The Nervous System

The Brain organ is a part of one

of the eight (8) systems of the
human anatomy, the nervous
system. The purpose of
the nervous system is to
gather information,
produce responses to stimuli,
and coordinate the workings
of different cells. It is the
command center of the
other eights systems in the
human body. The
development of life
organisms from union of th
egg cell and sperm cell, always starts from the development of the nervous system, the
brain, its spinal cord and nerves. Even the lowliest organisms such as the jellyfish and worms,
have origins of a nervous system. The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system or beyond the brain and the
spinal cord (PNS). Let us take a closer look of this two systems.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) –

processes, interprets and stores incoming
sensory information-information about our
5 senses to be exact; tastes, sounds, smells, color,
pressure on the skin, the state of internal
organs etc. It is the specific command
center (depicted in yellow color) that sends out
orders destined for muscles, glands and body
organs. The (CNS) has to major parts, the brain
and spinal cord. The spinal cord is the
extension of the brain. It runs from the base of
the brain down the center of the back, protected
by a column of
bones. The cord acts as a sort of bridge between the brain and the parts of the body below the
neck. But the spinal cord is not merely a bridge. It also produces some
behavior on its own, without any help from the brain. These behaviors, called spinal reflexes,
are automatic, requiring no conscious effort. Example, if you accidentally touch a hot iron,
you will immediately pull your hand away, even before the brain can actually comprehend
the pain or the receptors kicks in. This is due to the nerve impulses that brings message to the
spinal cord, in this case “hot”. The spinal cord immediately sends out a command via other
nerve impulses, telling muscles in your arm to contract and pull your hand away from the iron.
(Although there some specific parts in the brain that governs other reflexes such as our
blinking and sneezing). The neural circuitry underlying a reflex is called reflex arc. This
could be best explained through situations such as knee jerking, shifting balance of weight
of the body, when stepped broken glass or shards.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) – as the term “outlying” or “beyond” the CNS, this
system handles the CNS’s input and output (depicted in green color). It contains all
portions of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, right down to nerves i
of the fingersn and toes. the tips Th
sory nerves
e in the sen peripher
vous system carry al messag ner m
the special receptorses in th fro in,
muscles and other intere sk nd
external sense organsnal t a he
spinal cord, which send
o t hem along
to the brain. Th s t erves put us
in touch with botese ne outside
world and th h th tivities of our
own bodies. Mot e ac (motion-
producing) nerv or rry orders
from the cent es ca nervous
system to muscl ral ands and
internal orga es, gley enable us to
move our bodie ns. Th d they cause
glands to contra s, an d secrete
various ct an substances,
including chemic messengers
called the horm al is system is
further divided i ones. Th n em and the
autonomic nerv two parts: the somatic nervous syst ousetimes called the
system.controls
skeletal nervous system, The somatic
the (body)
skeletalnervous system,
muscles of thesombody and permits voluntary
action. Examples of these are, when you are running, writing, going to work by walking,
doing a lecture in front of the class, following a dance moves or simply creating your
own moves, the somatic system is presently active. The autonomic (self-governing)
nervous system, as the term implies; these are movements or actions that are
involuntary, regulates blood vessels, glands and internal (visceral) organs like the
bladder, stomach and pumping of the heart. The autonomic nervous system works more
or less automatically, without a person’s conscious control. Under the autonomic
system, there are two subdivision,
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. These two subdivisions work together
but in opposing ways to adjust the body to changing circumstances (see illustration). To
simplify, the sympathetic system acts like the accelerator of a car, mobilizing the body for
action and an output of energy. It makes you blush, sweat, and it pushes up your heart rate
and blood pressure. The parasympathetic system is more like a brake. It doesn’t stop the
body, but it does tend to slow things down or keep them running smoothly. It conserves
energy and helps the body store it. If you have to jump out of the way of a preoccupied
motorcyclist, sympathetic nerves increase your heart rate. Afterwards, parasympathetic nerves
slow it down again and keep its rhythm regular. Both system are involved in emotion and
stress.
The nervous system can be likened to complex system, a network strands connected to every
fiber or part of the body.
And this system mostly run, just like
in the circulatory system, blood
cells and the like, the nervous
system has a nerve cells or
neurons. This neurons conducts
electromagnetic signal; and are the
basic unit of the nervous system;
and they are held in place by glial
cells (from the greek word, “glue”),
which also provide them
with nutrients, insulate them, and
remove cellular “debris” when
they die. Neurons are
communication cells. They
transmit information to, from or
inside of the central nervo
system, and are often called the building
us blocks of the nervous system. The structure of a simple
neuron differs in every region of the brain, and it differs also in main function. But the
simple neuron has its three (3) major basic structure namely, cell body, dendrites, and axon.

