POLLINATION

[Reproduction in Flowering Plants]

BIOLOGY PROJECT
2019-2020

SUBMITED BY:
 Submitted to
Central board secondary education in partial fulfillment of the
Requirement for the A.I.S.S.C.E in biology

BY :
MASTER :
ROLL NO :
UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF :

SHREE NIKETAN PATASALA

THIRUVALLUR - 602 001
 SHREE NIKETAN PATASALA
THIRUVALLUR – 602 001

BONAFIED CERTIFICATE :

REGISTRATION NO :

Certify that is bonafied project done by

Master of class XII in Biology during the year 2019-2020
And submitted for the project conducted on at
SHREE NIKETAN PATASALA – THIRUVALLUR

(INTERNAL EXAMINER) (PRINCIPAL)

(EXTERNAL EXAMINER)
 *ACKNOWLEDGEMENT*

Primarily I would thank god for being able to complete this project with
success. I would like to thank my principal Ms YADLA NAGALAKSHMI
M.A,M.A.LITT,B.ED, who has been a great support in completing the
project with such great success, then I would like to my Head mistress
Ms SUBHA BASKAR M.com ,M.phil ,B.ED & my biology teacher
Ms ANUSHYA M.A, M.phil, B.ED., whose valuable guidance as been the
one that helped me to complete this project and make it a full proof success.
Their suggestion and instructions have served as a major contribution towards
the completions of the project. Then I would like to thank my parents and
friends who have helped me with their valuable suggestion and guidance that
have been helpful for me in the successful completion of the project. Last but
not least I would like to thank my classmates who have helped me a lot..
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that H.ARUN of class XII studying in SHREE NIKETAN

PATASALA, THIRUVALLUR has successfully completed his project entitled

“POLLINATION IN FLOWERS”

Under my guidance in the academic year of

“2019-2020”

PGT (Biology) External

Examiner
 CONTENTS

01. Introduction

02. What is Pollination?

03. Parts of Flowers

04. Process of Pollination

05. Where does pollination take place in a plant?

06. Types of Pollination

 Self Pollination

 Cross Pollination

 Abiotic agents: Anemophily, Hydrophily, Zoophily

 Biotic agents: Ornithophily, Entomophily

07. Difference between Self and Cross Pollination

08. Artificial Hybridzation

09. Conclusion - Why is pollination important to plants?

Introduction:
All living organisms have one major goal in common, which is to pass along
their genetic information to the next generation by creating offspring.
Flowering plants create seeds, which carry the genetic information of the
parents and develop into a new plant.
There are two critical stages in the life cycle of a flowering plant:
1. The transfer of pollen from another to stigma. As we will saw in the
lecture on “Breeding Systems”, most flowering plants have different
types of mechanisms to promote the transfer of pollen from an anther in
one flower to a stigma in a different flower, and hopefully this flower
will be on a different plant.
2. The dispersal of seeds away from the parent plant.
Plants often solicit the aid of animals, as well as abiotic forces such as wind, to
accomplish both of these.
Much of the flower diversity that you have observed thus far this semester is
because of adaptations for pollination by different mechanisms. In this lecture,
we will discuss the main types of pollination mechanisms. However, Please
keep in mind that there are always exceptions; plants and animals that visit
flowers have minds of their own!
The vast majority of flowering plant species are pollinated by insects; in fact,
it seems that flowering plants and many major groups of insects co-evolved
together. Animals other than insects can also be important pollinators: bats,
birds (especially hummingbirds), and even a few mammals.
Pollination:
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of the same or another flower. It is said to be the first process of sexual
fertilization in flowering plants. Pollen grains contain the male gamete and are
present in the anthers of the flower.

PARTS OF A FLOWER:
A flower is the reproductive part of a plant. They play an important role in
making seeds. There are two types of flowers: – Perfect Flower and Imperfect
Flower. A perfect flower has either all male parts or all female parts but not
both in the same flower. An imperfect flower has both the male parts and
female parts in a single flower. Flowers come in many different shapes, sizes
and colors. However, most have a similar basic structure. A flower consists of
many different parts.
Male Parts: –
 Stamen: – This is the male part of a flower. It is made up of filament and
anther. This part produces pollen for the plant. The number of stamen is
usually equal to the number of petals in the flower.
 Anther: – It is a part of the stamen. Anther produces and contains
pollen. It usually sits on top of a long stalk that looks like a fine hair.
 Filament: – The fine hair like long stalk is called filament. Anther is
placed on the top of filament in a flower.
Female Parts: –
 Pistil: – It is the female part of the flower. Pistil is consists of the stigma,
style and ovary. One pistil is constructed of many structures that are
rolled like leaf.
 Stigma: – This female part of the flower is the sticky bulb that you see in
the centre of the flower. It receives the pollen grains. On stigma, those
pollen grains can germinate.
 Style: – Another female part of the flower. Stigma is placed on the top of
style.
 Ovary: – The part of the plant, usually at the bottom of the flower, that
has the seeds inside and turns into a fruit that we eat. The ovary contains
ovules.
 Ovules: – A part of the ovary that becomes seed.
Some other parts of a flower: –
 Petal: – The most colorful and bright part of the flower. They attract
pollinators.
  Sepal: – Sepal in a flower looks like little green leaves that cover the
outer part of a flower bud to protect the flower before it opens.
PROCESS OF POLLINATION:

