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Chemistry Review-Smith PDF
Chemistry Review-Smith PDF
Chemistry Review
Unit I: Matter and Energy
• Group 1a: Alkali Metals- Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Francium
• Group 2a: Alkaline Earth Metals- Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium. Barium,
Radium
• Group 18: Noble Gases/Inert Gas Group- Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon
• Concluded that physical and chemical properties of elements appear in regular intervals when
listed by increasing atomic mass.
• He concluded that physical & chemical properties of elements were listed by increasing atomic
number.
b. 1 kg=1,000g 1g=1,000 mg
c. Volume is represented by Length, Width and Height (V=LWH, for Regular Shape)
d. Vo=Vwto-Vw -Volume for irregular solid; Vw= Initial level of water, Vwto- Final level of
water
d. International Scale (SI) Temperature- Measured with Kelvin Scale (Based off of
absolute zero) - 0C= 273K, 0K=-273C
Significant Figures
A. All numbers that are actually read plus one estimated guess.
II. All whole numbers are always significant. 2039- 4 significant figures
II. Zeros are significant if they are between whole numbers. 2004- 4 significant figures
IV. Zero is significant if it's to the right of the whole number and to the right of the decimal point.
0.09036- 4 significant figures
VI. For addition and subtraction, the answer can contain as many decimal places as the least
accurate value.
VII. For multiplication and division, the answer can only contain as many significant digits as
the least accurate value.
What is Chemistry?
I. It is the study of:
II. Matter
III. Substances
a. Fixed composition
I. Elements
• Cannot be decomposed
2. Compounds
III. Mixtures
Properties
Physical Properties
I. A quality of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the substance's
composition.
II. Examples: Color, solubility, odor, hardness, density, melting point, boiling point, luster
(senses).
Chemical Properties
I. The ability of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction & to form a new substance
Metallic Properties
I. Luster, good conductors of heat & electricity, malleable (hammer into shapes), ductile (ability
to be drawn into wires), hard.
Non-Metallic Properties
I. Dull, brittle, soft (if solid), poor conductors of heat & electricity, no free electrons.
Metalloids/Semi-Metal Properties
III. A chemical change forms a new substance, energy always accompanies a chemical changes
Matter-Continued
I. Solids
• Crystalline structure- crystals arranged in a repeated geometric pattern (Like ice, strong
intermolecular attraction)
II. Liquids
III. Gases
IV. Psuedosolids
Phase Changes
• All phase changes are accompanied with either a loss or gain of energy
I. Endothermic Reactions
• Sublimation- Solid turns into gas directly (Substances that sublime have high vapor pressure
and low intermolecular forces of attraction)
A.Ke=1/2mv^2
IV.Heat Energy
• Example: Gas burns in engine (Chemical to heat), Car moves (Mechanical to kinetic)
Thermometry
• Temperature- The measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance
• Temperature Scales
• Degree Celsius- Most commonly used, 2 fixed points (0 which is melting/freezing of water,
and 100, which is boiling/condensation point of water) Values increase by 1
• Kelvin- Contains theoretically the lowest possible temperature, has never been exactly
reached, absence of all kinetic energy
• K=C+273, C=K-273
Q=MCΔT
--M=Mass of substance
• Specific Heat Capacity- Amount of heat needed to raise 1g of a substance by 1°C (Water=4.18
J/G°C)
Heat of Fusion
• Q=MHf is used when calculating how much heat is absorbed when a substance melts
• Remember:
• Heat absorbed during melting goes into raising the potential energy of the Substance
• Kinetic energy is constant (constant temperature therefore you cannot use Q=MCΔT
Heat of Vaporization
• Q=MHv is used to calculate how much energy is absorbed when a substance vaporizes
• Mg (1)(24)=24g
• O (6)(16)=96g 24+28+96=148
• Atoms and molecules are too small to count, so we count them in liege quantities
• The mass of one mole of a substance can be found by determining its gram-formula mass
Gas-Mole Concept
Percent Composition
• The percent by mass of each element in the compound.