The Cell Body is shaped roughly like a sphere or a pyramid. It contains the
biochemical machinery for keeping the neuron alive. It is responsible in the
transmission of messages to other neurons.

The Dendrites of a neuron look like branches of a tree, which is used as an

antennas, receiving messages from other nerve cells and transmitting them toward the cell
body.

The Axons can be likened to trunk of a tree, which is more slender. It

transmits messages away from the cell body to other cells. Axons have branches at their
tips, but these branches are usually less numerous than dendrites. Dendrites and axons give
each neuron a double role: As one researcher in the field of Neurology, a neuron is first a
catcher, then a batter (Gazzaniga, 1988).
In adult human beings, axons vary from only a tenth of a millimeter to few feet in length.
The large ones, of course, are found outside the brain. In the peripheral nervous system,
the axons of individual cells collect in bundles called nerves (not to be confused with nerve
cells). The human body has 43 pairs of peripheral nerves, one nerve from each pair on the
left side of the body and the other on the right. Most of these nerves enter or leave the spinal
cord, but the 12 pairs that are in the head go directly to and from the brain. (the central
nervous system also contains bundles of neuron fibers, but they are called tracts.) Most
axons are insulated by a layer of fat cells called the myelin sheath. A major purpose of
this covering is to prevent signals from adjacent cells from interfering with each other.
The myelin sheath is divided into segments that make the axon look a little like a string of
link sausages. When a neural impulses travels down the axon, it “hops” from one break in
the “string” to another, making direct contact with the nerve cell. This action allows the
impulse to travel faster that it could if it had to move along the entire axon. The thicker
the myelin sheath, the faster the impulse. Nerve impulses travel more slowly in babies than in
older children and adults, because babies’ myelin sheaths have not fully developed. The
communication of neuron to neuron usually involves separated tiny gaps called synapses.

The Brain
The storage of our memories, the seat of our intelligence (Davis, 1984) and you may not know
it, it is also where our emotions are found (Darwin, 1872; James & Lange,
1884; Cannon & Bard, 1900; Papez, 1937; Macchi, 1989). The brain’s structure is also as
complicated as its counterpart on moving the body itself. In this term, we are also speaking on
how we should feel, elicit emotion, act towards an emergency, our brain plays an important
role in our thoughts, behavior and feelings. The brain have three (3) main sections divided:
Hindbrain, Midbrain and Forebrain. The reflexive or autonomic behavior is controlled by the
Hindbrain and Midbrain. The complex behavior of the individual belongs to controlled area of
the Forebrain.

The Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)

This part of the brain starts at the base of the skull and the brain
stem. It is the region of the brain in which the medulla oblongata,
pons and cerebellum. The Hindbrain coordinates functions that
are fundamental to survival, including respiratory rhythm,
motor activity, sleep and wakefulness.

The Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

Located towards the base of your brain

is a small but important region (derived called the midbrain
from the developmental me serves as a sencephalon), which
vital connection point major regions between the other he
of the brain - t forebrain and
the hindbrain. The midbrain is the topmost part of the
brainstem, the connection central between the brain and the
spinal cord. There are three main parts of the midbrain
- the colliculi, the tegmentum, and the
cerebral peduncles. Of the 12 cranial nerves, two thread directly from the midbrain
- the oculomotor and trochlear nerves, responsible for eye and eyelid movement.

