Superconductivity

Discovery of Superconductivity

Discovered by Kamerlingh Onnes

in 1911 during first low temperature
measurements to liquefy helium
Whilst measuring the resistivity of
“pure” Hg he noticed that the electrical
resistance dropped to zero at 4.2K
In 1912 he found that the resistive
state is restored in a magnetic field or
1913
at high transport currents
The superconducting elements

Li Be B C N O F Ne
0.026
Transition temperatures (K)
Na Mg Critical magnetic fields at absolute zero (mT) Al Si P S Cl Ar
1.14

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn
Fe
Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
10
Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0.39 5.38 (iron) 0.875 1.091
10 142 5.3 5.1
Zr Nb
T =1K
Rb Sr Y Nb Mo Tc cRu Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
0.546
(Niobium)9.5 (at 20GPa)
0.92 7.77 0.51 0.03 0.56 3.4 3.72
4.7 198 9.5 141 7 5 3 29.3 30
Cs Ba La HfTc=9K Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6.0
110
H
0.12
c =0.2T
4.483
83
0.012
0.1
1.4
20
0.655
16.5
0.14
1.9
4.153 2.39 7.19
41 17 80

Transition temperatures (K) and critical fields are generally low

Metals with the highest conductivities are not superconductors
The magnetic 3d elements are not superconducting
...or so we thought until 2001
Superconductivity in alloys and oxides

HgBa2Ca2Cu3O9
160 (under pressure)

Superconducting transition temperature (K) 140 HgBa2Ca2Cu3O9

120 TlBaCaCuO

BiCaSrCuO
100
YBa2Cu3O7

80 Liquid Nitrogen
temperature (77K)
60

40 (LaBa)CuO

Nb3Sn Nb3Ge

20 NbC NbN
Hg Pb Nb V3Si

1910 1930 1950 1970 1990

Zero resistance?

In a metal a current is carried by free

conduction electrons - ie by plane waves

resistivity
Plane waves can travel through a perfectly
periodic structure without scattering…..
….but at finite temperatures phonons destroy “impure metal”
the periodicity and cause resistance T
Even at T=0, defects such as grain
boundaries, vacancies, even surfaces give
rise to residual resistivity
Take, eg, pure copper with a resistivity at

resistivity
Residual
room temperature of 2cm, and a T5
residual resistivity at 4.2K of 210-5 cm “ideal metal”
………….a typical Cu sample would thus
have a resistance of only 210-11  at 4.2K
temperature
Zero resistance?

In a metal a current is carried by free

conduction electrons - ie by plane waves

Plane waves can travel through a perfectly

periodic structure without scattering…..
….but at finite temperatures phonons destroy
the periodicity and cause resistance
Even at T=0, defects such as grain
boundaries, vacancies, even surfaces give
rise to residual resistivity
Take, eg, pure copper with a resistivity at
room temperature of 2cm, and a
residual resistivity at 4.2K of 210-5 cm
………….a Cu typical sample would thus
have a resistance of only 210-11  at 4.2K
Zero resistance?

The resistance of pure copper is so small is there really much

difference between it and that of a superconductor?

Take an electromagnet consisting of a 20cm diameter coil with

10000 turns of 0.3mmx0.3mm pure copper wire

R300K = 1 k R4.2K= 0.01 

Pass a typical current of 20 Amps through the coil

P300K = 0.4MW P4.2K= 4 Watts

At 4.2K this is more than enough to boil off the liquid

helium coolant!
Measuring zero resistance

Can we determine an upper limit for the

resistivity of a superconductor?
This is done by injecting current into a
loop of superconductor
The current generates a magnetic field,
and the magnitude of this field is i
measured as a function of time
This enables the decay constant of the
effective R-L circuit to be measured:

B ( t )  i( t )  i( 0 )e  ( R / L ) t
Using this technique, no discernable
change in current was observed over B
two years:
sc  10-24.cm !!
Measuring zero resistance
In practice the superconducting ring is cooled in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density BA to below TC

If the area of the ring is A, the flux threading the loop

is
  AB A
Now change BA: by Lenz’s law a current will flow
to oppose the change, hence

BA
Cool the ring in an applied
magnetic field - then
decrease the field to zero
Measuring zero resistance
In practice the superconducting ring is cooled in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density BA to below TC

If the area of the ring is A, the flux threading the loop

is
  AB A
Now change BA: by Lenz’s law a current will flow
i
to oppose the change, hence
dB A di
emf  A  Ri  L
dt dt
In a “normal” loop, the Ri term quickly kills the
current, but if R=0
dB A di Currents will flow to
A L maintain the field in the
dt dt loop…. forever
Therefore Li+ABA = constant (=total flux in loop)
So if R=0 the current will persist forever !!
 dB A di
If A  Ri  L
dt dt

and Ri = 0 such that

Li+ABA = constant (=total flux in loop)

The flux in the superconducting loop must remain constant

however the field changes

Therefore if a loop is cooled into the superconducting state in zero

field and then the magnetic field is applied supercurrents must
circulate to maintain the total flux threading the loop at zero.

