Point particle quantization in the light-cone gauge

Sarthak Duary
International Centre for Theoretical Sciences,Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Shivakote,
Bengaluru 560089, India.

E-mail: sarthak.duary@icts.res.in
Contents

1 Classical relativistic point particle in the light-cone gauge 1

2 Quantization of the point particle 3

3 Light-cone momentum operators and Lorentz generators 7

1 Classical relativistic point particle in the light-cone gauge

We start out with the spacetime coordinates

xµ = (x0 , x1 , · · · , xD−2 , xD−1 ) . (1.1)

In terms of these coordinates we had our metric η µν = diag(−1, 1, · · · , 1). Now, we go to the
light-cone coordinates
xµ → (x+ , x− , x1 , x2 , · · · , xD−2 ) , (1.2)
where, we define the two coordinates
1
x± = √ (x0 ± xD−1 ) . (1.3)
2
In lightcone coordinates, the spacetime Minkowski metric is
D−2
X
2 + −
ds = −2dx dx + dxi dxi . (1.4)
i=1

The light-cone metric is  

0 −1 ...
0
−1 0 ...
0
 
ηµν =
 .. ..  ,
.. 
.. (1.5)
 . . ..
0 0 ... 1
where, µ, ν ∈ {+, −, i} and i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , D − 2}. Greek indices µ, ν runs over all target space
dimensions, while Latin indices i, j only runs over transversal directions.
In this notation, the inner product of two arbitrary vectors U = (U + , U − , U i ) and V =
(V + , V − , V i ) takes the form
D−2
X
+ − − +
U.V = −U V −U V + U iV i . (1.6)
i=1

–1–
 The action for the relativistic point particle is given by
Z τf r
dxµ dxν
S = −m −ηµν dτ . (1.7)
τi dτ dτ
We simplify our notation
dxµ dxν
ηµν = ηµν ẋµ ẋν = ẋ2 .
dτ dτ
Now, treating τ as a time variable and xµ (τ ) as coordinates we can write
Z τf p
S= Ldτ , L = −m −ẋ2 . (1.8)
τi

The momentum is
∂L 1 −2ẋµ mẋµ
pµ = µ
= −m √ =√
∂ ẋ 2 −ẋ 2 −ẋ2 (1.9)
=⇒ pµ pµ = −m2 .
Therefore, we have
mẋµ
pµ = √ . (1.10)
−ẋ2
The constraint is
p2 + m2 = 0 . (1.11)
We define the light-cone gauge for the particle by setting the coordinate x+ of the particle
proportional to τ
1
light-cone gauge condition: x+ = 2 p+ τ . (1.12)
m
Now, eq.(1.10) gives
mẋ+
p+ = √
−ẋ2
p+ 1 p+
light-cone gauge condition gives ẋ+ = 2 =⇒ p+ = √ (1.13)
m m −ẋ2
p
Cancelling the common factor of p+ gives m −ẋ2 = 1 .
This simplifies the equation of the momenta. From eq.(1.10) we get
1 µ
pµ = m2 ẋµ =⇒ ẋµ = p . (1.14)
m2
This gives
dx− p−
= 2 . (1.15)
dτ m
Expanding the constraint eq.(1.11) in light-cone components,

− 2p+ p− + pi pi + m2 = 0
1 (1.16)
=⇒ p− = + (pi pi + m2 ) .
2p

–2–
Now, integrating eq.(1.15) we get

p−
x− (τ ) = x−
0 + τ . (x−
0 is the constant of integration.) (1.17)
m2
Eq.(1.14) gives
dxi pi
= 2 , (1.18)
dτ m
which after integrating gives

pi
xi (τ ) = xio + τ . (xi0 is the constant of integration.) (1.19)
m2
The independent dynamical variables for the point particle are

Dynamical variables: (xi , x− i +

0, p , p ) . (1.20)

2 Quantization of the point particle

Now, we are going to try to make a quantum theory out of these dynamical variables. First,
we choose a set of time-independent Schrödinger operators.

time-independent Schrödinger operators: (xi , x− i +

0, p , p ) . (2.1)

We postulate the following commutation relations for the Schrödinger operators:

[xi , pj ] = iδ ij , [x− +
0 , p ] = iη
−+
= −i , (2.2)

with all other commutators set equal to zero. Now we can define quantum operators which are
constructed from the set of independent Schrödinger operators, and time. These additional
operators include x+ (τ ), x− (τ ) and p− .

p+
x+ (τ ) ≡ τ
m2
p−
x− (τ ) ≡ x−
0 + τ (2.3)
m2
1
p− ≡ (pi pi + m2 ) .
2p+

p− is time independent. Both x+ (τ ) and x− (τ ) are time-dependent Schrödinger operators.

