BRAIN STRUCTURE
The nervous system is composed of two major parts:
(a) the central nervous system (CNS; the brain and
spinal cord), which is contained in bone (skull and
spinal column); and (b) the peripheral nervous
system(PNS; all nervous structures outside the CNS),
found outside these bony structures.
The bundles of nerve fibres that conduct excitation to
the CNS are known as afferent nerves (from the Latin,
affere, ‘to bring to’); the bundles of fibres that travel
to the effector systems are called efferent nerves
(from the Latin, effere, ‘to bring forth’).
Types of receptor neurons
Receptor cells are sensitive to external energy
(e.g., pressure, light, sound); and transduce
physical energy into electrical patterns of activity
that are recognized by other neurons in the
nervous system.
Interneurons (also called association neurons)
are intermediate neurons, in the brain or spinal
cord, between incoming (afferent) and outgoing
(efferent) neurons that organize and control
afferent nerve impulses to create efferent effects
Motor neurons receive efferent impulses from
other neurons (often interneurons) and activate
the skeletal musculature and glands.
It is estimated that there are some 100 billion
neurons in the CNS, each with as many as 1,000
to 10,000 connections with other neurons.
The largest structure in the brain is the cerebral
cortex, which is contained within a thin layer only
a few millimetres thick.
One important class of cells are glial cells(or
neuroglia, meaning ‘nerveglue’, literally)
They serve a number of important functions:
(a) they act as guide-wires for growing neurons
and provide the scaffolding for mature neurons;
(b) they insulate neurons from one another;
(c) they regulate the energy entering neurons
(e.g., from the blood) and the waste that comes
out;
(d) they remove dead and damaged cells from the
nervous system;
(e) they produce growth and trophic factors,
playing a key role in regeneration and neural
plasticity; and
(f) they play a crucial role in immunological
responses to various infections and toxic agents
Three types of glial cell exist:
(a) astrocytes absorb chemicals released by
neurons and return them to neurons or release
them into the blood (radial glial cells, a type of
astrocyte, guide the migration of neurons and the
growth of axons and dendrites during
development);
(b) oligodendrocytes provide neurons with their
protective myelin sheath; and
(c) microglia ‘eat’ dead cells and brain debris.
Damage to these cells can impair the functioning
of otherwise intact neurons.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the PNS carries out the commands of the CNS, as
well as regulating some vital bodily functions in
its own right.
The PNS has two divisions:
(a) the somatic nervous system (SNS); and
(b) the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
The SNS is responsible for interacting with the
external environment; that is, information from
the sensory receptors (in skin, muscles and joints)
to the CNS, and for sending motor signals from
the CNS to muscles and glands.
The ANS is responsible for interacting with the
internal environment, regulating basic processes
of the body (e.g., such as the heart, blood vessels,
digestive system and genital organs). Figure 3.3
shows some of the major jobs carried out by the
PNS, and from where in the spinal cord these
instructions are issued.
The ANS is divided into sympathetic (fight–flight)
and parasympathetic (rest–digest) branches,
which exert opposite effects (by the release of
different types of neurotransmitter).
Central nervous system (CNS) composed of the
spinal cord and the brain, as follows.
The spinal cord contains 31 pairs of spinal nerves;
these are ‘mixed’ nerves because each contains
both sensory and motor axons.
The brain is where higher psychological functions
are found.
The human brain weighs between 1,300 and
1,400 grams (approx. 3 lbs). This size compares
with a rhesus monkey brain of 420 g, a cat brain
of 30 g and a rat brain of 2 g;
Structure of the brain
From a horizontal plane, the brain is bilaterally
symmetrical (the two halves of the brain look
much the same); from this view the cerebrum
dominates the appearance of the brain.
The cerebrum consists of clefts (called sulci;
singular: sulcus; also known as fissures); and the
ridges formed along the sulci are gyri(singular:
gyrus).
These two halves of the brain are connected
together by the corpus callosum (as well as by
other structures). In the centre of the brain are
the ventricles; these spaces are filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
The brain may be divided into three sections:
(a) the hindbrain,
(b) the midbrain, and
(c) the forebrain.
These divisions are characterized by
(a) their evolutionary development (phylogeny),
and
(b) their functions.
The hindbrain is essentially a continuation of the
spinal cord. There are a number of important
structures here involved in basic physiological
functions
(a) The medulla oblongata is that part of the
brain stem closest to the spinal cord; it controls
such vital functions as the heartbeat, circulation
and respiration and acts as a relay station for
afferent and efferent impulses. Its destruction
results in immediate death.
(b) The pons acts as a relay station carrying
impulses from various parts of the cerebral cortex
to the cerebellum; it is also involved in the
reflexes controlling breathing.
(c) The reticular formation runs through the
middle of the hindbrain, and enters the midbrain;
it receives sensory impulses (concerning sound)
from higher brain centres and then passes these
back up to the thalamus (this formation is vital
for arousal and sleep).
(d) The locus ceruleus contains relatively few
neurons (approximately 30,000), but it sends out
fibres extensively to other parts of the brain (this
system is involved in states of vigilance).
(e) The cerebellum consists of two deeply
convoluted and separate hemispheres that
control bodily balance and muscular
coordination, including smooth eye movements.
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Above the hindbrain is the midbrain, which is a
relatively small section of the brain. It contains
neural centres that control motor reactions and
auditory and visual functions.
(a) The roof of the midbrain is the tectum, and
the structures on either side are the superior
colliculus and inferior colliculus (see chapter 5).
Under the tectum is (b) the tegmentum, with
parts of the reticular formation and the nuclei of
some of the cranial nerves.
(c) The substantia nigra is involved in smooth
bodily movements; damage to this structure
leads to Parkinson’s disease.
(d) The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is important
in incentive motivation (i.e., motivation to an
appetitive stimulus, e.g., food, sex).