• The percent composition of a compound consists of a percent value for each different element
in the compound
• K2CrO4
• K= 40.3%
• Cr=26.8%
• O=32.9%
• The percents MUST total 100%
• The percent by mass of an element in a compound is the number of grams of the element
divided by the mass in grams of the compound, multiplied by 100%
I. K (39)(2)=78g. Cr (1)(52)=52g. O (4)16) = 64 - Configure Gram-Mass Formula
• 78+52+64=194g
II. Use proportion 78/194 = 40.3% 52/194=26.8% 64/194= 32.9%
• Vapor Pressure- Gas particles exert pressure on the liquid when they evaporate
• In a closed system, the pressure increases
• Evaporation increases with an increase in temperature
• 1 ATM=760 Torr=760 mm Hg, are also values of standard pressure
• Normal Boiling Point= When the vapor pressure=atmosphere pressure.
• When a substance boils, evaporation occurs throughout the liquid
• Also measures the strength of intermolecular forces
• *If Vapor Pressure is high, attraction between molecules is weak
• *If Vapor Pressure is low, attraction between is strong
• As you move away from the nucleus, the energy in each PEL Increases.
• Like climbing stairs, further you go=more energy
• Ground State-When electrons are in lowest energy level
• Quantum Leap- When electrons jump between energy levels
• 2 electrons can only absorb a fixed amount of energy (quanta) to move to higher level
• Electrons can only jump to levels that aren’t completely filled with electrons
• Heat, light and electricity are all stimuli that can excite an electron
• Excited State- Electrons are in higher energy levels. Acquired when an electron absorbs energy
and becomes unstable. Electrons quickly return to ground state, emitting the same amount of
energy absorbed, usually in some form of light.
• Every element gives off a unique pattern of colors (line spectrum) which can be used to
identify the element
• Planck’ s constant, h = 6.63 ¥ 10-34 J s
Electron Configuration
• An electron configuration tells you how many electrons there are in each energy level
• 1 Mg (2-8-2) has 2 electrons in PEL 1, and 8 electrons in PEL 2
• The amount of numbers in each electron configuration tells you how many electron levels are occupied
with electrons
• 2n2 - energy levels for max (for max)
• 2-8-2- Ground State, 2-7-3- Excited State
• Last=Valence Electrons
Valence Electrons
• The electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom (last # in the electron configuration)
• 2-8-3 has 3 valence electrons
• Valence electrons can determine the chemical properties of an element
The Kernel
• Includes the nucleus and all non-valence electrons
Quantum Numbers
• N,L,M,S
• Principle Quantum Number- N
• Second quantum number indicated by L describes sublevels. Each energy level (N) has n
sublevels.
• Level Sublevel
1 1 s
2 1,2 s,p
3 1,2,3 s,p,d
4 1,2,3,4 s,p,d,f
• The third quantum number m represents the number of orbitals in a sublevel
• Sublevels- only 1 orbital m=0
• Sublevels- 3 orbitals (x,y,z) m=0±1
• Sublevels- 5 orbitals m=0±1±2
• Sublevels 7 orbitals m=0±1±2
• Only 2e- in each orbital
• Spin Quantum Number- Describes the spin of an atom (Pauli) clockwise
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle- No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of 4 quantum
numbers
• Examples:
I. Hydrogen- 1s1
II. He 1s2
III. Lithium - 1s22s1
IV. Carbon 1s22s22s2
V. Neon 1s22s22p6
VI.Magnesium - 1s22s22p63s2
Smith 17
Bonding
Ionic Bonding
• Compounds composed of cations and anions are called ionic compounds
• Characterized by the transfer of electrons- Representative unit is the formula unit
• Composed of metal cations and nonmetal anions.
• Cation- Ion with positive charge
• Anion- Ion with negative charge
• Anions and cations have opposite charges and attract one another with electrostatic forces
• Properties:
I. Solid at room temperature
II. Have high melting points
III. Conduct an electric current when
Dissolved/melted in water
• Use brackets diagram to illustrate electron
transfer based off of oxidation numbers and
Valence electrons - to satisfy the octet rule (to obtain 8 valence electrons to achieve stability-like
the noble gases)
• Example: Calcium and Chlorine (Metal and nonmetal)
Calcium’s electron configuration: 2-8-8-2
Chlorine’s electron configuration: 2-8-7
You need to remove 2 electrons from calcium to achieve 8 valence electrons
*Use Lewis Electron Dot Diagram* - Depicts valence electrons
And 2 electrons must be given to chlorine (Cl is diatomic), so one electron goes to each chlorine.
