breaking time)
200(√h1 + √h2 ) 122 + 3.5S 800H L(2S − L)
g(f ± G) L = 2(S) − L = 2(S) − L = 2(S) − R=
A A A 8M
f
Eff = (100) L → length of summit curve A → algebraic difference A → algebraic difference of L → length of horizontal
fave S → sight distance of grades, in percent grades, in percent curve
v → speed in m/s h1 → height of driver’s eye L → length of sag curve L → length of sag curve S → sight distance
t → perception-reaction time h1 = 1.143 m or 3.75 ft S → sight distance A(K)2 R → radius of the curve
For passengers comfort,
f → coefficient of friction h2 → height of object L= where K is speed in KPH
M → clearance from the
G → grade/slope of road h2 = 0.15 m or 0.50 ft
395 centerline of the road
THEORY OF STRUCTURES (MODULE 2) BY: NTDEGUMA THEORY OF STRUCTURES BY: NTDEGUMA
P w (N/m)
2
7w L
a b MA = -
FIXED END MOMENTS OF COMMON LOADINGS B 120
Values of 6Aa and 6Ab of Common loadings: A L
B
A L 11wL
L L R =
P P 2 2 40
Pa (3L -a) Pa R
a b L/2 L/2 Mmax = - P(a) ; max = ; B =
6EI 2EI
L L
Beam Loading 6A1a1 /L 6A1b1 /L A B A B 2
w (N/m) w (N/m) wa
2 2
MA = RL -
MA = -Pab / L M A = -PL / 8 2
A b 3
2 2 L B wb (4L - b)
MB = Pba / L M B = PL / 8 A a B R = -
P 8L 3
2 4 3 L
wL wL wL
a b Pa ( L2 - a2 ) Pb ( L2 - b2 ) w (kN/m) Mmax = - ; max = ; B = R
L w (kN/m) 2 8 EI 6EI
L L
M
L L
A B A B
A B FULLY RESTRAINED BEAM FORMULAS
L
2 2
MA = -w L / 12 MA = -w L / 30
2 P 2 2
2 2 ML ML Pab Pba
MB = w L / 12 MB = w L / 20 Mmax = - M ; max = ; B = MA = ; MB =
P 2EI EI L2 L2
a b
L/2 L/2 3 PL 2 3 PL 2 w (kN/m) A L B
2
Pb (3L - 4b)
L 8 8 w (N/m) mid =
48EI
M
a b
A L B
L L P
A B A B
2 4 3
wL wL wL PL PL
2 Mmax = - ; = ; = L/2 L/2 MA = ; MB = -
MA = -5w L / 96 MA = Mb (3a/L - 1)/L 6
max
30EI
B
24EI 8 8
w (N/m) A 3
2 L B PL
3 3 MB = 5w L / 96 MB = Ma (3b/L - 1)/L max =
wL wL 192EI
L 4 4 PROPPED BEAM FORMULAS
2 2
SIMPLE AND CANTILEVER BEAM FORMULAS w (N/m)
MA =
wL
; MB = -
wL
P 2 2 12 12
P( b a + a b /2 )
w (N/m) MA = - wL
4
L2 A L B =
a b max
384EI
w (N/m) A L B 2
Pa ( 3L - a)
3 3 A B R =
8wL 7wL L 2L 3 w (N/m) 4
60 60 R 5wL
2
wL
L 2 4 3 MA = MB - ; mid =
wL 5wL wL 96 768EI
Mmax = ; max = ; max = P
4
8 384 EI 24EI 3PL 7 wL
L/2 L/2 MA = - max =
16 A L B 3840EI
P A L B
5P
R =
16
A B R 2 2
w (N/m) L w (N/m) wL wL
3 3 MA = - ; MB = -
5wL 5wL w (N/m) 2 30 20
PL PL
3
PL
2 wL 4
32 32 Mmax = ; = ; = MA = - wL
L 4
max
48EI
max
16EI 8 mid =
A L B A L B 768EI
3wL
R =
R 16
P 2 2
5wL 11wL
w (N/m) MA = - ; MB = -
w (N/m) 192 192
M A L B 2
wL
a b
MA = - L/2 ma =
-M ( 3a2 - L2 ) + M ( 3b2 - L2 ) 15
A L B A B
L L L L/2
PL3 PL
2 wL
Mmax = - PL ; = ; = R =
max B 10 L
3EI 2EI R

Quadratic Identities Trigonometry Progression

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Quadratic Identities Trigonometry Progression

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Quadratic Equation Progression Trigonometric Identities Spherical Trigonometry

Form: AM ∙ HM = (GM)2 Squared Identities: Sine Law:

Spherical Lune: Spherical Wedge:

LR = 4a LR = e= m is (-) for downward

Circle (y − k)2 = ±4a(x − h) a a m = b/a if the transverse axis is horizontal;

𝑥→ cost = revenue – depreciation (sinking fund)

Discrete Probability Distributions Walli’s Formula

Period, Amplitude & Frequency

Function Period Amplitude

w 2 L3 Em = = 0.6745√ D = Ks + C error/setup = +eBS − eFS θ

H. L. = ∆H[1 − Cv 2 ] ∑ Fy = ρQ(v2y − v1y )

Permeability Stratified Soil Dr (%) Description

Capacity of Driven Piles (Deep Foundations)

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Q f = PAkμ Q Q f = CLαP

Weirs Froude Number Critical Depth

 Location of neutral axis, NA:  Location of neutral axis, NA:

Provisions for Uncracked Section:

409.6.2.5. Factor for shrinkage & creep due

εs 0.003 Mu = ∅Mn 0.85fc′ β1 600

i. Interior Beam: ii. exterior Beam: Canti- Simple One Both

Design of One-way Slab

Design of Column TIED COLUMN SPIRAL COLUMN

ULTIMATE STRENGTH DESIGN (USD)

B. Computing the required tension steel VERTICAL STIRRUP DESIGN

Substitute Mm for Mu and Vud/Mu not limited to 1.0

Solve for r max and compare with

If As > r max , beam needs compression a = b1

COLUMNS ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN

Dc = core diameter (mm) P

Compression plus Uniaxial Bending: ACI Moment Magnifier Method

A. BEARING ON SOIL D. TWO -WAY OR PUNCHING SHEAR For top bars:

To be safe, Mu act < Mu resist. CHECK DEVELOPMENT LENGTH B. STEEL IN COMPRESSION

C. ONE -WAY OR BEAM SHEAR

Vc = nominal shear force capacity

SHEARING STRESS OF BEAMS MOMENT REDUCTION DUE TO THE PRESENCE

0.95D tw Afn = net flange area

Vmax NGCP SPECS:

Actual/Applied bending stress: Fb = 0.66 Fy Vx Q x Vy Qy

2. BENDING IN BOTH AXIS

NSCP Specs: If stiffeners are provided and extend at

w 2 L3 Em = = 0.6745√ D = Ks + C error/setup = +eBS − eFS θ

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