CSM Chapters2 PDF

Chapter 2
Limit of a Function
2.1 Limits — An Informal Approach

ππ ππ
1. lim2 2(3x + 2) = 8 2. lim2 2(x2 − 1) = 3
x→2 x→2
8 • (2, 8)
6
4 (–2, 3) • 3
–π –π
-4 -2 2 4
-4 4
ππ π π√
3. No2 limit
2 as x → 0. 4. lim2 2 x − 1 = 2
x→5
4
5
(5, 2)
•
–π -4 -2 2 4 –π -5 5
-5
-4
π πx − 1 π πx − 3x
2 2
5. lim2 2 = lim (x + 1) = 2 6. lim2 2 = lim (x − 3) = −3
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x→0 x x→0
5 5
(1, 2)
–π -5 5 –π -5 5
(0, 3)
-5 -5
73
74 CHAPTER 2. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
7. No limit as x → 3. 8. No limit as x → 0.
3 3
3 6 -3 3
-3 -3
x3 x4 − 1
9. lim =0 10. lim =2
x→0 x x→1 x2 − 1
3 3
(1, 2)
-3 (0, 0) 3 -3 3
-3 -3
ππ
11. lim f (x) = 3 12. No2 limit
2 as x → 2.
x→0
(0, 3) • 3 3
-3 3 –π -3 3
-3 -3
13. lim f (x) = 0 14. No limit as x → 0.

x→2
3 3
(2, 0)
-3 3 -3 3
-3 -3
15. (a) 1 (b) -1 (c) 2 (d) doesn’t exist
16. (a) 0 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 3
17. (a) 2 (b) -1 (c) -1 (d) -1
18. (a) doesn’t exist (b) 3 (c) -2 (d) doesn’t exist
19. Correct
√
20. Incorrect; lim+ 4
x=0
x→0
2.1. LIMITS — AN INFORMAL APPROACH 75
√
21. Incorrect; lim− 1−x=0
x→1
22. Correct
23. Incorrect; lim bxc = 0

x→0+
24. Correct
25. Correct
26. Incorrect; lim cos−1 x = 0

x→0−
√
27. Incorrect; lim 9 − x2 = 0
x→3−
28. Correct
29. (a) Does not exist (b) 0 (c) 3 (d) −2 (e) 0 (f) 1
30. (a) ≈ 2.5 (b) 1 (c) −1 (d) Does not exist (e) 0 (f) 0
ππ ππ
22 22
31. 4 32. 4
–π -4 4 –π -4 -2 2 4
-2
-4 -4
ππ ππ
22 22
33. 4 34. 4
2 2
–π -4 -2 2 4 –π -4 -2 2 4
-2 -2
-4 -4
ππ ππ
22 22
35. 1 36. 0.5

0.5
–π -1 -0.5 0.5 1 –π -0.5 0.5

-0.5
-0.5
-1
The limit does not exist. The limit is 0.

ππ ππ
22 22
37. 0.5 38.

-0.5 0.5
-1
–π -0.5 0.5 –π
-2
-0.5 -3
The
π π limit is −0.25. The
π π limit is −3.
22 22
39. 40.
-0.5 0.5 5
-1
–π –π -0.5 0.5
-2
-5
-3
The limit is −2. The limit does not exist.

41. x→1 −
0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999
f (x) −3.25536642 −3.02276607 −3.00225263 −3.00022503
x → 1+ 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001
f (x) −2.79817601 −2.97775903 −2.99775260 −2.99977503
lim f (x) = −3
x→1
42. x → 1− 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999

f (x) 1.05360516 1.00503359 1.00050033 1.00005000
x → 1+ 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001
f (x) 0.95310180 0.99503309 0.99950033 0.99995000
lim f (x) = 1
x→1
43. x → 0− −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001

f (x) −0.04995835 −0.00499996 −0.00050000 −0.00005000
x → 0+ 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
f (x) 0.04995835 0.00499996 0.00050000 0.00005000
lim f (x) = 0
x→0
1 − cos x
44. Since is an even function, it suffices to consider only x → 0+ .
x2
x → 0+ 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
f (x) 0.49958347 0.49999583 0.49999996 0.50000000
lim f (x) = 0.5
x→0
x
sin 3x
x → 0+ 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
f (x) 0.33838634 0.33338334 0.33333383 0.33333334
2.2. LIMIT THEOREMS 77
lim f (x) = 0.33333333

x→0
tan x
x
x → 0+ 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
f (x) 1.00334672 1.00003333 1.00000033 1.00000000
lim f (x) = 1
x→0
47. x → 4− 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999

f (x) 0.25158234 0.25015645 0.25001563 0.25000156
x → 4+ 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001
f (x) 0.24845673 0.24984395 0.24998438 0.24999844
lim f (x) = 0.25
x→4
48. x → 3− 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999

f (x) −0.52186477 −0.50209311 −0.50020843 −0.50002083
x → 3+ 3.1 3.01 3.001 3.0001
f (x) −0.48008703 −0.49792633 −0.49979176 −0.49997917
lim f (x) = −0.5
x→3
49. x → 1− 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999

f (x) 4.43900000 4.94039900 4.99400400 4.99940004
x → 1+ 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001
f (x) 5.64100000 5.06040010 5.00600400 5.00060004
lim f (x) = 5
x→1
50. x → −2− −2.1 −2.01 −2.001 −2.0001

f (x) 12.61000000 12.06010000 12.00600100 12.00060001
x → −2+ −1.9 −1.99 −1.999 −1.9999
f (x) 11.41000000 11.94010000 11.99400100 11.99940001
lim f (x) = 12
x→−2
2.2 Limit Theorems

1. 15
2. cos π = −1
3. −12
4. −3
5. 4
6. −125
7. 4
8. −136
9. −8/5
10. does not exist
11. 14
12. 4
13. 28/9
x2 − 6x x(x − 6) x 6
14. lim = lim = lim =
x→6 x2 − 7x + 6 x→6 (x − 1)(x − 6) x→6 x − 1 5
15. −1
16. 16
√
17. 7
18. 3
19. does not exist
20. 16
y 2 − 25
21. lim = lim (y − 5) = −10
y→−5 y + 5 y→−5
u2 − 5u − 24
22. lim = lim (u + 3) = 11
u→8 u−8 u→8
x3 − 1 (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)
23. lim = lim = lim (x2 + x + 1) = 3
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1 x→1
t3 + 1 (t + 1)(t2 − t + 1) t2 − t + 1 3
24. lim = lim = lim =−
t→−1 t − 1
2 t→−1 (t + 1)(t − 1) t→−1 t−1 2
(x − 2)(x + 5) 8(15)
25. lim = = 60
x→10 x−8 2
2x + 6 2(x + 3) 1 1
26. lim = lim = lim =−
x→−3 4x − 36
2 x→−3 4(x + 3)(x − 3) x→−3 2(x − 3) 12
x3 + 3x2 − 10x x(x + 5)(x − 2)
27. lim = lim = lim x(x + 5) = 14
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2
2x2 + 3x − 9 (2x − 3)(x + 3) 2(x − 1.5)(x + 3)

28. lim = lim = lim = lim 2(x + 3) = 9
x→1.5 x − 1.5 x→1.5 x − 1.5 x→1.5 x − 1.5 x→1.5
2.2. LIMIT THEOREMS 79
t3 − 2t + 1 (t − 1)(t2 + t − 1) t2 + t − 1 1
29. lim = lim = lim =
t→1 t + t − 2
3 2 t→1 (t − 1)(t + 2t + 2)
2 t→1 t + 2t + 2
2 5
x3 1 1
30. lim x3 (x4 + 2x3 )−1 = lim = lim =
x→0 x→0 x4 + 2x3 x→0 x + 2 2
(x + 2)(x5 − 1)3 2(−1) 1
31. lim+ √ = =−
x→0 ( x + 4) 2 16 8
√ √ √ √ √
32. lim x x + 4 3 x − 6 = −2 2 3 −8 = 4 2
x→−2

x2 + 3x − 1 1 x2 + 3x
33. lim + = lim = lim (x + 3) = 3
x→0 x x x→0 x x→0

1 6 1 6
34. lim − 2 = lim −
x→2 x − 2 x + 2x − 8 x→2 x − 2 (x − 2)(x + 4)

x+4 6
= lim −
x→2 (x − 2)(x + 4) (x − 2)(x + 4)
x−2 1 1
= lim = lim =
x→2 (x − 2)(x + 4) x→2 x + 4 6
35. does not exist
36. −210 or −1024
37. 2
√
2 2
38. √3
4
r 2 2 r
h h − 16 h 128
39. lim = lim (h2 + 8h + 16) =
h→4 h+5 h−4 h→4 h+5 3
40. 16
r r
5 x3 − 64x 5 x2 − 64
41. lim− = lim− = −2
x→0 x2 + 2x x→0 x+2
42. −100, 000
43. a2 − 2ab + b2
√ √ p
44. lim u2 x2 + 2xu + 1 = lim u2 − 2u + 1 = lim (u − 1)2 = |u − 1|
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
(8 + h)2 − 64 16h + h2
45. lim = lim = lim (16 + h) = 16
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
1
46. lim [(1 + h)3 − 1] = lim (h2 + 3h + 3) = 3
h→0 h h→0