A superconducting cylinder can therefore provide perfect

magnetic shielding
A Meissner Shield
The Meissner Effect

So far everything we have discussed

is equally true for a “perfect conductor”
as well as a “superconductor”

In 1933 Meissner and Oschenfeld

made a discovery which distinguished
between the two

The Meissner Effect

“A superconductor
excludes all magnetic
flux from its interior”
A “perfect conductor” - cooled in zero field

BA=0
cool
The perfect conductor is cooled in zero magnetic
flux density to below “Tc”
BA=0

Apply dB/dt must be zero in a closed resistanceless loop

BA so screening currents flow to generate a field equal
and opposite to BA within the perfect conductor

Remove As BA is reduced to zero, dB/dt must remain at

BA zero, so the screening currents also decrease to
zero.
A “perfect conductor” - cooled in a field

A magnetic flux density BA is applied to the

perfect conductor at high temperatures BA
cool
It is then cooled in a magnetic flux density BA to
below “Tc”
BA

Because there is no change in flux density within

the perfect conductor dB/dt=0 and no screening
currents flow. BA is maintained within the sample BA

As BA is reduced to zero, screening currents flow. In

order to ensure dB/dt=0 and hence to maintain a
flux density of BA within the sample Remove
BA
The currents continue to flow even when the
applied flux density is reduced to zero - the sample
is effectively magnetised
A “perfect conductor”
Zero field cooled Field cooled

BA=0 BA
cool cool

BA=0 BA

Apply BA
BA

Remove Remove
BA BA
A superconductor - cooled in zero field

BA=0
cool
The superconductor is cooled in zero magnetic flux
density to below “Tc”
BA=0

dB/dt must be zero in a closed resistanceless loop

Apply so screening currents flow to generate a field equal
BA and opposite to BA within the superconductor

Remove As BA is reduced to zero, dB/dt must remain at

BA zero, so the screening currents also decrease to
zero.

Precisely the same as a perfect conductor

superconductor perfect conductor
Zero field cooled Zero field cooled

BA=0 BA=0
cool cool

BA=0 BA=0

Apply Apply
BA BA

Remove Remove
BA BA
A superconductor” - cooled in a field

A magnetic flux density BA is applied to the

superconductor at high temperatures BA
cool
It is then cooled in a magnetic flux density BA to
below “Tc”

BA
All magnetic flux is spontaneously excluded from
the body of the superconductor - even though the
applied flux density is unchanged and dB/dt=0 .
Screening currents must therefore begin flow in a BA
time invariant field to produce fields equal and
opposite to BA!!

As the applied magnetic flux density is reduced to Remove

zero, the screening currents also decrease to BA
ensure that dB/dt=0 within the superconductor.

This is the Meissner Effect - it shows that not only must dB/dt=0 within a
superconductor - but B itself must remain zero
perfect conductor superconductor

Field cooled Field cooled

BA BA
cool cool

BA Apply
BA

BA BA

Remove Remove
BA BA
Screening currents - solid sample

BA
i i i
Net flux distribution - solid sample

screening currents

BA BA
i i i

flux from
applied flux
magnetisation An example of perfect
diamagnetism
A tube - (a simply connected system)

Magnetic field applied after cooling

superconducting tube in zero field:

B=0 within the body of the material

it
On application of field, B is maintained
it
at zero by circulation of screening
currents it on outer surface
it
it also cancels the flux density due to
applied field in the hole