Forebrain (Prosencephalon)

Source: Wikimedia

The Forebrain (derived from the developmental

prosencephalon) which contain the entire
cerebrum and several structures directly
nestled within it - the thalamus,
hypothalamus, the pineal gland and the limbic
system. This area of the brain plays a central role
in the processing of information related to
complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative
functions, and voluntary motor activities. Included in
this region is the visible area, the cerebrum; and
this cerebrum is divided into two parts or most
popularly known for the two major division of the
brain, cerebral hemispheres (Michel et. al., 2020;
MacNeilag e,
2013). When you picture the iconic shape of the human brain, the majority of what’s visible is
the cerebrum with its wrinkly, pinkish-grey outer appearance. It makes up around 85% of the
brain and consists primarily of grey matter, divided into two hemispheres.

The Two Hemispheres of the Brain.

Source: https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-
anatomy/corpus-callosum

We could recall from the lesson that the

cerebrum can be divided into two parts
which can be called hemispheres.
And this hemispheres can control
opposite sides of the body. Though
similar in structure, the hemisphere
have somewhat separate talents or
areas of specialization. But before we
discuss the distinction that separate
the ispheres, we have acknowledge
what makes them connect. This importance and function belongs to the corpus callosum.
These are a band of nerve, which carries back andhem
forth between the two. A combination of
sensory motor and cognitive information is constantly being transferred between
hemispheres via this neural highway. If the corpus callosum is severed, the brain’s
hemispheres are not able to communicate properly, and the loss of a range of functions can
occur – for example, changes to visual perception, speech and memory. Surgical severing of
the corpus callosum is a last-resort method for untreatable epilepsy, to stop seizures
spreading across the brain.

These also provided proof that there is no truth that some people use one brain
hemisphere more than the other depending on their personality. Some functions may be
specialized in a particular cerebral hemisphere, but the truth is that we use both
hemispheres equally. Even though one hemisphere is specific for a function. The truth on
the matter is that the continuous communication of both hemispheres works far better.
Even, the theory that the establishment of creativity is strictly for the right-brained or
the right hemisphere, on the contrary, there is no specific evidence to really establish
this theory. Creativity is a complex process. According to a study, creative thinking does not
seem to depend on a single mental process or the brain region. Nor is it particularly associated
with the right brain, attention, low level of activation or synchronization with the alpha waves
emitted by the brain (Cerdan,
2017).

A psychologist by the name of Roger W. Sperry was responsible for the theory of the right
and left brain dominance. Sperry and his colleagues showed that perception and memory
had been profoundly affected, just as they had been in earlier animal research. In 198,
Sperry received a Nobel Prize for his work.

Function Left Brain Hemisphere Right Brain Hemisphere

Functions Speech and Language, Intuition
Mathematical Computation, Rational Spatial Awareness
reasoning, Music Creativity
Logical Analysis Facial recognition
Art
Rhythm
Personality Logical Artistic
Attention to details Creative
Analytical Open-minded
Traits Rational decision making Random thoughts
Linear thinking Non-verbal processing
Reality-oriented Holistic Thinking Fantasy-
oriented
Thought Process Verbal and Sequential Non-verbal random thoughts
Problem-
Solving ability Solve the problem in the most logical way Solve problems in the most intuitive way
Overall
Thinking Detail - Oriented Holistic Approach
 Strengths Language both verbal and written Arts Music Coordinating Multi-dimensional
Mathematics and analytics Sequencing thinking
Reading Remembering a place, face or events
Writing, Spelling
Difficulties Visualization
Abstract thinking Organizing a huge body of information
Difficulty in following a sequence
Remembering names
Parts of the It controls the right side of the body It controls the left side of the body
body being
controlled
Effects on the Not able to understand both spoken and Visual perception is impaired
body when written words Can’t see or perceived things on the left side of
damaged Can’t see or perceive things on the right side the body
of the body Short attention span
Slow movements Poor decision making
Slow learning process
Impulsiveness

Source: https://human-memory.net/left-and-right-hemisphere-of-the-brain