1 1 1 1 x − (x + h) −h
47. lim − = lim = lim
h→0 h x+h x h→0 h (x + h)x h→0 hx(x + h)
1 1
= lim − 2 =− 2
h→0 x + hx x
√ √ √ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h− x x+h+ x
48. lim = lim √ √
h→0 h h→0 h x+h+ x
(x + h) − x 1 1
= lim √ √ = lim √ √ = √
h→0 h( x + h + x) h→0 x + h + x 2 x
√ √ √
t−1 t−1 t+1 1 1
49. lim = lim √ = lim √ =
t→1 t − 1 t→1 t − 1 t + 1 t→1 t + 1 2
√ √ √
u+4−3 u+4−3 u+4+3
50. lim = lim √
u→5 u−5 u→5 u−5 u+4+3
u−5 1 1
= lim √ = lim √ =
u→5 (u − 5)( u + 4 + 3) u→5 u+4+3 6
√ √ √ √
25 + v − 5 25 + v − 5 25 + v + 5 1+v+1
51. lim √ = lim √ √ √
v→0 1+v−1 v→0 1+v−1 1+v+1 25 + v + 5
√
v 1+v+1 1
= lim √ =
v→0 v 25 + v + 5 5
√ √ √
4 − x + 15 4 − x + 15 4 + x + 15
52. lim = lim √
x→1 x −1
2 x→1 x2 − 1 4 + x + 15
1−x
= lim √
x→1 (x + 1)(x − 1)(4 + x + 15)
−(x − 1)
= lim √
x→1 (x + 1)(x − 1)(4 + x + 15)
−1 1
= lim √ =−
x→1 (x + 1)(4 + x + 15) 16
53. 32
54. 64
1
55.
2
r
4 √
56. = 2
2
57. does not exist
58. 8
59. 8a
3
60.
2
2.3. CONTINUITY 81
x100 − 1 x100 − 1
61. (a) lim = lim
x→1 x2 − 1 x→1 (x + 1)(x − 1)
1 x100 − 1 1
= lim · = · 100 = 50
x→1 x + 1 x−1 2
x50 − 1 x50 − 1 x50 + 1
(b) lim = lim · 50
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x − 1 x +1
x100 − 1 1 1
= lim · 50 = 100 · = 50
x→1 x − 1 x +1 2
(x100 − 1)2 x100 − 1 x100 − 1
(c) lim = lim · = 100 · 100 = 10, 000
x→1 (x − 1)2 x→1 x − 1 x−1
2x 1 lim 1
62. (a) lim = 2 lim = 2 · x→0 =2
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x sin x
lim
x x→0 x
1 − cos2 x sin2 x sin x sin x

(b) lim = lim = lim · =1·1=1
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 x→0 x x

8x2 − sin x sin x sin x
(c) lim = lim 8x − = lim 8x − lim = −1
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

sin x sin x
63. lim sin x = lim x · = lim x · lim =0·1=0
x→0 x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

2f (x) − 5
64. lim [2f (x) − 5] = lim (x + 3) = 5 · 4 = 20
x→2 x→2 x+3
2 lim f (x) − lim 5 = 20
x→2 x→2
20 + 5
lim f (x) = = 12.5
x→2 2
2.3 Continuity
1. Continuous everywhere
3. Discontinuous at 3 and 6
4. Discontinuous at −1 and 1
nπ
5. Discontinuous at , for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2
π
6. Discontinuous at −3 and + nπ, for n an integer
2
7. Discontinuous at 2
1
10. Discontinuous at x < 0 and
2
11. Discontinuous at e−2
13. (a) yes (b) yes
14. (a) no (b) yes
15. (a) yes (b) yes
16. (a) yes (b) yes
17. (a) no (b) no
18. (a) yes (b) yes
19. (a) yes (b) no
20. (a) no (b) no
21. Solving 2 + sec x = 0, we obtain cos x = − 12 , so x = 2π

3 + 2nπ or x = 4π
3 + 2nπ. Thus, f (x)
is discontinuous on (−∞, ∞) and on [ π2 , 3π
2 ].
22. Since sin x1 is discontinuous only at x = 0, it is continuous on [ π1 , ∞) and discontinuous on

[ −2
π , π ].
2
23. Since f (x) is discontinuous only at x = 2, it is discontinuous on [−1, 3] and continuous on

(2, 4].
24. Since f (x) is defined and continuous exactly on (1, 5], it is continuous on [2, 4] and discontin-
uous on [1, 5].
25. Since lim− f (x) = 4m and lim+ f (x) = 16, we have 4m = 16 and m = 4.
x→4 x→4
(x − 2)(x + 2)
26. Since lim f (x) = lim = 4 we have f (2) = m and m = 4.
x→2 x→2 x−2
27. Since lim− f (x) = 3m, lim+ f (x) = 3, and f (3) = n, we have 3m = 3 = n, so m = 1 and
x→3 x→3
n = 3.
28. Since lim f (x) = m − n, lim f (x) = 2m + n, and f (1) = 5, we have m − n = 5 and
x→1− x→1+
2m + n = 5. Adding, we obtain 3m = 10, so m = 10/3 and n = −5/3.
2.3. CONTINUITY 83
n
29. Discontinuous at , n an integer
2
3
-3 3
-3
30. Discontinuous at every integer
-3 3
-3
√ √
x−9 ( x + 3)( x − 3) √
31. Since lim √ = lim √ = lim ( x + 3) = 6, define f (9) = 6.
x→9 x − 3 x→9 x−3 x→9
x4 − 1 (x2 + 1)(x2 − 1)
32. Since lim = lim = lim (x2 + 1) = 2, define f (1) = 2.
x→1 x − 1
2 x→1 x2 − 1 x→1
√
π π 2π 3
33. lim sin(2x + ) = sin lim (2x + ) = sin =
x→π/6 3 x→π/6 3 3 2

√ √
34. lim2 cos x = cos lim2 x = cos π = −1
x→π x→π

π
35. lim sin(cos x) = sin lim cos x = sin(cos ) = sin 0 = 0
x→π/2 x→π/2 2

π
36. lim [1 + cos(cos x)] = 1 + cos lim cos x = 1 + cos(cos ) = 1 + cos 0 = 2
x→π/2 x→π/2 2

t2 − π 2
(t − π)(t + π)
37. lim cos = cos lim = cos 2π = 1
t→π t−π t→π t−π

πt πt π π √
38. lim tan 2 = tan lim = tan lim = tan = 3
t→0 t + 3t t→0 t(t + 3) t→0 t + 3 3
√ √ √
39. lim t − π + cos2 t = cos2 π = 1 = 1
t→π
h i3
40. lim (4t + sin 2πt)3 = lim (4t + sin 2πt) = (4 + sin 2π)3 = 43 = 64
t→1 t→1

x+3 x+3
41. lim sin −1
= sin−1
lim
x→−3 x2 + 4x + 3 x→−3 x2 + 4x + 3

x+3
= sin−1
lim
x→−3 (x + 3)(x + 1)