In this case a superconducting tube behaves in precisely

the same way as a “perfectly conducting” tube
A tube - (a simply connected system)
Cooling a superconducting tube in
an applied magnetic field:
Above TC the flux passes through the body
of the tube and the hole
ih
On cooling into the superconducting it
state, flux is expelled from body of tube
ih
Circulation of screening currents it on it
outer surface ensures B=0 in the body
of the tube it
However it also cancels the flux density
due to applied field in the hole….
….but the hole is not a superconductor
- the flux density must not change!
Therefore currents ih must flow at the
inner surface of the tube to preserve the Question: how would a perfectly
flux density in the hole conducting tube behave?
Summary:
Magnetic field applied after cooling Cooling a superconducting tube in an
superconducting tube in zero field: applied magnetic field:

ih
it it
ih
it it

it it

Note that it-ih maintains a value which generates a flux density just equal to the difference
between the flux density in the hole and outside the superconducting body
Even if the applied field is now reduced to zero, the field within the tube (which is now
generated by ih) will persist
The Meissner Effect - summary

Between 1911 and 1933 researchers considered that a superconductor was

no more than a resistanceless perfect conductor

By measuring the properties of a superconductor cooled in a magnetic field

they showed that not only
dB/dt=0 but also B=0.

The ability of a superconductor to expel magnetic flux from its interior is the
Meissner Effect

It is the first indication that the superconducting state is an entirely new

state of matter

It shows that in a superconductor currents can be induced to flow in a time

invariant field - in violation of Maxwell’s equations

Summary: Superconductors expel all magnetic flux and exhibit zero resistance
Direct currents

Zero resistance implies no voltage drop across a superconductor

Therefore irrespective of length no power is generated!

This is really true only if the current is dc

A superconductor can be considered as a mixture of two “fluids”

superelectrons normal electrons

Temperature

At T=0 all electrons are superelectrons, for T>Tc all electrons are normal,
with superelectrons converting to normal electrons as Tc is approached

The dc current must be carried by the superelectrons, and there must be no

electric field, otherwise the superelectrons would continue to accelerate and
the current would increase

The normal electrons are effectively “shorted out”

Alternating currents

If an ac voltage is applied across a superconductor there will be a time

varying electric field
Superelectrons, like normal electrons, have mass and hence inertia
So, the supercurrent lags the electric field and therefore produces an
inductive impedence
An inductive impedence in turn implies that there is an electric field
present, so the normal electrons also carry some current
The superconductor is therefore resistive, and appears as a perfect
inductance in parallel with a resistance
The inductive component is small (~10-12 that of normal resistance) at
100kHz and only 10-6 of the total current is carried by normal electrons
But…...
At higher (optical) frequencies (~1011Hz) the superconductor appears
entirely normal …..to be discussed later!!
Some definitions

In free space:  H  dl  I H is “magnetic field” in A/m

 B  dl  oI B is magnetic flux density measured in Tesla

N turns/unit length

BA

I Flux density in empty infinitely long solenoid, by

Ampere’s law, is |B| = o NI (B = oH)

Flux density in solenoid containing infinitely long sample

with a magnetisation per unit volume of Mv is

B = o(H + Mv) (Mv has units of A/m)

Susceptibility
For most materials (except ferromagnets, and paramagnets in very high
magnetic fields and low temperatures)
Mv
Mv  H with Mv = H paramagnet

where  is the (dimensionless) susceptibitity

so: B = o H(1 + )
For most paramagnetic materials  ~10-3, diamagnet H
for diamagnets  ~ -10-5
If a superconductor always maintains
B=0 within its interior, then  = -1
A superconductor can therefore be described as Perfect diamagnet/superconductor

(a) a “perfect diamagnet”

or (b) having screening currents flowing at the surface producing
a field of magnitude MV equal and opposite to H

Note that B=0 but H  0 within the superconductor

Demagnetisation
N turns/unit length, carrying current i

F A B C

E D
With a superconducting sample in the solenoid
Around ABCDEF  H  dl  Ni and  H  dl  AB Hi  dl  BCDEFHe  dl 1
But with the sample removed from the solenoid

Around ABCDEF  H  dl  Ni and  H  dl  AB Ha  dl  BCDEFHe  dl 2

Ha = field applied to sample, Hi = internal field within sample,

H’e = external field without sample He= external field with sample
Demagnetisation
N turns/unit length

F A B X Y C

E So this term... ...is always greater than D

Equating 2 and 1 or equal to this term

AB Ha  dl  BCDEFHe  dl  AB Hi  dl  BCDEFHe  dl

At X, screening currents cause He to be less than He’
But at Y, the effects of the screening currents are negligible, and He = He’
Therefore and Hi  Ha and the field inside the superconductor
can exceed the applied field!
Demagnetisation corrections
In general we write
 to axis
Hi = Ha - HD n
For the special case of an ellipsoid, the
field is uniform throughout the body  to axis
and 1.0
 to axis
Hi = Ha - nMv
0.8 nx+ ny+ nz=1
where n is the demagnetising factor
0.6  to axis
For a superconductor Mv < 0, so Hi>Ha
0.5
or Mv = Hi = -Hi 0.4