Smith 18
Covalent Bonding
• Characterized by the share of electrons (like a tug-of-war between elements) to achieve
electron configuration of noble gases
• Representative unit is a molecule
• Nonpolar and Polar
• Nonpolar: Bonding electrons are shared equally (Like N2, O2, Cl2, H2)
• Polar: Bonding electrons shared unequally
• Polar Molecule*: Asymmetrical molecule, one side is more negative than the other is
positive. (AKA, a dipole)
• Nonpolar Molecule*: Symmetrical molecule, charges are balanced
• The more electronegative atom attracts electrons more strongly and gains a slightly
negative charge. The less electronegative atom has a slightly positive charge
• Use difference of electronegativity to determine most probably type of bond
Electronegativity Difference Most Probable Bond Example
0.0-0.4 Nonpolar Covalent H-H (H2) (0.0)
0.4-1.0 Moderately Covalent H-CL (HCl) (0.9)
1.0-2.0 Very Polar Covalent H-F (HF) (1.9)
≥2.0 Ionic Na+Cl- (2.1)
• Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract electrons when the atom is in a compound
• Single Covalent Bond: Bond formed when when two atoms share a pair of electrons (Like
H:H)-Depicts the sharing of two electrons
• Double Covalent Bond: A bond in which two atoms hare two pairs of electrons (like O::O),
Oxygen has 6 valence electrons, and needs 8 to follow octet rule, so oxygen shares two with
oxygen)
• Triple Covalent Bond: A bond formed by sharing three pairs of electrons (like N:::N), Nitrogen
has 5 valence electrons, and needs 3 more to follow octet rule- so, Nitrogen must share 3 with
Nitrogen)
Smith 19
• Network Solids/Crystals: Solids in which all of the atoms are covalently bonded to each other-
VERY high melting point. Examples are Diamonds, Silicon Carbide, Silicon Dioxide
• Properties:
I. Low melting/boiling points
II.Tend to be soft, tend to be liquids, gases or soft solids
III. Poor conductors of heat and electricity
IV.Are molecules
V. Are brittle
VI. Nonmetallic
• Coordinate Covalent Bonds: A covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding
electrons. (Can depict in structural formula by drawing an arrow that points from the atom
donating the pair of electrons to the atom receiving them) (like CO)
Metallic Bonding
• Can be described as a sea of electrons
• The valence electrons are mobile and can drift freely from one part of the metal to another
• Metallic bonds consist of the attraction of the free-floating valence electrons for the positively
charged metal ions. These bonds are the forces of attraction that hold metals together (Cu
would be considered a metallic bond)
• Sea of electrons explains physical properties of metals:
• Excellent conductors of heat and electricity
• Malleable (Can be hammered and shaped)
• Ductile (Can be made into wires)
• Metal atoms are arranged in very compact and orderly patterns
Smith 20
Hydrogen Bonding
• Attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative element
(Fluorine is most electronegative, oxygen is second most electronegative) is also weakly
bonded to an unshared electron pair of an electronegative atom.
• Like OH, HF, NH (Hydrogen with Oxygen, Fluorine or Nitrogen)
• For a Hydrogen bond to form, there must be a covalent bond present
• Strongest of intermolecular forces
• Extremely important of determining the properties of water and biological molecules, such as
proteins
Van der Waals Forces
• The two weakest attractions between molecules- named after Dutch chemist Johannes van der
Waals (1837-1923).
• Van der Waals forces consist of dipole interactions and dispersion forces
• Dipole interactions occur when polar molecules are attracted to one another-The electrical
attraction involved occurs between the oppositely charged region of polar molecules (Like
NaCl(Aq), Na+ will attach to O- and Cl- will attach to H+ (negative goes to positive, positive
goes to negative)
• Dispersion forces are the weakest of all molecular interactions and are caused by the motion of
electrons.