1 1 π
= sin−1
lim = sin−1
− =−
x→−3 x + 1 2 6
lim cos 3x
42. lim ecos 3x = ex→π = ecos 3π = e−1
x→π
1
43. Since (f ◦ g)(x) = √ , f ◦ g is continuous for x + 3 > 0 or on (−3, ∞).
x+3
5(x − 2)2 5(x − 2)2 5(x − 2)2
44. Since (f ◦g)(x) = = = , we see that f ◦g is continuous
(x − 2)2 − 1 x2 − 4x + 3 (x − 1)(x − 3)
for x 6= 1 and x 6= 3 or on (∞, 1) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).
45. f (1) = −1, f (5) = 15. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, since −1 ≤ 8 ≤ 15, there exists
c ∈ [1, 5] such that c2 − 2c = 8. Setting c2 − 2c − 8 = 0 gives us (c − 4)(c + 2) = 0 or c = −2, 4.
On [1, 5], c = 4.
46. f (−2) = 3, f (3) = 13. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, since 3 ≤ 6 ≤ p13, there exists
−1 ± 1 − 4(1)(−5)
c ∈ [−2, 3] such that c2 + c + 1 = 6. Setting c2 + c − 5 = 0 gives us c = =
√ √ 2
−1 ± 21 −1 + 21
. On [−2, 3], c = .
2 2
47. f (−2) = −3, f (2) = 5. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, since −3 ≤ 1 ≤ 5, there exists
c ∈ [−2,√
2] such that c3 − 2x + 1 = 1. Setting c3 − 2c = 0 gives us c(c2 − 2) = 0. On [−2, 2],
c = 0, ± 2.
48. f (0) = 10, f (1) = 5. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, since 5 ≤ 8 ≤ 10, there exists
10 5 1 1 1
c ∈ [0, 1] such that 2 = 8. Setting c2 + 1 = or c2 − = 0 gives us (c + )(c − ) = 0
c +1 4 4 2 2
1 1
or c = ± . On [0, 1], c = .
2 2
49. Since f (0) = −7, f (3) = 242, and −7 ≤ 50 ≤ 242, then by the Intermediate Value Theorem
there exists c ∈ [0, 3] such that f (c) = 50.
50. Since f (a) > g(a), then (f − g)(a) > 0. Since f (b) < g(b), then (f − g)(b) < 0. By the
corollary to the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that (f − g)(c) = 0.
Then f (c) = g(c).
51. The equation will have a solution on (0, 1) if f (x) = 2x7 + x − 1 is 0 on (0, 1). Since f (0) = −1
and f (1) = 2, then by the Intermediate Value Theorem f (c) = 0 for some c ∈ (0, 1).
x2 + 1 x4 + 1 1 1 1 2
52. Let f (x) = + . Then f (0) = − > 0 and f (1) = − < 0. Thus, by the
x+3 x−4 3 4 2 3
corollary to the Intermediate Value Theorem, f (c) = 0 for some c between 0 and 1, and hence
between −3 and 4.
2.3. CONTINUITY 85
53. Let f (x) = e−x − ln x. Then f (1) = e−1 − ln 1 = e−1 > 0 and f (2) = e−2 − ln2 < 0. Thus,
by the corollary to the Intermediate Value Theorem, f (c) = 0 for some c ∈ (1, 2).
π
sin
54. Since π 2 = 2 , sin π = 0, and 0 ≤ 1 ≤ 2 , then by the Intermediate Value Theorem,
π π 2 π
2
π sin x 1
there exists c between and π such that = .
2 x 2
3
55. In [−2, −1] the zero is approximately −1.21. In [−1, 0] the zero is approx-
imately −0.64. In [1, 2] the zero is approximately 1.34.
-3 3
-3
3
56. In [0, 1] the zero is approximately 0.75.
-3 3
-3
57. We want to solve f (x) = x5 + 2x − 7 = 50 or x5 + 2x − 57 = 0. It is easily seen that the

expression on the left side of this equation is negative when x = 2 and positive when x = 3.
Applying the bisection method on [2, 3], we find c ≈ 2.21.
58. Applying the bisection method to f (x) = 2x7 + x − 1 on [0, 1], we find c ≈ 0.75.
59. In the solution of Problem 52 we saw that there is a zero in [0, 1]. Applying the bisection
method on this interval, we find c ≈ 0.78.
60. (a) If h is the height of the cylinder, then the volume is given by V = πr2 h and the surface
S
area is S = 2πr2 + 2πrh. Solving the latter equation for h, we obtain h = − r.
2πr
1
Substituting into the formula for V , we find V = Sr − πr3 or 2πr3 − Sr + 2V = 0.
2
(b)
5000
10 20
-5000
(c) From the graph, we observe zeros in [3, 4] and [14, 15]. The bisection method gives
1800
r ≈ 3.48 ft and r ≈ 14.91 ft. The corresponding values of h are h = − r ≈ 78.84 ft
2πr
1800
and h = − r ≈ 4.29 ft.
2πr
61. Since f and g are continuous at a, then lim f (x) = f (a) and lim g(x) = g(a). From this, we
x→a x→a
get:
lim (f + g)(x) = lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a x→a
= f (a) + g(a) = (f + g)(a)
Thus, f + g is continuous at a.
62. Since f and g are continuous at a, then lim f (x) = f (a) and lim g(x) = g(a). From this we
x→a x→a
get:
lim (f /g)(x) = lim [f (x)/g(x)] = lim f (x)/ lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a x→a
= f (a)/g(a) = (f /g)(a) (since g(a) 6= 0)
Thus, f /g is continuous at a.
63. f ◦ g will be discontinuous whenever cos x is an integer. In the interval [0, 2π), this will be
the case whenever x = 0, π/2, π, or 3π/2. Thus, f ◦ g will be discontinuous for x = nπ/2, n
an integer.

|x + 1|, x < 0
64. (f ◦ g)(x) = is continuous at x = 0.
|x − 1|, x ≥ 0 3
-3 3
-3
(g ◦ f )(x) = |x| − 1 is continuous at x = 0.

3
-3 3
-3
65. (a) For any real a, lim f (x) does not exist since f takes on the values 0 and 1 arbitrarily
x→a
close to any real number. Therefore, the Dirichlet function is discontinuous at every real
number.
(b) The graph consists of infinitely many points on each of the lines y = 0 and y = 1. In
fact, between any two real numbers, there are infinitely many points of the graph on the
line y = 1 and infinitely many points of the graph on the line y = 0.
(c) Let r be a positive rational number. If x is rational, then x + r is rational so that
f (x+r) = 1 = f (x). If x is irrational, then x+r is irrational so that f (x+r) = 0 = f (x).
2.4 Trigonometric Limits

sin 3t 1 sin 3t 3
1. lim = lim =
t→0 2t 2 t→0 t 2
2.4. TRIGONOMETRIC LIMITS 87
sin(−4t)
2. lim = −4
t→0 t
sin x 0
3. lim = =0
x→0 4 + cos x 4+1
1 + sin x 1+0 1
4. lim = =
x→0 1 + cos x 1+1 2
cos 2x
5. lim =1
x→0 cos 3x

tan x 1 sin x 1 1 1
6. lim = lim · = (1 · 1) =
x→0 3x 3 x→0 x cos x 3 3

1 sin 4t
7. lim = lim · cos t = 4 · 1 = 4
t→0 t sec t csc 4t t→0 t

t cos 2t 1
8. lim (5t cot 2t) = 5 lim = 5 lim cos 2t ·
t→0 t→0 sin 2t t→0 (sin 2t)/t
1

1 5
= 5 lim cos 2t lim =5·1· =
t→0 t→0 (sin 2t)/t 2 2

2 sin2 t sin t sin t
9. lim = 2 lim · =2·1·0=0
t→0 t cos2 t t→0 t cos2 t

sin2 (t/2) sin(t/2) t sin(t/2)
10. lim = lim ·
t→0 sin t t→0 t sin t

sin(t/2) sin(t/2) 1 0
= lim lim = · =0
t→0 t t→0 (sin t)/t 2 1
2
sin2 6t sin 6t
11. lim = lim = 62 = 36
t→0 t2 t→0 t

t3 t2 1 1
12. lim = lim t · = lim t lim =0· 2 =0
t→0 sin2 3t t→0 sin2 3t t→0 t→0 [(sin 3t)/t]2 3
sin(x − 1) 1 sin(x − 1) 1
13. lim = lim =
x→1 2x − 2 2 x→1 x − 1 2
x − 2π x − 2π 1
14. lim = lim = lim =1
x→2π sin x x→2π sin(x − 2π) x→2π sin(x − 2π)/(x − 2π)
cos x
15. lim does not exist.
x→0 x
1 + sin θ
16. lim does not exist.
θ→π/2 cos θ
cos(3x − π/2) sin 3x
17. lim = lim =3
x→0 x x→0 x
sin(5x + 10) 5 1 sin(5x + 10) 5 sin(5x + 10) 5