0.2
so Hi (1-n) = Ha
sphere
and Ha 0
Hi  0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(1  n) Length/diameter
This will be needed later! ratio
The London Model
An important consequence of flux exclusion in superconductors is that

If magnetic flux density must remain zero in the bulk of a

superconductor, then any currents flowing through the
superconductor can flow only at the surface
However a current cannot flow entirely at the surface or the current density
would be infinite
The concept of “penetration depth” must be introduced

In 1934 F and H London proposed a macroscopic

phenomenological model of superconductivity based
upon the two-fluid model
The London model introduced the concept of the
(London) penetration depth and described the
Meissner effect by considering superconducting
electrodynamics
Some electrodynamics
Consider a perfect conductor in which the current is carried by n electrons

current density J  ne v 1

and in an electric field m v  eE 2

so the rate of increase of current density is J  ne2 E m 3

Maxwell’s equations give curl H  J  D 4

and B   curlE 5
Assuming the displacement current D  0 and (1   )  1
equation 4 gives curlB   o J 6

Then 5 and 3 give B   m curl J ne2 7

m
and 6 and 7 give B   curl curlB 8
 one 2
Some more electrodynamics
m
B   curl curlB can be simplified using the standard identity
 one 2

curl curlB  grad div B   2 B ( div B  0, div B  0 )

 B m
So equation 8 becomes  B
2
with  
 one2
In one dimension this is simply
 2 B B
 B A
x 2

B A exp  x 
To which the solution is
B ( x )  B A exp  x 
So, for x   ~10-6cm, ie inside a x
perfect conductor B does not change
( B ( x )  0 ) when BA changes

B decreases exponentially when we move into the material

The London penetration depth

Experiment had shown that not only B  0 but also B  0 within a superconductor

 B
F and H London suggested that not only  B 
2

B
but also  B 
2

To which the solution is

B( x )  B A exp  x  L  BA

B A exp  x  
where  L    m  ons e 2

L is known as the London penetration

depth x
It is a fundamental length scale of the
superconducting state
Surface currents
B
Working backwards from the London equation  2 B  to equation 7

gives B   m curl Js n s e 2
So, for a uniform field parallel to the surface
(z-direction) the “new” equation 6 becomes
B
   o Jy
x
B B BA
and as   A exp(  x L )
x L Jy  JA exp  x  L 
B
Jy   A exp(  x L )
 oL

or Jy  JA exp  x  L  x

So current flows not just at the surface, but

within a penetration depth L
The London penetration depth

Experiment had shown that not only B  0 but also B  0 within a superconductor

 B
F and H London suggested that not only  B 
2

B
but also  B 
2

To which the solution is

B( x )  B A exp  x L  BA

B A exp  x  
where L    m  onse 2

L is known as the London penetration

depth x
It is a fundamental length scale of the
superconducting state
Surface currents
B
Working backwards from the London equation  2 B  to equation 7

gives B   m curl Js ns e 2
So, for a uniform field parallel to the surface
(z-direction) the “new” equation 6 becomes
B
   o Jy
x
B B BA
and as   A exp(  x L )
x L Jy  JA exp  x L 
B
Jy   A exp(  x L )
 o L

or Jy  JA exp  x L  x

So current flows not just at the surface, but

within a penetration depth L
The London model - a summary

The Londons produced a phenomenological model of superconductivity which

provided equations which described but did not explain superconductivity

Starting with the observation that superconductors expel all magnetic flux from
their interior, they demonstrated the concept of the Penetration Depth, showing
that
Flux does penetrate, but falls of exponentially on a length scale,

Electric current flows only at the surface, again falling off

exponentially on a length scale,
So, in just one dimension we have
B( x )  B A exp  x L 
and Jy ( x )  JA exp  x L 

with  L  m  on s e 2 the London penetration depth

Critical fields
Onnes soon found that the normal state of a superconductor could be recovered
by applying a magnetic field greater than a critical field, Hc=Bc/o
This implies that above Hc the free energy of the normal state is
lower than that associated with the superconducting state
The free energy per unit volume of the superconductor in zero field is
GS(T, 0) below Tc and GN(T,0) above Tc
The change in free energy per unit volume associated with applying a field Ha
parallel to the axis of a rod of superconductor (so as to minimise demagnetisation)
is
Ha


where Mv is the volume
G(Ha )   o Mv dHa
magnetisation
0

For most magnetic materials Mv is positive so the free energy is lowered when a
field is applied, but if Mv is negative, the free energy increases
but for a superconductor MV is negative...
Critical fields
Ha