The commutation relations involving the operators x+ (τ ), x− (τ ) and p− are determined by
the postulated commutation relations in eq.(2.2).
Using the above equation eq.(2.3) we get
h p+ 1 i
[x+ (τ ), p− ] = τ, (p i i
p + m 2
)
m2 2p+ (2.4)
=0 ,

–3–
since [p+ , pi ] = 0.
We parameterize the trajectory of a point particle using τ , so the associated Heisenberg
operators are  
Heisenberg operators: xi (τ ), x−
0 (τ ), p i
(τ ), p+
(τ ) . (2.5)
The Heisenberg operators satisfy the same commutation relations as the Schrödinger opera-
tors:
[xi (τ ), pj (τ )] = iδ ij , [x− +
0 (τ ), p (τ )] = iη
−+
= −i , (2.6)
with all other commutators set equal to zero. We will determine the Hamiltonian H. We want
this Hamiltonian to be such that its Heisenberg equations of motion of the operators will be
the classical equation of motion of the particle. Since p− is the light-cone energy, we expect
the Hamiltonian to generate x+ evolution:
∂
↔ p− .
∂x+
We parameterize our operators with τ , so we expect H to generate τ evolution, which is
related to the x+ evolution.
∂ ∂x+ ∂ p+ ∂ p+ −
= = ↔ p . (2.7)
∂τ ∂τ ∂x+ m2 ∂x+ m2
We postulate the Heisenberg Hamiltonian

p+ (τ ) − 1  i i 2

H(τ ) = p (τ ) = p (τ )p (τ ) + m . (2.8)
m2 2m2
Now, the Heisenberg’s equation of motion of quantum mechanics is

dξ(τ )
i = [ξ(τ ), H(τ )] (2.9)
dτ
where Schrödinger operator ξ → ξ(τ ) implicit time dependence. If the Schrödinger operator
has explicit time dependence like x+ (τ ) and x− (τ ) then we have

dξ(τ ) ∂ξ(τ )
i = [ξ(τ ), H(τ )] + i , (2.10)
dτ ∂τ

where ∂ξ(τ )
∂τ denotes differentiation with respect to the explicit τ dependence in Schrödinger
operator. Now,
d +
i p (τ ) = [p+ (τ ), H(τ )] = 0
dτ
d
i pi (τ ) = [pi (τ ), H(τ )] = 0 (2.11)
dτ
d
i x− (τ ) = [x−0 (τ ), H(τ )] = 0 .
dτ 0

–4–
Therefore, in the Heisenberg picture p+ (τ ), pi (τ ) and x−
0 (τ ) are constants i.e.

p+ (τ ) → p+
pi (τ ) → pi
x− −
0 (τ ) → x0 .

Here, Hamiltonian has has no explicit time dependence. Therefore,

d
i H(τ ) = [H(τ ), H(τ )] = 0 . (2.12)
dτ
So, the Hamiltonian is actually time independent. We can write
1
H(τ ) =⇒ H = (pi pi + m2 ) . (2.13)
2m2
We now see the evolution of the Heisenberg operator xi (τ ) :

dxi (τ ) h i 1 j j 2
i ipi
i = x (τ ), (p p + m ) =
dτ 2m2 m2
i j j i j j j i j i
using [x , p p ] = [x , p ]p + p [x , p ] = 2ip ,
dxi (τ ) pi (2.14)
=⇒ = 2
dτ m
pi (τ )
=⇒ xi (τ ) = xi0 + .
m2
The evolution of the Heisenberg operator x+ (τ ) is given by

dx+ ∂x+
i
=i + [x+ (τ ), H]
dτ ∂τ
p+ h p+ τ
*
i 0
= i 2 + 2 , H
m m (2.15)
p+
=i 2
m
dx+ p+
=⇒ = 2 .
dτ m
To construct the point particle quantum theory we define physical states. The time-independent
states of the quantum theory are labeled by the eigenvalues of a maximal set of commuting
operators. For the set of operators introduced here, a maximal commuting subset can include
only one element from the pair (x− , p+ ), and one element from each of the pairs (xi , pi ). We
will work with the operators p+ and pi .
So the physical states are
 + 
p , p~T .