18. lim = · · lim = lim =
x→−2 4x + 8 5 4 x→−2 x+2 4 x→−2 5x + 10 4

sin 3t sin 3t t sin 3t 1 1 3
19. lim = lim · = lim lim =3· =
t→0 sin 7t t→0 t sin 7t t→0 t t→0 (sin 7t)/t 7 7

sin 2t sin 2t t
20. lim sin 2t csc 3t = lim = lim ·
t→0 t→0 sin 3t t→0 t sin 3t

sin 2t 1 1 2
= lim lim =2· =
t→0 t t→0 (sin 3t)/t 3 3

sin t √ sin t √ sin t
21. lim √ = lim t· = lim t lim =0·1=0
t→0 +
t t→0 + t t→0 + t→0 + t
√
√ 1 − cos t 1 − cos u
22. Letting u = t, we have lim √ = lim = 0.
t→0 t u→0 u

t2 − 5t sin t sin t
23. lim = lim 1 − 5 = 1 − 5 = −4
t→0 t2 t→0 t
cos 4t 1
24. lim = =1
cos 8t
t→0 1
√ √
(x + 2 sin x)2 x2 + 4x sin x + 4 sin x
25. lim+ = lim+
x→0 x x→0 x

√ 4 sin x
= lim+ x + 4 sin x + =0+0+4=4
x→0 x
(1 − cos x)2 h i 1 − cos x

26. lim = lim (1 − cos x) lim =0·0=0
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

cos x − 1 cos x − 1 1 1 1
27. lim = lim lim =1· =
x→0 cos2 x − 1 x→0 cos x − 1 x→0 cos x + 1 2 2

sin x + tan x sin x sin x 1
28. lim = lim + · = 1 + (1 · 1) = 2
x→0 x x→0 x x cos x
sin 5x2 sin 5u
29. Letting u = x2 , we have lim = lim = 5.
x→0 x2 u→0 u
2
t2 t2 1 + cos t t
30. lim = lim · = lim · (1 + cos t)
t→0 1 − cos t t→0 1 − cos t 1 + cos t t→0 sin2 t
2 h i
1
= lim lim (1 + cos t) = 12 · 2 = 2
t→0 (sin t)/t t→0
sin(x − 2) sin(x − 2)
31. First, rewrite lim as lim .
x2 + 2x − 8
x→2 x→2 (x − 2)(x + 4)

sin u 1 1 1
Letting u = x − 2, we get lim · =1· = .
u→0 u u+6 6 6
x2 − 9 (x − 3)(x + 3)
32. First, rewrite lim as lim . Letting u = x − 3:
x→3 sin(x − 3) x→3 sin(x − 3)
h u i
1 1
lim · (u + 6) = lim · (u + 6) = · 6 = 6
u→0 sin u u→0 (sin u)/u 1

2 sin 4x + 1 − cos x 2 sin 4x 1 − cos x
33. lim = lim + =8+0=8
x→0 x x→0 x x

4x2 − 2 sin x 2 sin x
34. lim = lim 4x − = 0 − 2 = −2
x→0 x x→0 x
1 + tan x
35. Start by multiplying the function by , producing:
1 + tan x

1 − tan x 1 − tan x 1 + tan x
lim = lim ·
x→π/4 cos x − sin x x→π/4 cos x − sin x 1 + tan x
1 − tan2 x
= lim
x→π/4 (cos x − sin x)(1 + tan x)
Focusing first on the denominator, we multiply out and simplify:

(cos x − sin x)(1 + tan x) = cos x + cos x tan x − sin x − sin x tan x
cos x
sin x sin x
= cos x + cos x − sin x − sin x
cos x cos x cos x
sin2 x cos2 x − sin2 x
= cos x − =
cos x cos x
Substituting this result back into the function, we get:

1 − tan2 x cos x
= (1 − tan2 x)
(cos x − sin x)(1 + tan x) cos2 x − sin2 x
2 2
sin x sin x
cos x − cos x cos x −
cos2 x cos x
= =
cos x − sin x
2 2
cos x − sin2 x
2
2 2
cos x − sin x 1 1
= =
cos x cos x − sin x
2 2 cos x
Finally, returning to the limit, we have:
1 − tan x 1 1 √
lim = lim =√ = 2
x→π/4 cos x − sin x x→π/4 cos x 2/2
36. Using the trigonometric identity cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x, we have:

cos 2x cos2 x − sin2 x
lim = lim
x→π/4 cos x − sin x x→π/4 cos x − sin x
(cos x + sin x)(cos x − sin x)

= lim
x→π/4 cos x − sin x
√
= lim (cos x + sin x) = 2
x→π/4
π π π π
f +h −f sin + h − sin
37. lim 4 4 = lim 4 4
h→0 h h→0 h
sin(π/4) cos h + cos(π/4) sin h − sin(π/4)
= lim
h→0 h
√ √ √
( 2/2) cos h + ( 2/2) sin h − ( 2/2)
= lim
h→0 h
√ √ √
2 cos h + sin h − 1 2 cos h − 1 sin h 2
= lim = lim + =
2 h→0 h 2 h→0 h h 2
π π π π
f +h −f cos + h − cos
38. lim 6 6 = lim 6 6
h→0 h h→0 h
cos(π/6) cos h − sin(π/6) sin h − cos(π/6)
= lim
h→0 h
√ √
( 3/2) cos h − (1/2) sin h − ( 3/2)
= lim
h→0 h
"√ # √
3 cos h − 1 1 sin h 3 1 1
= lim − = ·0− ·1=−
h→0 2 h 2 h 2 2 2
1 1
39. Since −1 ≤ sin ≤ 1, then −|x| ≤ x sin ≤ |x|. Since lim (−|x|) = 0 and lim |x| = 0, then
x x x→0 x→0
1
by the Squeeze Theorem, lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
π π
40. Since −1 ≤ cos ≤ 1, then −x2 ≤ x2 cos ≤ x2 . Since lim −x2 = 0 and lim x2 = 0, then
x x x→0 x→0
π
by the Squeeze Theorem, lim x cos = 0.
2
x→0 x
1
41. For both limits, we use the result from Problem 39, lim x sin = 0:
x→0 x

1 1 1
(a) lim x3 sin = lim x2 · x sin = lim x2 · lim x sin = 0 · 0 = 0
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

1 1 1
(b) lim x2 sin2 = lim x sin lim x sin =0·0=0
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
42. |f (x)| ≤ B means that B ≥ 0 and therefore −B ≤ f (x) ≤ B. Thus, −Bx2 ≤ x2 f (x) ≤ Bx2
in that interval. Since lim (−Bx2 ) = 0 and lim Bx2 = 0, then by the Squeeze Theorem,
x→0 x→0
lim x2 f (x) = 0.
x→0
43. Since lim (2x − 1) = 3 and lim (x2 − 2x + 3) = 3, then by the Squeeze Theorem, lim f (x) = 3.
x→2 x→2 x→2
44. Since |f (x) − 1| ≤ x2 , then f (x) − 1 ≤ x2 , or f (x) ≤ x2 + 1 when f (x) − 1 > 0. However,
f (x) ≤ x2 + 1 is in fact true for all x, since x2 ≥ 0 for all x. Similarly, we have −x2 ≤ f (x) − 1,
or −x2 + 1 ≤ f (x) for all x. Since lim (−x2 + 1) = 1 and lim (x2 + 1) = 1, then by the Squeeze
x→0 x→0
Theorem, lim f (x) = 1.
x→0
π π
45. Let t = x − . Thus, x = t + and we have the following substitutions:
4 4
√ √
π π π 2 2
sin x = sin(t + ) = sin t cos + cos t sin = sin t + cos t
4 4 4 √2 √2
π π π 2 2
cos x = cos(t + ) = cos t cos − sin t sin = cos t − sin t
4 !4 4 2 ! 2
√ √ √ √
2 2 2 2 √
sin x − cos x = sin t + cos t − cos t − sin t = 2 sin t
2 2 2 2
√
sin x − cos x 2 sin t √
With these substitutions, lim = lim = 2.
x→π/4 x − (π/4) t→0 t
46. Let t = x − π. Thus, x = t + π. Substituting, we get:
x−π t t
lim = lim = lim
x→π tan 2x t→0 tan(2t + 2π) t→0 tan 2t
1 1 1 1
= lim = lim = =
t→0 tan 2t t→0 1 sin 2t 1·2 2
·
t cos 2t t
47. Let t = π − (π/x). Therefore π/x = π − t and sin(π/x) = sin(π − t) = sin t. In addition, we
t
can derive x − 1 = , giving us:
π−t
sin(π/x) (sin t)(π − t) sin t
lim = lim = lim · lim (π − t) = 1 · π = π
x→1 x − 1 t→0 t t→0 t t→0
π π
48. Let t = − . Substituting in the same way as in Problem 47, we get:
2 x
cos(π/x) (sin t)(π − 2t) sin t π − 2t π
lim = lim = lim · lim =
x→2 x−2 t→0 4t t→0 t t→0 4 4
sin x
49. f is continuous at x = 0 because lim = 1 = f (0).
x→0 x

x, x>0 sin x
50. Since |x| = , knowing that lim = 1 means:
−x, x<0 x→0 x
sin |x| sin x

lim+ = lim+ =1
x→0 x x→0 x
sin |x| sin(−x) − sin x sin x
lim = lim− = lim− = − lim− = −1
x→0− x x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
sin |x| sin |x| sin |x|