We have GS ( T,Ha )  GS ( T,0 )   o Mv dHa
0
GN(T, 0) normal state
So, in the absence of demagnetising
effects, MV= Ha = -Ha, and
Ha


GS ( T,Ha )  GS ( T,0 )   o HadHa
0
1
2
oHa2
GS(T, 0)
1
 GS ( T,0)  oHa2
2
Hc Ha
When the magnetic term in the free energy
is greater than GN(T, 0)-GS(T,0) the normal
MV Hc Ha
state is favoured, ie
1/ 2
2 
Hc ( T )   (GN ( T,0 )  GS ( T,0 ))
 o 
Critical fields - temperature dependence

Critical
field
Experimentally it is found that


Hc ( T )  Ho 1  T Tc 
2

Critical currents
If a superconductor has a critical In zero
magnetic field, Hc, one might also applied field
expect a critical current density, Jc.
Hi
The current flowing in a superconductor Radius, a
can be considered as the sum of the
transport current, Ji, and the screening Magnetic field
Current
currents, Js.
i
If the sum of these currents reach Jc
then the superconductor will become  H .dl  i
i so 2aHi  i
normal.
and ic  2aHc
The larger the applied field, the
The critical current density of a long
smaller the transport current that can
thin wire in zero field is therefore
be carried and vice versa
2aHc ie jc 
2Hc
Jc has a similar temperature jc 
dependence to Hc, and Tc is similarly a2 a
lowered as J increases Typically jc~106A/m2 for type I
superconductors
The intermediate state
A conundrum:
If the current in a superconducting wire of radius a just reaches a value of
ic = 2aHc
the surface becomes normal leaving a superconducting core of radius a’<a
The field at the surface of this core is now
H’=ic/2a’ > Hc
So the core shrinks again - and so on until the wire becomes completely normal
But
- when the wire becomes completely normal the current is uniformly distributed
across the full cross section of the wire
Taking an arbitrary line integral around the wire, say at a radius a’<a, now
gives a field that is smaller than Hc as it encloses a current which is much
less than ic
….so the sample can become superconducting again!
and the process repeats itself …………………………...this is of course unstable
….schematically

Critical current is The sample is normal and …..and the process

reached when the line current is distributed repeats itself
integral of the field uniformly over cross section.
around the loop is Current enclosed by loop at
ic = 2aHc radius a’<a is
Current density is i = ica’2/a2 < ic
j c= i/a2.
Note current flowing also the line integral of the
within penetration depth field around the loop gives
of the surface. H= i/2a’ = ica’/2 a2 < Hc
Superconducting state …..so the sample can become
collapses superconducting again
The intermediate state
Instead of this unphysical situation the superconductor breaks up into regions,
or domains, of normal and superconducting material
The shape of these regions is not fully understood, but may be something like:

n n n n
sc sc sc i
n n n n

The superconducting wire will now have R

some resistance, and some magnetic
flux can enter

Moreover, the transition to the normal

state, as a function of current, is not
abrupt
ic 2ic 3ic i
Field-induced intermediate state

A similar state is created when a superconductor is placed in a magnetic field:

Consider the effect of applying a magnetic

field perpendicular to a long thin sample

The demagnetising factor is n=0.5 in this Ha

geometry, so the internal field is
Hi = Ha/(1-n) = 2Ha
So, the internal field reaches the critical
field when
Ha = Hc/2
The sample becomes normal
- so the magnetisation and hence demagnetising field falls to zero
The internal field must now be less than Hc (indeed it is only Hc/2)
The sample becomes superconducting again, and the process repeats
Again this is unphysical
Field-induced intermediate state
Once again the superconductor is
stabilised by breaking down into R
normal and superconducting regions
Resistance begins to return to the
sample at applied fields well below Hc
- but at a value that depends upon the
shape of the sample through the
demagnetising factor n
When the field is applied
perpendicular to the axis of a long
thin sample n=0.5, and resistance
starts to return at Ha= Hc/2