The pollination process involves the transfer of pollen, from the male part of a
plant (in flowers, this is the ‘stamen’) to the female part of the plant (the
'carpel'). The pollen contains male sperm (gametes), and the carpel is where
the female gametes are contained. Above photograph of a Flower clearly
shows:

 Male part of the flower: comprising the anther and filament (together,
called the ‘stamen’); and
 Female part of the flower: the stigma and style with the ovary (containing
the ovule) at the base of the flower (the ‘carpel').
Pollination precedes fertilization and depends on such media as wind, water
and insects. Pollination takes place externally, while fertilization occurs in the
inside of the flower and does not depend on external vectors.

Where does pollination take place in a plant?

Fertilization in a flower takes place in the ovary. Pollen lands on the female
part of the flower, and then it develops a pollen tube and burrows down to the
ovary, where it fertilizes what ultimately become the seed and fruit of the
plant.

The male part of the flower is called the stamen, and that is what carries
pollen. Pollen can be transferred by wind, animals or insects, and most plants
develop adaptations that encourage local animals to come to them and transfer
their pollen. The female part of the flower has three parts: the stigma, the style
and the ovary. The end of the stigma is sticky, which helps the pollen stay in
place until the pollen tube is strong enough to hold it in place. The pollen tube
burrows down the style until it reaches the ovary, which contains the ovules.

The sperm are released into the ovary, where they compete to fertilize the
ovule. Most flowering plants contain both male and female parts and lack the
ability to pollinate themselves, though there are exceptions to both rules.
Cross-pollination, or flowers that are pollinated by other flowers, produce
more resilient offspring. Because of this, the anthers are positioned to make
self-pollination difficult to accomplish in flowering plants that can pollinate
themselves.
TYPES OF POLLINATION:

SELF POLLINATION:

When the pollen is transferred from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the
same flower, it is called as self- pollination. This form of pollination is
common in hermaphrodite or dioecious plants which contain both male and
female sexual parts on the same flower.
In self-pollinating plants, there is less dependence on the external factors to
cause pollination. These plants depend on wind or other smaller insects that
visit the flower regularly. In self- pollinating flowers, the anthers, and stigma
are of similar lengths to facilitate the transfer of pollen. Self – pollination can
be further divided into two types:
Autogamy – In this type of self-pollination, the pollen is transferred from the
anthers of one flower to the stigma of the same flower. Autogamy occurs by
two methods by Homogamy and Cleistogamy.
Homogamy:The anthers and stigmas of chasmogamous or open
flowers are brought together by growth, bending of folding.
Example: Peas, Beans, Hibiscus

Cleistogamy: In cleistogamous flowers, the anther dehisce inside closed

flowers. Growth of style brings the pollen grains in
contact with stigma. Pollination and seed set are assured.
Pollinators are not required. Example: Oxalis, Viola
Geitonogamy – In this type of self- pollination, the anthers are transferred
from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of another flower but on the same
plant.

Advantages of self – Pollination:

 In self- pollination, there is no diversity in the genes and therefore the
purity of the race is maintained.
 The plants do not depend on external factors for pollination and even
smaller quantities of pollen grains produce have a good success rate in
getting pollinated.
 Self- pollination ensures that recessive characters are eliminated.
Disadvantages of self- Pollination:

 Since there is no mixing up of genes, there are no new characters or

features that are introduced into the lineage of the offsprings.
 Self- pollination is said to reduce the vigor and vitality of the race as
there are no new features introduced.
 Without new characters introduced, the resultant offspring’s’ immunity
to diseases reduces.
CROSS-POLLINATION:

In this type of pollination, the pollen is transferred from the anthers of one
flower to the stigma of another flower. In this case, the two flowers are
genetically different from each other. Cross-pollination is always dependant on
another agent to cause the transfer of pollen. The agents of pollination include
birds, animals, water, wind, and insects. Based on the agent of pollination,
cross-pollination can be of different types:

Hydrophilous Flowers - These flowers are pollinated by water means. The

flowers are often very small and inconspicuous to other agents. They do not
have any fragrance or too much color on their petals. The pollen is adapted to
be able to float in water.
Zoophilous Flowers– In this type of pollination, the pollinating agents are
animals like human beings, bats, birds etc. The zoophilous flowers have
pollen that is designed to stick on to the body of the animal so that they can
be easily carried from one flower to another.
Anemophilous Flowers– These flowers are pollinated by the agency of wind.
These flowers, like zoophilous flowers, are small and inconspicuous. Another
important feature of flowers that are wind pollinated is that they are very
light so that they are easily carried by the wind. The pollen grains are very
light, non-sticky and sometimes winged.