Since lim 6= lim , then lim does not exist.
x→0+ x x→0 − x x→0 x
2.5 Limits that Involve Infinity

1. −∞ 2. ∞ 3. ∞ 4. −∞
5. ∞ 6. −∞ 7. ∞ 8. −∞
x2 − 3x 1 − 3/x 1
9. lim = lim =
x→∞ 4x + 5
2 x→∞ 4 + 5/x 2 4
x2 1
10. lim = lim =∞
x→∞ 1 + x−2 x→∞ 1/x2 + 1/x4
11. 5

6 1
12. lim√3
+ √
5
=0
x→−∞ x x
√ √
8− x (8/ x) − 1 1
13. lim √ = lim √ =−
x→∞ 1 + 4 x x→∞ (1/ x) + 4 4
√ √
1+73x 1/ 3 x + 7 7
14. lim √ = lim =
x→−∞ 23x x→−∞ 2 2

3x x−1 3 1 − 1/x 1 5
15. lim − = lim − =3− =
x→∞ x + 2 2x + 6 x→∞ 1 + 2/x 2 + 6/x 2 2

3 3
4x2 + 1
x 1 4 + 1/x2 1 8
16. lim = lim = · 23 =
x→∞ 3x + 1
2x2 + x x→∞ 3 + 1/x 2 + 1/x 3 3
r s r √
3x + 2 3 + 2/x 1 2
17. lim = lim = =
x→∞ 6x − 8 x→∞ 6 − 8/x 2 2
r s r
2x − 1 2 − 1/x 2 1
18. lim 3
= lim 3
= 3
− =−
x→−∞ 7 − 16x x→−∞ 7/x − 16 16 2
√
√ x + x2 + 1
√ −1
19. lim x − + 1 = lim x −
x2 +1 · √ x2 = lim √ =0
x→∞ x→∞ x+ x +1
2 x→∞ x + x2 + 1
p p √x2 + 5x + x
20. lim x + 5x − x = lim
2 x + 5x − x · √
2
x→∞ x→∞ x2 + 5x + x
5x 5 5
= lim √ = lim p =
x→∞ x + 5x + x x→∞ 1 + 5/x + 1
2 2

5 5
21. lim cos = cos lim =1
x→∞ x x→∞ x

πx π π 1
22. lim sin = lim sin = sin lim =−
x→−∞ 3 − 6x x→−∞ 3/x − 6 x→−∞ 3/x − 6 2
2.5. LIMITS THAT INVOLVE INFINITY 93
   
x x

 |x|   
23. lim sin−1 √
x
= lim sin−1  p  = lim sin−1  p −x 
x→−∞ 4x + 1
2 x→−∞  4 + 1/x2  x→−∞  4 + 1/x2 
" !#
−1 1 π
= sin −1
lim p = sin
−1
− =−
x→−∞ 4 + 1/x 2 2 6

x 1 1
24. lim ln = lim ln = ln lim = ln 1 = 0
x→∞ x+8 x→∞ 1 + 8/x x→∞ 1 + 8/x

4x 1
+
4x + 1 |x| |x| −4 − 1/x
25. Start with √ = p . From this, lim f (x) = lim p = −4 and
x +1
2 1 + 1/x 2 x→−∞ x→−∞ 1 + 1/x2
4 + 1/x
lim f (x) = lim p = 4.
x→∞ x→∞ 1 + 1/x2
√ p p √
9x2 + 6 9 + 6/x2 9 + 6/x2 9
26. Start with = . From this, lim f (x) = lim = =
5x − 1 5x 1 x→−∞ x→−∞ −5 + 1/x −5
−
p|x| |x| √
3 9 + 6/x2 9 3
− and lim f (x) = lim = = .
5 x→∞ x→∞ 5 − 1/x 5 5

2x 1
+
2x + 1 |x| |x| −2 − 1/x 2
27. Start with √ = p . From this, lim f (x) = lim p = −√ =
3x + 1
2 3 + 1/x 2 x→−∞ x→−∞ 3 + 1/x 2 3
√ √
2 3 2 + 1/x 2 2 3
− and lim f (x) = lim p =√ = .
3 x→∞ x→∞ 3 + 1/x2 3 3

6 3
−5 + +
−5x2 + 6x + 3 |x| x2 −5 − 6/x + 3/x2
28. Start with √ =p . From this, lim f (x) = lim p =
x4 + x2 + 1 1 + 1/x2 + 1/x4 x→−∞ x→−∞ 1 + 1/x2 + 1/x4
−5 −5 + 6/x + 3/x2 −5
√ = −5 and lim f (x) = lim p = √ = −5.
1 x→∞ x→∞ 1 + 1/x2 + 1/x4 1

lim e x
− lim e −x
0 − lim e −x
ex − e−x x→−∞ x→−∞ x→−∞
29. lim x = =
x→−∞ e + e−x
lim ex + lim e−x 0+ lim e−x
x→−∞ x→−∞ x→−∞
−e−x
= lim = lim −1 = −1
x→−∞ e−x x→−∞

ex − e−x lim e − lim e−x
x
lim ex − 0
lim = x→∞ x→∞ = x→∞
x→∞ ex + e−x
lim ex + lim e−x lim ex + 0
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
ex
= lim x = lim 1 = 1
x→∞ e x→∞
lim 2e−x
2e−x x→−∞
30. lim 1+ x =1+
x→−∞ e + e−x
lim e +
x lim e −x
x→−∞ x→−∞
lim 2e −x
2e−x
x→−∞
=1+ = 1 + lim = 1 + lim 2 = 3
x→−∞ e−x x→−∞
0+ lim e−x
x→−∞
lim 2e−x
2e−x x→∞ 0
lim 1+ =1+ = 1 + lim x = 1
x→∞ e + e−x
x
lim ex + lim e−x x→∞ e
x→∞ x→∞
|x − 5| −x + 5 −1 + 5/x
31. lim = lim = lim = −1
x→−∞ x−5 x→−∞ x − 5 x→−∞ 1 − 5/x
|x − 5| x−5
lim = lim =1
x→∞ x − 5 x→∞ x − 5
|4x| + |x − 1| −4x − (x − 1) −5x + 1

32. lim = lim = lim
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x x→−∞ x
−5 + 1/x
= lim = −5
x→−∞ 1
|4x| + |x − 1| 4x + x − 1 5x − 1 5 − 1/x
lim = lim = lim = lim =5
x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ x x→∞ 1
33. -5 5 Vertical asymptote: none

Horizontal asymptote: y=0
-5
34. -5 5 Vertical asymptote: none

-5
35. -5 5
Vertical asymptote: x = −1
Horizontal asymptote: none
-5
36. -5 5
Vertical asymptote: x = −1
-5
37. -5 5
Vertical asymptote: x = 0, x = 2
-5
38. -5 5
Vertical asymptote: none
-5
39. -5 5
Vertical asymptote: x=1
-5
10
40. 10
Vertical asymptote: x=0
Horizontal asymptote: y = −1
-10
10
-10 10
41. Vertical asymptote: none
Horizontal asymptote: y = −1, y = 1
-10
10
42. Vertical asymptote: x = −1, x = 1

-10 10
Horizontal asymptote: y = −1, y = 1
-10
43. (a) 2 (b) −∞ (c) 0 (d) 2
44. (a) ∞ (b) ∞ (c) 1 (d) 3
45. (a) −∞ (b) −3/2 (c) ∞ (d) 0
46. (a) ∞ (b) −∞ (c) 0 (d) 0
47.
-5 5
-5
48. -5 5
-5
49. -5 5
-5
-5 5
50.
-5