For this geometry the sample is said

to be in the intermediate state
Ha/Hc
0.5 1.0 1.5
between Ha= Hc/2 and Ha=Hc
Field distribution in the inetrmediate state
HA=Hc(1-n)
s
n
s
n
s
n
s

When Hi=Hc the sample splits into normal and superconducting regions which
are in equilibrium for Hc(1-n)<Ha<Hc
B at the boundaries must be continuous, and B=0 within superconducting
region, so B=0 in both superconducting and normal regions
- the boundaries must be parallel to the local field
H must also be parallel to the boundary, and H must also be continuous at
the boundary, therefore H must be the same on both sides of the boundary
On the normal side Hi=Hc, so on the superconducting side Hi=Hc
Therefore a stationary boundary exists only when Hi=Hc
The Intermediate state
Ha
A thin superconducting plate of radius a and
thickness t with a>>t has a demagnetising
factor of
10-2cm
n  1 - t/2a

So, with a field Ha applied perpendicular to

the plate the internal field is

Hi = Ha/(1-n) = 2a.Ha/t a

and only a very small applied field is

needed to reach Ha= Hc

Generally, for elemental superconductors

the superconducting domains are of the The dark lines are superconducting
order of 10-2 to 10-1 cm thick, depending regions of an aluminium plate
upon the applied field “decorated” with fine tin particles
Surface energy
The way a superconductor splits into superconducting and normal regions is
governed by the surface energy of the resulting domains:

Surface energy >0 Type I

The free energy is minimised by minimising
the total area of the interface
hence relatively few thick domains

Surface energy <0 Type II

Energy is released on formation of a domain
boundary
hence a large number of thin domains

In the second case it is energetically favourable for the superconductor to

spontaneously split up into domains even in the absence of demagnetising
effects
To understand this we need to introduce the concept of the “coherence length”
The Pippard coherence length
In 1953 Sir Brian Pippard considered
1. N/S boundaries have positive
surface energy
2. In zero magnetic field
superconducting transitions in
pure superconductors can be as
little as 10-5K wide
Thus all electrons in the sample
must participate in superconductivity
and there must be long range order
or coherence between the electrons
3. Small particles of superconductors
have penetration depths greater
than those of bulk samples
Therefore superconducting electron
densities must change at a relatively
slow rate through the sample
He concluded:
The superconducting electron
density ns cannot change rapidly
with position...
….it can only change appreciably
of a distance of ~10-4cm,
The boundary between normal and
superconducting regions therefore
cannot be sharp….
…..ns has to rise from zero at the
boundary to a maximum value
over a distance 
 is the Pippard coherence
length
The Pippard coherence length

The superconducting electron

density ns cannot change rapidly
with position...
….it can only change appreciably ns
of a distance of ~10-4cm,

surface
The boundary between normal and 
superconducting regions therefore
cannot be sharp….
…..ns has to rise from zero at the superconductor
boundary to a maximum value
over a distance  x

 is the Pippard coherence

length
Surface energy considerations
We now have two fundamental length scales of the superconducting state:

The penetration depth, , is the length scale over

which magnetic flux can penetrate a superconductor
The coherence length, , is the length scale over
which the superelectron density can change
We also know that the superconducting region is “more ordered” than the
normal region so that
1 which changes on
gn  gs  oHc 2
the length scale of 
1
2
Whilst in a magnetic field the superconductor acquires a magnetisation to
cancel the internal flux density, hence deep in the material
1 which changes on
gs  gn  oHc2 2
2 the length scale of 
Deep inside the superconductor these free energy terms (1 and 2) cancel
exactly, but what happens closer to the surface?
Positive and negative surface energy
For  >  For  < 

Surface energy is positive: Surface energy is negative:

Type I superconductivity Type II superconductivity
Conditions for Type II Superconductivity
If the surface energy is negative we expect
Ns
Type II superconductivity
Normal “cores” ,“flux lines” or “vortices” will
appear and arrange themselves into an 2
hexagonal lattice due to the repulsion of the
associated magnetic dipoles
A normal core increases the free energy per d
unit length of core by an amount  = radius over which
2 2  oHc2
1 superconductivity is
B destroyed
…but over a length scale  the material is not
fully diamagnetic so in a field Ha there is a
local decrease in magnetic energy of
2 2 oHa2
1
2
So for a net reduction of energy d
2 2 oHc2  2 2 oHa2
1 1  = radius of vortex
The Lower and Upper Critical Fields
2 2 oHc2  2 2 oHa2
1 1 Ha
Hc1 Hc Hc2
0
Therefore magnetic cores or flux lines
will spontaneously form for Areas
2Ha2  2Hc2 approximately
equal