–5–
Now, the operators p̂+ , p~ˆT and p̂− act on the states as

p̂+ p+ , p~T = p+ p+ , p~T

   

p~ˆT p+ , p~T = pT p+ , p~T

   
(2.16)
1
p̂− p+ , p~T = + (pi pi + m2 ) p+ , p~T .
   
2p
We can identify of the quantum states of a relativistic point particle of mass m with the
one-particle states of the quantum theory of a scalar field of mass m:

p , p~T ↔ a† +
 + 
p , p
~T
|Ωi . (2.17)

Here, the labels of the point particle states match with the labels of the creation operators
which generate the one-particle states of the scalar quantum field theory. We can extend the
correspondence between the quantum point particle and the quantum scalar field theory from
the state space to the operators that act on the state space. The general state of the point
particle is Z
|ψ, τ i = dp+ d~ pT ψ(τ, p+ , p~T ) p+ , p~T .
 
(2.18)

The Schrödinger equation for the state |ψ, τ i is

d
i |ψ, τ i = H |ψ, τ i . (2.19)
dτ
Using this we get
Z " #
∂ 1  
dp+ d~ i ψ(τ, p+ , p~T ) − i i 2 +
 + 
pT 2
p p + m ψ(τ, p , p
~T ) p , p~T = 0 . (2.20)
∂τ 2m

Since the basis vectors |p+ , p~T i are all linearly independent, the expression within brackets
must vanish for all values of the momenta. This gives
∂ 1  i i 
i ψ(τ, p+ , p~T ) = p p + m2
ψ(τ, p+ , p~T ) . (2.21)
∂τ 2m2
This equation is Schrödinger equation for the momentum-space wavefunction ψ(τ, p+ , p~T ).
Now, for scalar field theory
(∂ 2 − m2 )φ = 0 . (2.22)
In the light-cone gauge
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ 
−2 + − m 2
φ(x+ , x− , ~xT ) = 0 . (2.23)
∂x+ ∂x− ∂xi ∂xi
Here, ~xT denote a vector whose components are the transverse coordinates xi i.e.

~xT = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xD−2 ) .

–6–
We fourier transform in x− and ~xT

dp+ dD−2 p~T −ix− p+ +i~xT .~pT

Z
+ −
φ(x , x , ~xT ) = e φ(x+ , x− , ~xT ) . (2.24)
2π (2π)D−2

Here, p~T denote the vector whose components are the transverse momenta pi

p~T = (p1 , p2 , · · · , pD−2 ) .

Substituting eq.(2.24) of the scalar field into eq.(2.23) we obtain

 ∂ + i i 2

φ(x+ , p+ , p~T ) = 0 .


−2 −ip − p p − m (2.25)
∂x+
Dividing by 2p+ we find
 ∂ 1 i i 2

i − (p p + m ) φ(x+ , p+ , p~T ) = 0 . (2.26)
∂x+ 2p+
Now,
∂ ∂ ∂τ ∂ m2
= = .
∂x+ ∂τ ∂x+ ∂τ p+
We get
 ∂ 1 
i i 2
i − (p p + m ) φ(τ, p+ , p~T ) = 0 . (2.27)
∂τ 2m2
Therefore, the Schrödinger equation for the particle wave function is same as the field equation
of the quantum field. The quantization of the point particle is an example of first quantization.
In first quantization, the coordinates and momenta of classical mechanics are turned into
quantum operators and a state space is constructed. This gives a set of one-particle states.
Second quantization refers to the quantization of a classical field theory, the result of which is
a quantum field theory with field operators and multiparticle states. A first quantization of
the classical point particle mechanics gives one-particle states. We interpret the Schrödinger
equation for the associated wavefunctions as the classical field equation for a scalar field. A
second quantization of the classical field theory gives us the set of multiparticle states.
Here, we’ll give the steps schematically.

Classical mechanics x, p x̂, p̂ one-particle states after 1st Quantization Schrödinger equation
Field operator and Multiparticle states identifying it with
after 2nd quantization classical field equation φ

3 Light-cone momentum operators and Lorentz generators

In covariant quantization

[xµ (τ ), pν (τ )] = iη µν , [pµ (τ ), pν (τ )] = 0 . (3.1)

–7–
Now, if momenta generates translations the corresponding operators commute.