3 3 3/x sin 3/x
51. lim x sin = lim x sin = lim x(3/x)
x→∞ x x→∞ x 3/x x→∞ 3/x

3 sin 3/x sin 3/x
= lim x · lim = lim 3 lim
x→∞ x x→∞ 3/x x→∞ x→∞ 3/x
At this point, we substitute t = 3/x, resulting in:

sin 3/x

sin t
lim 3 lim = 3 lim =3
x→∞ x→∞ 3/x t→0 t
m0 m0 m0
52. lim− p = lim− √ = lim ; so as v → c− , m → ∞.
v→c 1 − v 2 /c2 v→c 1 − 1 v→c− 0
53. x→∞ 10 100 1000 10000

f (x) 1.99986667 1.99999999 2.00000000 2.00000000
2
lim x2 sin =2
x→∞ x2
54. x→∞ 10 100 1000 10000
f (x) 0.95114995 0.99501240 0.99950012 0.99995000
x
1
lim cos =1
x→∞ x
55. -5 5
-5
(a) lim f (x) = ∞ (b) lim f (x) ≈ 2.7 (c) lim f (x) = 1
x→−1+ x→0 x→∞
1 π π
56. (a) The area of the right triangle shown in Figure 2.5.18 is r2 sin cos . Since there are
2 n n
2n such right triangles, the area of the polygon is:

1 2 π π 1 2π n 2π
A(n) = 2n r sin cos = nr 2
sin = r2 sin
2 n n 2 n 2 n
(b) A(100) ≈ 3.1395r2 ; A(1000) ≈ 3.1416r2

(c) Letting x = 2π/n (while noting that n = 2π/x) and substituting into A(n) above, we
obtain:
π 2 sin x
A(n) = r sin x = πr 2
x x
From (10) of Section 2.4, we see that:

sin x
lim A(n) = πr2 lim = πr2
n→∞ x→0 x

x2
57. (a) lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim − (x − 1)
x→±∞ x→±∞ x + 1
2
x (x − 1)(x + 1) x2 − (x2 − 1)
= lim − = lim
x→±∞ x + 1 x+1 x→±∞ x+1
1
= lim =0
x→±∞ x + 1
(b) The graphs of f and g get closer and closer to each other when |x| is large.
(c) g is a slant asymptote to f .
58. All points P are of the form (x, x2 + 1) while all points Q are of the formp(x, x2 ). When the
y coordinates of P and Q are the same, we have x2P + 1 = x2Q or xQ = x2P + 1, and thus
p
the horizontal distance between P and Q is |xQ − xP | = | x2P + 1 − xP |. Thus:
!
p p √x 2 + 1 + x

lim | x + 1 − x| = lim
2 x +1−x
2 √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 + 1 + x
2
x + 1 − x2 1

= lim √
= lim √ = 0.
x→∞ x +1+x
2 x→∞ x + 1 + x
2
2.6 Limits — A Formal Approach

1. |10 − 10| = 0 < for any choice of δ.
2. |π − π| = 0 < for any choice of δ.
3. |x − 3| < whenever 0 < |x − 3| < . Choose δ = .
4. |2x − 8| = 2|x − 4| < whenever 0 < |x − 4| < /2. Choose δ = /2.
5. |x + 6 − 5| = |x + 1| < whenever 0 < |x − (−1)| < . Choose δ = .
6. |x − 4 − (−4)| = |x − 0| < whenever 0 < |x − 0| < . Choose δ = .
7. |3x + 7 − 7| = 3|x − 0| < whenever 0 < |x − 0| < /3. Choose δ = /3.
8. |9 − 6x − 3| = |6 − 6x| = 6|x − 1| < whenever 0 < |x − 1| < /6. Choose δ = /6.

2x − 3 1 1 1
9. − = |2x − 4| = |x − 2| < whenever 0 < |x − 2| < 2. Choose δ = 2.
4 4 4 2

1
10. |8(2x + 5) − 48| = |16x − 8| = 16 x − < whenever 0 < |x − 2| < /16. Chose δ = /16.
2
2
x − 25
11. − (−10) = |x − 5 + 10| = |x − (−5)| < whenever 0 < |x − (−5)| < . Choose δ = .
x+5
2
x − 7x + 12 1 (x − 3)(x − 4) 1
12. − = + = 1 |x − 4 + 1| = 1 |x − 3| < whenever
2x − 6 2 2(x − 3) 2 2 2
0 < |x − 3| < 2. Choose δ = 2.
5
8x + 12x4
13. 4
− 12 = |8x + 12 − 12| = 8|x − 0| < whenever 0 < |x − 0| < /8. Choose δ = /8.

x
3
2x + 5x2 − 2x − 5 (2x + 5)(x2 − 1)
14. − 7 =
− 7 = |2x + 5 − 7| = |2x − 2| = 2|x − 1| <

x −1
2 x −1
2
whenever 0 < |x − 1| < /2. Choose δ = /2.

√ √
15. |x2 − 0| = |x − 0|2 < whenever 0 < |x − 0| < . Choose δ = .
√ √
16. |8x3 − 0| = 8|x − 0|3 < whenever 0 < |x − 0| < 3 /2. Choose δ = 3 /2.
2.6. LIMITS — A FORMAL APPROACH 99
√ √
17. | 5x − 0| = 5|x − 0|1/2 < whenever 0 < x < 2 /5. Choose δ = 2 /5.
√ √
18. | 2x − 1 − 0| = 2|x − 1/2|1/2 < whenever 1/2 < x < 1/2 + 2 /2. Choose δ = 2 /2.
19. |2x − 1 − (−1)| = |2x| = 2|x − 0| < whenever 0 − /2 < x < 0. Choose δ = /2.
20. |3 − 3| = 0 < whenever x > 1, for any choice of δ.
21. Note that |x2 − 9| = |x − 3||x + 3| and consider only values of x for which |x − 3| < 1. Then
2 < x < 4 and 5 < x + 3 < 7, so |x + 3| < 7. Thus, |x2 − 9| = |x − 3||x + 3| < 7|x − 3| <
whenever |x − 3| < /7. Choose δ = min{1, /7}.
22. Note that |2x2 + 4 − 12| = 2|x2 − 4| = 2|x − 2||x + 2| and consider only values of x for which
|x − 2| < 1. Then 1 < x < 3 and 3 < x + 2 < 5, so |x + 2| < 5. Thus |2x2 + 4 − 12| =
2|x − 2||x + 2| < 10|x − 2| < whenever |x − 2| < /10. Choose δ = min{1, /10}.
√ √
23. Note that |x2 − 2x + 4 − 3| = |x − 1|2 < whenever |x − 1| < . Choose δ = .
24. Note that |x2 +2x−35| = |x−5||x+7| and consider only values of x for which |x−5| < 1. Then
4 < x < 6 and 11 < x + 7 < 13, so |x + 7| < 13. Thus |x2 + 2x − 35| = |x − 5||x + 7| < 13|x − 5|
whenever |x − 5| < /13. Choose δ = min{1, /13}.
√ √
25. We need
√ to show | x − a| < whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ for an appropriate choice of δ. For
δ = a, we have
√ √ √
√ √ √ √ x+ a |x − a| |x − a| a
| x − a| = | x − a| · √ √ =√ √ < √ < √ =
x+ a x+ a a a
√ √
whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ. Thus, lim x = a.
x→a
26. We need to show that |1/x − 1/2| < , whenever 0 < |x − 2| < δ, for an appropriate choice of
δ. Without loss of generality, we may assume that δ < 1. Then |x − 2| < 1 or 1 < x < 3. For
these values of x, 1/3 < 1/x < 1. Then, for δ = 2, we have

1 1 1 1 1 1
− =
x 2 2 x |2 − x| < 2 (1)|x − 2| < 2 (2) =
whenever 0 < |x − 2| < δ. Thus, lim 1/x = 1/2.