• Caused by the electron motion on one molecule affecting the electron motion on the other
through electrical forces (electrons are negative..when an electron moves, it will repel another
electron)
Trends in Periodic Table
I. Atomic Radii
• Trend in Period
• Decrease left to right
• Increase # of protons, increase attraction. For valence electrons= smaller radius
• Trend in Group
• Increase Top to bottom
Smith 21
decrease in temperature
Exothermic Reactions
• Since energy is released in an exothermic reaction, the surrounding environment will increase
in temperature
Law of Conservation of Mass
Smith 25
• Example: Ca(NO3)2 : you have either 2 nitrates or 2 nitrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms
• 2H2 + O2 2H2O
• 2H2O 2H2 + O2
element in a compound
• Always 2 reactants (one single element + one compound) and always 2 products (one
single element + one compound)
• A + BC B + AC
• Mg + 2HCl H2 + MgCl2
Identifying Reactions
• Single Replacement
• Not all reactants will react
• To determine if a single replacement reaction will occur:
• Determine if the single element on the reactant side is a metal or nonmental
• Then find this element on Table J and compare it to the corresponding metal or
nonmetal of the other reactant
• If the single element is higher on Table J than the metallic/nonmetallic element in
the compound then the reaction will occur
• Being higher means that the element is more reactive and can therefore
“replace” the other
• Double Displacement
• 3 Situations in which a double replacement reaction will occur between two aqueous ionic
compounds
• 1: If one of the products is insoluble (It doesn’t dissolve and therefore forms a
precipitate, and the other is soluble
• A double replacement reaction will not occur if both products are aqueous
Unknown Reactants and Products
• You may have to predict the formula of an unknown reactant or product
• Example : 2Na + 2H2O X + 2NaOH
• To find X:
• Tally the amount of atoms you have on either side of the arrow
• 2 Na 2
• 4H2
• 2O2
• It seems that we are missing 2 H atoms
• If written correctly, we can find the missing piece (H2)
• In general, as the number of effective collisions between particles increases, so does reaction
rate
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
I. Nature of the Reactants
• Covalent or organic (containing C) substances react slower than ionic
• Because they have more bonds that must be broken as they react
• Ionic substances react more quickly
• Have no true bonds
• Ions held together by electrostatic force
II. Concentration (Mol/L)
• Means how much stuff per Liter of space
• If concentration is increased, then more collisions between particles will result
• More collisions=faster reaction rate
• In general: increase concentration, increase reaction rate
III. Surface Area
• Exposing more of a reactant’s surface area will lead to faster reactions
• This is because there will be more reactant particles contacting the other reactants
• Surface area can be increased by breaking down a chunk of a reactant into smaller pieces or
powder
• A powdered form of a substance always gives the most surface area
IV. Pressure
• Only affects reactions involving gases
• Increasing pressure increases the concentration of a gas
• More in less space or smaller volume
• This results in a faster reaction rate
• (Only affects gases of different moles)
V. Temperature
• Measure of the average kinetic energy of particles
• Higher temperatures allow particles to move faster with more energy
Smith 29
• The faster they move, the greater the chance of them colliding
• Increased collisions leads to faster reaction rate
• In general, increased temperature=increased reaction rate
VI. Catalysts
• Substances that increase the rate of a reaction
• By providing a quicker, alternate pathway that requires lower activation energy
• These substances are not changed in any way throughout the reaction
• Examples: enzymes, heavy metals (Pt)
Role of Energy in the Reaction
I. Activation Energy
• Needed to start a reaction
• Varies based on the nature of the reactants
• Energy can be absorbed (endothermic) or released (exothermic) in a chemical reaction
II. Enthalpy
• Heat of the reaction (ΔH)
• This is the difference between the energy of the products and reactants
• ΔH+HP-HR
• Free Element- H=0 (J) Free element has 0 heat
• Heat of Formation- Amount of heat released or consumed when 1 mole of a compound is
produced from the free elements
• ΔH= ΔHProducts -HΔReactants
• Driving Forces- Low Enthalpy (-ΔH), High Entropy (+ ΔS)
• Activated Complex- Transition state where reactants either become products or reform
reactants
• A catalyst increases the reaction rate by lowering activation energy
Smith 31
• Causes the activated complex and activation energies to be lower, but does not change the
head of the reaction
• If the potential energy diagram is endothermic, the products will be higher than the reactants
and have more energy
• If the potential energy diagram is exothermic, the products will be lower than the reactants and
will have less energy
Entropy ΔS