δxµ (τ ) = µ , (3.2)

where µ is constant.
Now,

δxµ (τ ) = [iν pν (τ ), xµ (τ )]
= iν (−iη µν ) (3.3)
= µ .

In light-cone we have time-independent Heisenberg operators p+ , p− , pi and they all commute.

Now, we see whether the light-cone gauge momentum operators generate translations.
We have
δxµ = [−i+ p− − i− p+ + ii pi , xµ (τ )] . (3.4)
Case 1 : − 6= 0 and + = i = 0.

Now,
δxµ = [−i− p+ , xµ (τ )] . (3.5)
− 6= 0 should generate δx+ = 0, δxi = 0 and δx− = − . We find

δx+ = [−i− p+ , x+ (τ )]
h p+ τ i
= − i− p+ , 2 (3.6)
m
=0 ,

δxi = [−i− p+ , xi (τ )]
h pi τ i
= − i− p+ , xi0 + 2 (3.7)
m
=0 ,
δx− = [−i− p+ , x− (τ )]
h p− τ i
= − i− p+ , x− 0 +
m2 (3.8)
= −i i ( since [p+ , x−
−
0]=i )
= − .
Therefore, all the translations work in this case.
Case 2 : + 6= 0 and − = i = 0.

Now,

δxµ (τ ) = −i+ [p− , xµ (τ )] . (3.9)

–8–
We expect δx+ = + , δx− = 0, δxi = 0. Now,

δx+ (τ ) = −i+ [p− , x+ (τ )]

h p+ τ i
= −i+ p− , 2 (3.10)
m
=0 .

It doesn’t translate i.e. δx+ (τ ) = + is not realized.

Now,
h p− τ i
δx− = −i+ p− , x−0 +
m2
h 1
− p− τ i
= −+ (p i i
p + m 2
), x0 + (3.11)
2p+ m2
p−  1 i 
= −+ + . since [x− 0 , + ] = +2
p p p
We have
−+ pi
δxi = . (3.12)
p+
Therefore, p− does not generate the expected transformations. It turns out that p− actually
generates both a translation and a reparameterization of the world-line of the particle. We
know that the particle action is invariant under changes of parameterization τ → τ 0 (τ ).
Writing τ → τ 0 (τ ) = τ + λτ , with λ infinitesimal

xµ (τ ) → xµ (τ + λ(τ )) = xµ (τ ) + λ(τ )∂τ xµ (τ )

(3.13)
=⇒ δxµ (τ ) = λ(τ )∂τ xµ (τ ) .

Let us now show that p− generates a translation plus a reparameterization. The expected
translation was δx+ = + . A reparameterization of x+ gives δx+ (τ ) = λ(τ )∂τ x+ (τ ). Now, the
expected translation plus the reparameterization give zero variation from eq.(3.10), therefore

p+
+ + λ∂τ x+ (τ ) = + + λ =0
m2
(3.14)
m2 +
=⇒ λ = −  .
p+
The reparameterization parameter λ is constant. We can now use this result to explain the
transformations given by eq.(3.11) and eq.(3.12).
So, we have

m2 + pi + p
i
δxi (τ ) = λ∂τ xi (τ ) = −  = −
p+ m2 p+
−
(3.15)
m 2 p p−
δx− (τ ) = λ∂τ x− (τ ) = − + + 2 = −+ + .
p m p

–9–
p− generates a translation plus the compensating transformation needed to preserve the
light-cone gauge condition. That transformation turns out to be a reparameterization of the
world-line.

Lorentz generators:
The infinitesimal Lorentz transformations of the point particle coordinates xµ (τ ) take the
form
δxρ (τ ) = ρν xν (τ ) . (3.16)
Conserved charges
M µν = xµ (τ )pν (τ ) − xν (τ )pµ (τ ) . (3.17)
We get
h i i
δxρ = − µν M µν , xρ (τ ) = ρν xν (τ ) . (3.18)
2
We have
[M µν , M ρσ ] = iη µρ M νσ − iη νρ M µσ + iη µσ M ρν − iη νσ M ρµ . . (3.19)
We define M −I as the Hermitian version of the operator
1 i −
M −I ≡ x− i − i
0 p − (x0 p + p xo ) . (3.20)
2
This satisfies
[M −I , M −J ] = 0 . (3.21)
The quantum theory is Lorentz invariant.

References

[1] B. Zwiebach, A First Course in String Theory, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2009.

– 10 –