Entomophilic Flowers– These flowers are pollinated by insects. These

flowers are often attractive to look at with bright petals and are fragrant to
attract the insect visitors to them. They often have broad stigmas or anthers to
allow the insect to perch on it. Many of the insect-pollinated flowers also
secrete nectar which attracts bees, butterflies or other similar insects to the
flowers. The pollen grains in these flowers are often spiny or have extensions
that help them to stick on to the body of the insects.

Ornithophilous Flowers– These flowers are pollinated by birds. Very few

flowers and birds show this form of pollination.
Advantages of Cross-Pollination:

 Cross-pollination is beneficial to the race of the plant as it introduces

new genes into the lineage as a result of the fertilization between
genetically different gametes
 Cross-pollination improves the resistance of the offspring’s to diseases
and changes in the environment.
 The seeds produced as a result of cross-pollination are good in vigor and
vitality.
 If there are any recessive characters in the lineage, they are eliminated
as a result of genetic recombination.
 It is the only way unisexual plants can reproduce.
Disadvantages of Cross-Pollination:

 There is a high wastage of pollen grains that need to be produced to

ensure fertilization occurs.
 There are high chances that the good qualities may get eliminated and
unwanted characteristics may get added due to recombination of the
genes.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SELF AND CROSS POLLINATION:

No. Self Pollination Cross Pollination

In self pollination, the pollen grains In cross pollination, the pollen

are transferred from anther to grains are transferred from
1. stigma of the same flower or anther to stigma of another
different flower present on the same flower present on a different
plant. plant.

In self pollination, only one plant is In cross pollination, two

2.
involved. different plants are involved.

It is not a sure method of

It is a sure method of pollination
3. pollination (pollination may
(pollination rarely fails).
fail).

External pollinating agents are not External pollinating agents are

4.
required. required.

Pure line progeny cannot be

5. Pure line progeny can be obtained.
obtained.

6. It does not help in evolution. It helps in evolution.

Undesirable characters cannot be Undesirable characters can be

7.
eliminated. eliminated.
ARTIFICIAL HYBRIDZATION:

As mentioned, pollen-stigma compatibility is essential for a successful

pollination and fertilization. Once compatible pollen is accepted by pistil,
events for fertilization proceeds, whereas incompatible pollen will be
rejected. This interaction where a pistil is capable of recognizing its pollen is
the result of long-term pollen-pistil interaction and chemicals released by
pollen.

Understanding of pollen-pistil interaction is important in hybridization. It is

one of the innovative methods of the crop production improvement program.
During artificial hybridization, only the desired pollen grains are introduced
to the stigma through pollination. This helps to avoid unwanted pollen
rejection and saves time.

Hybridization proceeds in two steps, one is emasculation and another is

bagging.

Emasculation: We know hybridization is the method of selective breeding.

Thus, anthers have to be removed from a bisexual flower before they release
pollen grains. This step of removal of anther using forceps is termed as
emasculation. In the case of unisexual flowers, this step is not necessary.

Bagging: Bagging is the protection of emasculated flower from

contamination by undesirable pollen grains. Here the flower is masked by a
bag, still, the flower attains receptivity. In unisexual flowers, bagging is done
before the flowers are open.

Emasculation and bagging ensure that female flower is completely protected

from contamination.

Once the flower attains stigma receptivity, the desired pollens are dusted on
the stigma. This is resealed for further developments. Hence, artificial
hybridization ensures that right type of pollen has transferred to the stigma of
the flower. In addition, the chance of fertilization is high. Through this
approach, a variety of strains of crops can be developed and it improves the
quality of crop with desirable characters.
WHY IS POLLINATION IMPORTANT TO PLANTS?

Pollination is an important process that occurs among plants in order to

propagate. During pollination, the pollen is transferred to the plants which
enable sexual reproduction and fertilization. Once the pollen grains that
contain the sperm meet the ovule of the flower, pollination occurs.
Pollination then becomes a necessary step for plants to bear flower. Without
pollination, plants will become extinct.

Air, water, and humans can be agents of pollination. When the wind blows, it
can carry with it the pollens toward the female organ of the flower. The same
is true when water flows and carries the pollen. Human can also cause
pollination because he may bring with him the pollens when he travels
Insects are the most popular agents of pollination. Examples of these are
butterflies and bees.

Bees visit flowers because they have a purpose aside from helping in the
pollination. The bees collect nectar from the flowers and turn this to honey.
The nectar is Foods of the bees and once they have a surplus from their
collection, they gather the honey in their beehive. The pollen is also used by
the bees to feed to their larvae.

The bee’s purpose why it visits the flower is for its personal survival. It does
not have any idea that it has a great role in pollination. When bees land on
flowers, the pollens stick to the hairs of the bee. Sometimes, the pollen sacs
are carried by the feet of the bees. Once the bees fly, they carry with them the
pollen sacs. When they land to another flower looking for more nectar, the
pollen will then fall off from the sac. The pollen will then transfer to the
stigma of another flower, causing pollination.

When pollination happens, reproduction will be occurs thus giving new life
to flowers, vegetables, and fruits.