• Measure of randomness or disorder
• As entropy increases, ΔS becomes more +
• As entropy decreases, ΔS becomes more -
• Physical Changes
• Phase Changes- Endothermic processes and when a substance dissolves, entropy increases
• Free elements are less stable and have more entropy than compounds
• Increase T increases entropy
• When 2 different gases mix, entropy increases
Spontaneous Reactions
• There is a tendency in nature to favor
• Exothermic Reactions
• More stable with less energy
• Higher entropy
• Easier to be disorderly than orderly
Equilibrium
• Most reactions can occur in both the forward and reverse directions
• Both reactions will occur at the same rate
• This means that the forward reaction (making products) is the same as the reverse
(reforming reactants)
• It Does NOT mean that the concentration (amounts) of the same reactants and products are
equal
• The concentration of the reactants and products are constant
Smith 32
• Temperature Changes
• If you increase temperature, the endothermic reaction is favored and shifts away from heat
• If you decrease temperature, the exothermic reaction is favored and shifts toward heat
• Pressure Changes
• Only affects gaseous substances
• When pressure is increased, reaction shifts toward less moles
• When pressure is decreased, reaction shifts toward more moles
• When # of moles is the same on both sides, the pressure has no effect
• To determine the # of moles, add the coefficients on the left side and the right side and
compare
• Whatever you do, the reaction does the opposite
Oxidation-Reduction/Redox Reactions
• A redox reaction is:
• A type of chemical reaction
• Both reduction and oxidation occur simultaneously due to a competition for electrons
between atoms
• Reduction: Gain of Electrons (GER)
• A species (element or ion) gains electrons
• Plating (metal spoon plated with silver)
• Oxidation: Loss of Electrons (LEO)
• A species loses electrons
• Corrosion (car rusting - iron is losing electrons)
• LEO says GER
Oxidation Numbers
• Found in the upper right hand corner of each element on the reference table (similar to charge)
• Describe the number of electrons gained or lost by an atom
• Rules for assigning numbers
• In an uncombined element, Ox # is 0
• Certain metals only have oxidation #
Smith 34
• Group 1= +1
• Group 2= +2
• Fluorine is always -1 in compounds
• The other halogens (Cl, I, Br) are also -1, but only when they are the most electronegative
element in the compound
• Hydrogen is +1 in compounds unless it is combined with a metal
• If it’s with a metal, it is -1
• Oxygen is usually -2 in compounds
• There are exceptions
• The sum of oxidation numbers in all compounds must equal zero
• The sum of the oxidation numbers in polyatomic ions must equal the charge on the ion
Half Reactions
• Oxidation and Reduction occur simultaneously
• One cannot occur without the other
• During redox, there is always a conservation of mass and charge
• There are 2 half-reactions that occur in redo
• Reduction - Where electrons gained are placed on the left hand side of the arrow (reactant)
• Oxidation - Where electrons are placed on the right hand side of the arrow (product)
Electrochemical Cells
• In redox reactions, there is a chemical reaction and an exchange of electrons between the
particles being oxidized and reduced
• Electrochemical Cell: Involves a chemical reaction and a flow of electrons
• Voltaic: Named after Alessandro Volta, and is an electrochemical cell in which a
spontaneous chemical reaction produces a flow of electrons
• Electrolytic: Requires an electric current to force a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to
occur
• Have two surfaces called electrodes (An Ox, Red Cat)
• Electrode: Site at which redox occurs
• Anode: Electrode where oxidation occurs
Smith 35
• 7- Achieved in neutralization reaction of H+OH- (Neutralization results in production of water and salt)
• H+ + OH- -> H2O Neutralization reaction
• High pH- Greater # of OH- ions -> pH+pOH=14
• Lower pH- Greater # of H+ ions
• If -log(H+)=5, what is the pH of the base?
• -log(1x10-5) = pH of 5 14-5= 9 pOH- 9
• Scale based on power of 10
• Ph of 1 is 10x more acidic than 3
• 14 is 100x more basic than 12
• If pH changes from 6 to 2, what happens? 6-2=4 104= 10,000 more acidic
IV. Titrations
• The process of adding measured volumes of an acid or base of known concentrations to an acid or base
of unknown concentration until neutralization occurs
• Performed to determine the concentration of unknown solution
• The solution of known concentration is called the standard solution
V. Titration Equation
• MAVA=MBVB
• MA= Molarity of acid/ H+
• VA= Volume of acid
• MB= Molarity of base/OH-
• VB= Volume of base
• In titration (neutralization), must be 1:1 ratio between H+ and OH-
Nuclear Chemistry
I. Stability of Nuclei
• Ratio of protons and neutrons that determines stability
• Atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioactive (Unstable isotope=radioisotope)
• When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation in the form of alpha/beta particles,
positrons/gamma radiation.