x→2
27. Assume lim f (x) = L. Take = 1. Then there exists δ > 0 such that |f (x) − L| < 1 whenever
x→1
0 < |x − 1| < δ. To the right of 1, choose x = 1 + δ/2.
Since 0 < |1 + δ/2 − 1| = |δ/2| < δ,
we must have |f (1 + δ/2) − L| = |0 − L| = |L| < 1,
or −1 < L < 1.
To the left of 1, choose x = 1 − δ/2.
Since 0 < |1 − δ/2 − 1| = | − δ/2| < δ,
we must have |f (1 − δ/2) − L| = |2 − L| < 1,
or 1 < L < 3.
Since no L can satisfy the conditions that −1 < L < 1 and 1 < L < 3, we conclude that
lim f (x) does not exist.
x→1
x→3
0 < |x − 3| < δ. To the right of 3, choose x = 3 + δ/2.
Since 0 < |3 + δ/2 − 3| = |δ/2| < δ,
we must have |f (3 + δ/2) − L| = | − 1 − L| = |L + 1| < 1,
or −2 < L < 0.
To the left of 3, choose x = 3 − δ/2.
Since 0 < |3 − δ/2 − 3| = | − δ/2| < δ,
we must have |f (3 − δ/2) − L| = |1 − L| = |L − 1| < 1,
or 0 < L < 2.
Since no L can satisfy the conditions that −2 < L < 0 and 0 < L < 2, we conclude that
lim f (x) does not exist.
x→3
x→0
0 < |x − 0| < δ. To the right of 0, choose x = δ/2.
Since 0 < |δ/2 − 0| = |δ/2| < δ,
we must have |f (δ/2) − L| = |2 − δ/2 − L| < 1,
or 1 − δ/2 < L < 3 − δ/2.
To the left of 0, choose x = −δ/2.
Since 0 < | − δ/2 − 0| = | − δ/2| < δ,
we must have |f (−δ/2) − L| = | − δ/2 − L| < 1,
or −1 − δ/2 < L < 1 − δ/2.
Since no L can satisfy the conditions that 1 − δ/2 < L < 3 − δ/2 and −1 − δ/2 < L < 1 − δ/2,
we conclude that lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0
x→0
0 < |x − 0| < δ. Since |f (x) − L| < 1 for all x such that 0 < |x| < δ, we may assume that
δ < 2. To the right of 0, choose x = δ/2.
Since 0 < |δ/2 − 0| = |δ/2| < δ,
we must have |f (δ/2) − L| = |2/δ − L| = |L − 2δ| < 1,
or 2/δ − 1 < L < δ/2 + 1.
To the left of 0, choose x = −δ/2.
Since 0 < | − δ/2 − 0| = |δ/2| < δ,
we must have |f (−δ/2) − L| = | − 2/δ − L| = |L + 2/δ| < 1,
or −2/δ − 1 < L < −2/δ + 1.
2.6. LIMITS — A FORMAL APPROACH 101
Since we assumed δ < 2, we have

1 < 2/δ or 0 < 2/δ − 1
and −1 > −2/δ or 0 > −2/δ + 1.
Having established 2/δ − 1 < L < δ/2 + 1 and −2/δ − 1 < L < −2/δ + 1, these imply
0 < L < 2δ + 1 and −2/δ − 1 < L < 0.
Since it is impossible for L to satisfy both of these inequalities, lim f (x) does not exist.
x→0
31. By Definition 2.6.5(i), for any > 0 we must find an N > 0 such that

5x − 1 5
< whenever x > N.
2x + 1 − 2
Now by considering x > 0,

5x − 1 5 −7 7 7

2x + 1 − 2 = 4x + 2 = 4x + 2 < 4x <
whenever x > 7/4. Hence, choose N = 7/4.

32. By Definition 2.6.5(i), for any > 0 we must find an N > 0 such that

2x 2
< whenever x < N.
3x + 8 − 3
Now by considering x > 0,

2x 2 −16 16 16

3x + 8 − 3 = 9x + 24 = 9x + 24 < 9x <
whenever x > 16/9. Hence, choose N = 16/9.

33. By Definition 2.6.5(ii), for any > 0 we must find an N < 0 such that

10x
− 10 < whenever x < N.
x − 3
Now by considering x < 0,

10x 30 30 30 30

x − 3 − 10 = x − 3 = −(−x + 3) = −x + 3 < x <
whenever x < −30/. Hence, choose N = −30/.

34. By Definition 2.6.5(ii), for any > 0 we must find an N < 0 such that

x2

x2 + 3 − 1 < whenever x < N.
Now by considering x < 0,

x2

−3
= 3 3
x2 + 3 − 1 x2 + 3 = x2 + 3 < x2 <
p p
whenever x2 > 3/ or x < − 3/. Hence, choose N = − 3/.
35. We need to show |f (x) − 0| = |f (x)| < whenever 0 < |x − 0| = |x| < δ for an appropriate
choice of δ. For δ = ,
(
|x|, x rational
|f (x)| = < whenever 0 < |x| < δ.
0, x irrational
Thus, lim f (x) = 0.

x→0
2.7 The Tangent Line Problem

10
1. -10 -5 5 10
change in x = h = 2.5 − 2 = 0.5
change in y = f (2 + 0.5) − f (2) = 2.75 − 5 = −2.25
change in y −2.25
-10
msec = = = −4.5
change in x 0.5
10
2. -10 -5 5 10
change in x = h = 0 − (−1/4) = 1/4
change in y = f (0 + 1/4) − f (0) = 17/16 − 0 = 17/16
change in y 17/16 17
-10
msec = = =
change in x 1/4 4
10
3. -10 -5 5 10
change in x = h = −1 − (−2) = 1
change in y = f (−2 + 1) − f (−2) = −1 − (−8) = 7
change in y 7
-10
msec = = =7
change in x 1
4. -5 5
change in x = h = 1 − 0.9 = 0.1
change in y = f (1 + 0.1) − f (1) = 10/11 − 1 = −1/11
-5 change in y −1/11 10
msec = = =−
change in x 1/10 11
2.7. THE TANGENT LINE PROBLEM 103
2π π π
5. change in x = h = − =
π π
3 2 6
2 π π π 2 √
change in y = f + −f = sin π − 1 = 3/2 − 1
-3
2 6 √2 3 √
change in y 3/2 − 1 3 3−6
msec = = =
change in x π/6 π
π π π
6. change in x = h = − − − =
–π –π
3 2 6
3 π π π π 1
change in y = f − + −f − = cos − −
√ 3 6√ 3 6 2
-3
3 1 3−1
= − =
2 2 2√ √
change in y ( 3 − 1)/2 3 3−3
msec = = =
change in x π/6 π
7. f (a) = f (3) = 3; f (a + h) = f (3 + h) = (h + 3)2 − 6
f (a + h) − f (a) = [(h + 3)2 − 6] − 3 = [(h2 + 6h + 9) − 6] − 3 = h2 + 6h = h(h + 6)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(h + 6)
mtan = lim = lim = lim (h + 6) = 6
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
With point of tangency (3, 3), we have y − 3 = 6(x − 3) or y = 6x − 15.
8. f (a) = f (−1) = 7; f (a + h) = f (−1 + h) = −3(h − 1)2 + 10
f (a + h) − f (a) = [−3(h − 1)2 + 10] − 7 = [(−3h2 + 6h − 3) + 10] − 7 = −3h2 + 6h = h(6 − 3h)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(6 − 3h)
mtan = lim = lim = lim (6 − 3h) = 6
h
h→0 h→0 h h→0
With point of tangency (−1, 7), we have y − 7 = 6(x + 1) or y = 6x + 13.
9. f (a) = f (1) = −2; f (a + h) = f (1 + h) = (h + 1)2 − 3(h + 1)
f (a + h) − f (a) = [(h + 1)2 − 3(h + 1)] − (−2) = (h2 − h − 2) − (−2) = h2 − h = h(h − 1)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(h − 1)
mtan = lim = lim = lim (h − 1) = −1
h
h→0 h→0 h h→0
With point of tangency (1, −2), we have y + 2 = −(x − 1) or y = −x − 1.
10. f (a) = f (−2) = −17; f (a + h) = f (−2 + h) = −(h − 2)2 + 5(h − 2) − 3
f (a + h) − f (a) = [−(h − 2)2 + 5(h − 2) − 3] − (−17)
= (−h2 + 9h − 17) − (−17) = −h2 + 9h = h(9 − h)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(9 − h)
mtan = lim = lim = lim (9 − h) = 9
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
With point of tangency (−2, −17), we have y + 17 = 9(x + 2) or y = 9x + 1.
11. f (a) = f (2) = −14; f (a + h) = f (2 + h) = −2(h + 2)3 + (h + 2)

f (a + h) − f (a) = [−2(h + 2)3 + (h + 2)] − (−14)
= (−2h3 − 12h2 − 23h − 14) − (−14) = h(−2h2 − 12h − 23)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(−2h2 − 12h − 23)
mtan = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (−2h2 − 12h − 23) = −23
h→0
With point of tangency (2, −14), we have y + 14 = −23(x − 2) or y = −23x + 32.
12. f (a) = f (1/2) = −3; f (a + h) = f (1/2 + h) = 8(h + 1/2)3 − 4
f (a + h) − f (a) = [8(h + 1/2)3 − 4] − (−3)
= (8h3 + 12h2 + 6h − 3) − (−3) = 2h(4h2 + 6h + 3)
f (a + h) − f (a) 2h(4h2 + 6h + 3)
mtan = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim 2(4h + 6h + 3) = 6
2
h→0
With point of tangency (1/2, −3), we have y + 3 = 6(x − 1/2) or y = 6x − 6.
1
13. f (a) = f (−1) = −1/2; f (a + h) = f (−1 + h) =
2(h − 1)