ie, if Ha  Hc1  Hc
 The Mixed State
 Mv
providing   1

where  is the Ginzburg-Landau parameter (A more rigorous G-L treatment
shows  must be greater than 2
Hc1 is known as the lower critical field -see later lectures)
As some magnetic flux has entered the sample it has lower free energy than if it
was perfectly diamagnetic, therefore a field greater than Hc is required to drive it
fully normal
This field, Hc2, is the upper critical field. Note: for Nb, ~1
Ginzburg-Landau Theory
Everything we have considered so far has treated superconductivity semi-
classically
However we know that superconductivity must be a deeply quantum
phenomenon
In the early 1950s Ginzburg and Landau developed a theory that put
superconductivity on a much stronger quantum footing
Their theory, which actually predicts the existence of Type II superconductivity,
is based upon the general Landau theory of “second order” or “continuous”
phase transitions
In particular they were able to incorporate the concept of a spatially dependent
superconducting electron density ns, and allowed ns to vary with external
parameters
Note: in the London theory   m onse but ns does not
2

depend upon distance as the Pippard model demands. The

concept of coherence length is entirely absent.
Landau Theory of Phase Transitions
As a reminder of Landau theory, take the example of a ferromagnetic to
paramagnetic transition where the free energy is expressed as
F (M )  F (0)  a(T )M 2  bM 4
M is the magnetisation - the so-called order parameter of the magnetised
ferromagnetic state

F(M)
The stable state is found at the
minimum of the free energy, ie when T>TCM
F(T,M)
0
M
We find M=0 for T>TCM
M0 for T<TCM T=TCM
Any second order transition can be
described in the same way, replacing M
M with an order parameter that goes
to zero as T approaches TC T<TCM
The Superconducting Order Parameter

We have already suggested that superconductivity is carried by superelectrons

of density ns
ns could thus be the “order parameter” as it goes to zero at Tc
However, Ginzburg and Landau chose a quantum mechanical approach, using a
wave function to describe the superelectrons, ie
(r )  (r ) ei(r )
This complex scalar is the Ginzburg-Landau order parameter

(i) its modulus  *  is roughly interpreted as the

number density of superelectrons at point r
(ii) The phase factor (r ) is related to the supercurrent
that flows through the material below Tc
(iii)   0 in the superconducting state, but   0
above Tc
Free energy of a superconductor
The free energy of a superconductor in the absence Fs-Fn
of a magnetic field and spatial variations of ns can be >0
written as 2  4
Fs  Fn     
2
 and  are parameters to be determined,and
it is assumed that  is positive irrespective of
T and that  = a(T-Tc) as in Landau theory
2 
Assuming that ns   the equilibrium value
of the order parameter is obtained from
(Fs  Fn ) 2 Fs-Fn
 0     <0
ns
we find:
for  >0 minimum must be when   0
2

2  2
for  <0 minimum is when      

where  is defined as  in the interior of the 
sample, far from any gradients in 
Free energy of a superconductor

In the superconducting state we have

2  4
Fs  Fn     
2
2  2 Fs-Fn
with     <0

 changes sign at Tc and  is always
positive for a second order transition
also at equilibrium
 2  
Fs  Fn 
2 1
 oH2
c

2
But we have already shown that
1
Fs  Fn   oHc2
2
2
so oHc 
2
We will use this later

The full G-L free energy

If we now take the full expression for the Ginzburg-Landau free energy at a
point r in the presence of magnetic fields and spatial gradients we have:

 4
2
Fs  Fn      the term we have already discussed
2
the magnetic energy associated
1
 oH2 (r ) with the magnetisation in a local
2 field H(r)
1
  i  e * A  2 A kinetic energy term associated
2m * with the fact that  is not uniform
in space, but has a gradient

e* and m* are the charge and mass of the superelectrons and A is the
vector potential

We should look at the origin of the kinetic energy term in more detail.
A charged particle in a field
Consider a particle of charge e* and mass m* moving in a field free region with
velocity v1 when a magnetic field is switched on at time t=0
The field can only increase at a finite rate, and while it builds up there is an
induced electric field which satisfies Maxwell’s equations, ie
curlE  B
If A is the magnetic vector potential (B=curl A) then
d
curlE   (curlA )
dt
Integration with respect to spatial coordinates gives
dA
E
dt
So the momentum at time t is
t t
 
m * v 2  m * v1  e * E dt  m * v1  e * dA dt
0 0 dt

and m * v 2  m * v1  e * A or m * v1  m * v 2  e * A
A charged particle in a field