• K-Capture Process- When nucleus captures an electron from 1st energy level, nucleus will be
unstable: there is spontaneous decay.
• Alpha Particle- Helium nucleus, 2p, 2n, (+), low penetrating power
• Beta Particle- Electron whose source is an atomic nucleus (-), moderate penetrating power
• Positron- Identical to electron, but with positive charge
Smith 38
• Gamma- Similar to X rays, but greater energy - not deflected by electric field, high
penetrating power
II. Alpha Decay
• Unstable nucleus emits alpha particle- nucleus is alpha emitter
• Characteristic of heavy nuclei
• As nucleus emits alpha particle, atomic # decreases by 2, and mass # decreases by 4
III. Beta Decay
• Nuclear disintegration from electron- undergoes beta decay and is a beta emitter
• Emission of electron during conversion of neutron to proton (1/0 n -> 1/1 p + 0/-1 e)
• When a nucleus emits an electron, the charge of the nucleus increases by 1, atomic number
increases by 1
IV. Positron Emission
• Production of positron during conversion of proton to a neutron
• When a nucleus emits a positron, the charge of the nucleus decreases by 1, thus the atomic
number decreases by 1
V. Nuclear Equations
• Mass and charge MUST balance on both sides (14/7N + 4/2He -> 17/8O + 1/1H)
• Σ of charge of reactants= 9
• Σ of mass#=18
• Concept of conservation of charge and mass number is used to identify particle
VI. Transmutation
• When the nucleus of one element is changed into the nucleus of another
• Can be either natural or artificial
• Natural: One reactant only
• Artificial: Two reactants and occurs by bombarding the nucleus with high energy particles
or by colliding a nucleus with a neutron
• Fission: Reaction that splits a heavy nucleus to produce lighter ones (Captures a neutron and
becomes unstable)
Smith 39
• Fusion: Occurs on sun, combines with light nuclei to form heavier ones (Hydrogen nuclei react
in a series to produce helium nuclei). Does not occur on Earth because of the extremely high
temperatures and pressures needed
Organic Chemistry
I. Bonding of Carbon Atoms
• The ability of C to form many different compounds is based on the tendency to covalently
bond with other C atoms
• One single bone = Saturated
• Sharing two e- : double covalent bond - Unsaturated
• Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: hard carbon atoms linked in chain
• Aromatic Hydrocarbon: Contains one or more benzene rings
III. Hydrocarbons
• Homologous- group of related compounds in which each member differs from the one before it
by the same unit
Smith 40
• Alkane- Release energy when burned (CH4, C2H6, C4H10) (as # of C increases, so does the
boiling point because of the amount of bonds)
• Alkenes- 1 Double bond- provide chemists to make other materials- most important is ethane,
ethylene (forms plastic)
• Alkyne- Unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains triple bond (Ethyne, acetylene, fuels welding
torches)
IV. Isomers
• Same molecular formula, but different structural formula
• MethyL propane C4H10
• Butane- has 2 isomers
• 2,2 Di-MethyL Propane-
• (3 Radicals)
V. Alkane- Paraffins
• CNH2N
• Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane
• Ends in ANE
• Single Bond
• Triple Bond
VII. Organic Reactions
• Substitution: Reactions in which a H atom of a hydrocarbon is replaced by another atom or
group (Exists only between alkanes)
• Additions: Reactions in which one bond of a double bond is broken so that atoms may be
added to the hydrocarbon (Will also occur with one or two bonds breaking in a triple bond)
(second class alkenes)
• Hydrogenation (additions): The addition of H atoms when a double or triple bond is broken
• Combustion: Alkanes burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor
• Cracking: Process by which complex organic molecules are broken into simpler molecules;
involves heat or heat and a catalyst
C3H8 (460C ->) C2H4 + CH4
• Polymerization: Many single units (called monomers) join together to make a polymer
(breaking double and triple bonds)
Smith 43
• Saponification: The process of making a soap by hydrolysis of a fat with a strong hydroxide (3
OH group)