If m * v 2  m * v1  e * A and m * v1  m * v 2  e * A

the vector p  m * v  e * A must be conserved during the

application of a magnetic field

The kinetic energy, , depends only upon m*v so if  = f(m*v) before

the field is applied we must write  = f(p-e*A) after the field is applied

Quantum mechanically we can replace p by the momentum

operator -iħ

So the final energy in the presence of a field is:

1
 i  e * A  2
2m *
Back to G-L Free Energy - 1st GL Equation
Remember that the total free energy is
 4 1 1
2
Fs  Fn       oH2 (r )   i  e * A  2
2 2 2m *
This free energy, Fs((r), A(r)), must now be minimised with respect to the
order parameter, (r) , and also with respect to the vector potential A(r)

To do this we must use the Euler-Lagrange equations:

F  F F  F
1

 
j
x j ( j )
0 2
A
 
j
x j (A j x j )
0

F
1 Is easy to evaluate - we only need  0 ie

1
     
2
i  e * A 2   0 This is the First
G-L equation
2m *
The second G-L equation

Evaluation of the second derivative in 2

F  F
A
 j
x j (A j x j )
0

1
gives curl curl A
o
Remember that B=curl A, and that curl B = oJ where J is the current density

Therefore 2 gives

J
e* 2
m*

 (i  e * A )  This is the Second
G-L equation

This is the same quantum mechanical expression for a current of particles

described by a wavefunction 
Magnetic penetration within G-L Theory

Taking the second GL equation: J  

e* 2
m*
 (i  e * A )   and neglecting
spatial variations of :
e *2 2
J A 
m*
2
So, if curl B = oJ and using ns  
oe * 2 n * s
curl(o J)  curlcurlB   curlA
m*
and as curlcurlB  grad divB   2B   2B
oe * 2 n * s
This gives  B  
2
B
m*
and finally B   *2 2B  0 Compare these equations
m*
directly with the London
with  *2  equations
o e *2 n *s
A comparison of GL and London theory

We will now pre-empt a result we shall derive later in the course

and recognise that superconductivity is related to the pairing of
electrons.
(This was not known at the time of Ginzburg and Landau’s theory)

If electrons are paired in the superconducting state then:

m* = 2me
e* = 2e
n*s = ns/2

2m m
and hence  *2    2
L
o 4e2ns / 2 oe2ns
The coherence length
We shall now look at how the concept of the coherence length arises in the G-L
Theory
Taking the 1st G-L equation in 1d without a magnetic field, ie:
1
2
      i  e * A 2   0
2m *
2  2 d2 
becomes       2
0 Eq 1
2m * dx
Earlier we showed that the square of the order parameter can be written
2 
  with <0

However we believe that the order parameter can vary slowly with distance, so
we shall now change variables and use instead a normalised order parameter
1
 2

f

where f varies with distance
The coherence length
Substituting the normalised order parameter f into equation 1 on the previous
slide, and noting that  2     , we obtain a “non linear Schrodinger
equation”
1 1 1
  df
2 2 2
 2
3  
2
“-” disappears as <0
  f  f 0
2m *  dx 2
   and we introduce | |
 2 d2f 3   2 d2f
Canceling gives    f   f 0 hence  f  f 3
0
2m * dx 2
 2m *  dx 2
2
Making the substitutions f=1+ f´ where f´ is small and negative, and  
2

2
2m * 
d f'
we have 2 2  1  f '(1  3f '.....)  0
dx
d2 f ' 2f '
hence  2
dx 2

the solution of which is f ' ( x )  exp(  x 2 )
 is therefore the coherence length, characteristic distance over which the order
parameter  varies
Relationship between Bc, * and 
To summarise we have
2 2 m*  2
  1   ns    2 and oHc2  3
2m * 2 oe * 2  * 2  
o2Hc2e * 2  * 2
Solving for  and   from 2 and 3
m*
3oHc2e * 4  * 4 by substituting in 2

m *2
Finally, using 1 we have

 H 
2
2 2 1  
o c   *     cons tan t
2
2e*
or Bc22 * 2  cons tan t
So, although Bc, * and  are all temperature dependent, their product is not
although experimentally it is found to be not quite independent of T