1 1 1+h−1 h
f (a + h) − f (a) = − − = =
2(h − 1) 2 2(h − 1) 2(h − 1)

f (a + h) − f (a) h 1
mtan = lim = lim ·
h→0 h h→0 2(h − 1) h
1 1
= lim =−
h→0 2(h − 1) 2
1 1 x
With point of tangency (−1, −1/2), we have y + = − (x + 1) or y = − .
2 2 2
4
14. f (a) = f (2) = 4; f (a + h) = f (2 + h) =
(h + 2) − 1
4 4 − 4h − 4 −4h
f (a + h) − f (a) = −4= =
(h + 2) − 1 h+1 h+1

f (a + h) − f (a) −4h 1 −4
mtan = lim = lim · = lim = −4
h→0 h h→0 h + 1 h h→0 h + 1
With point of tangency (2, 4), we have y − 4 = −4(x − 2) or y = −4x + 12.

1
15. f (a) = f (0) = 1; f (a + h) = f (h) =
(h − 1)2
1 −h2 + 2h h(2 − h)
f (a + h) − f (a) = − 1 = =
(h − 1)2 (h − 1)2 (h − 1)2

f (a + h) − f (a) h(2 − h) 1 2−h
mtan = lim = lim · = lim =2
h→0 h h→0 (h − 1)2 h h→0 (h − 1)2
With point of tangency (0, 1), we have y − 1 = 2(x − 0) or y = 2x + 1.

8
16. f (a) = f (−1) = 12; f (a + h) = f (−1 + h) = 4 −
−1 + h

8 −8 −8 − 8h + 8 −8h
f (a + h) − f (a) = 4 − − 12 = −8= =
−1 + h −1 + h h−1 h−1

f (a + h) − f (a) −8h 1 −8
mtan = lim = lim · = lim =8
h→0 h h→0 h − 1 h h→0 h − 1
With point of tangency (−1, 12), we have y − 12 = 8(x + 1) or y = 8x + 20.

√
17. f (a) = f (4) = 2; f (a + h) = f (4 + h) = 4 + h
√
√ √ 4+h+2 4+h−4 h
f (a + h) − f (a) = 4 + h − 2 = ( 4 + h − 2) √ =√ =√
4+h+2 4+h+2 4+h+2

f (a + h) − f (a) h 1
mtan = lim = lim √ ·
h→0 h h→0 4+h+2 h
1 1
= lim √ =
h→0 4+h+2 4
1 1
With point of tangency (4, 2), we have y − 2 = (x − 4) or y = x + 1.
4 4
1
18. f (a) = f (1) = 1; f (a + h) = f (1 + h) = √
h+1
√ √ √
1 1− h+1 1− h+1 1+ h+1
f (a + h) − f (a) = √ −1= √ = √ · √
h+1 h+1 h+1 1+ h+1
1−h−1 −h
=√ =√
h+1+h+1 h+1+h+1

f (a + h) − f (a) −h 1
mtan = lim = lim √ ·
h→0 h h→0 h+1+h+1 h
−1 1
= lim √ =−
h→0 h+1+h+1 2
1 1 3
With point of tangency (1, 1), we have y − 1 = − (x − 1) or y = − x + .
2 2 2
19. f (a) = f (π/6) = 1/2; f (a + h) = f (π/6 + h) = sin(π/6 + h)

π 1 π π 1
f (a + h) − f (a) = sin + h − = sin cos h + cos sin h −
6 √ 2 6 6 √ 2
1 3 1 1 3
= cos h + sin h − = (cos h − 1) + sin h
2 2 2 2 2 !
√
f (a + h) − f (a) 1 cos h − 1 3 sin h
mtan = lim = lim · + ·
h→0 h h→0 2 h 2 h
√ √
= (1/2)(0) + ( 3/2)(1) = 3/2
√ √ √
1 3 π 3 3π 1
With point of tangency (π/6, 1/2), we have y − = x− or y = x− + .
2 2 6 2 12 2
√
20. f (a) = f (π/4) = 2/2; f (a + h) = f (π/4 + h) = cos(π/4 + h)
π √2 π π
√
2
f (a + h) − f (a) = cos +h − = cos cos h − sin sin h −
√ 4 √ 2 √ 4 √ 4 2
2 2 2 2
= cos h − sin h − = (cos h − sin h − 1)
2 2 2 √ 2

f (a + h) − f (a) 2 cos h − 1 sin h
mtan = lim = lim −
h→0 h h→0 2 h h
√ √
= ( 2/2)(0 − 1) = − 2/2
√ √ √ √
√ 2 2 π 2 2π
With point of tangency (π/4, 2/2), we have y − =− x− or y = − x+ +
√ 2 2 4 2 8
2
.
2
21. f (a) = f (1) = 1; f (a + h) = f (1 + h) = (h + 1)2
f (a + h) − f (a) = [(h + 1)2 ] − 1 = (h2 + 2h + 1) − 1 = h(h + 2)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(h + 2)
mtan = lim = lim = lim (h + 2) = 2
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
The slope of the tangent at the blue point (1, 1) is 2. The slope of the line through (1, 1)
and (4, 6) is m = (6 − 1)/(4 − 1) = 5/3. Since the slopes are not equal, then this line is not
tangent to the graph.
22. Since there is more than one line, we first find the slope of the tangent line at the “general
point” (a, f (a)).
f (a) = a2 ; f (a + h) = (h + a)2
f (a + h) − f (a) = [(h + a)2 ] − (a2 ) = (h2 + 2ha + a2 ) − a2 = h(h + 2a)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(h + 2a)
mtan = lim = lim = lim (h + 2a) = 2a
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
Now that we have determined that mtan = 2a, then the slope of the tangent at the blue
point (−1, 1) is mtan (−1) = 2(−1) = −2. The slope of the line through (−1, 1) and (1, −3) is
m = (−3 − 1)/(1 + 1) = −2. Since the slopes are equal, then this line is tangent to the graph.
The slope of the tangent at the blue point (3, 9) is mtan (3) = 2(3) = 6. The slope of the line
through (3, 9) and (1, −3) is m = (9 + 3)/(3 − 1) = 6. Since the slopes are equal, then this
line is tangent to the graph.
23. We know that the points (2, 0) and (6, 4) are on the tangent line, so its equation is
0−4
y−0= (x − 2) or y =x−2
2−6
The line’s y-intercept is (0, −2).
24. We know that the points (0, 4) and (7, 0) are on the tangent line, so its equation is
4−0 4
y−0= (s − 7) or y =− x+4
0−7 7
Since the point of tangency (−5, f (−5)) is on this tangent line, then
4 48
f (−5) = − (−5) + 4 =
7 7
25. f (a) = −a2 + 6a + 1; f (a + h) = −(h + a)2 + 6(h + a) + 1

f (a + h) − f (a) = [−(h + a)2 + 6(h + a) + 1] − (−a2 + 6a + 1)
= −h2 − 2ha − a2 + 6h + 6a + 1 − (−a2 ) − 6a − 1
= −h2 − 2ha + 6h = h(−h − 2a + 6)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(−h − 2a + 6)
mtan = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (−h − 2a + 6) = −2a + 6
h→0
The tangent line is horizontal when mtan = 0, so we substitute and solve mtan = 0 = −2a + 6,
yielding 2a = 6 and a = 3. Thus, the tangent line is horizontal at (3, f (3)) = (3, 10).
26. f (a) = 2a2 + 24a − 22; f (a + h) = 2(h + a)2 + 24(h + a) − 22

f (a + h) − f (a) = [2(h + a)2 + 24(h + a) − 22] − (2a2 + 24a − 22)
= 2h2 + 4ha + 2a2 + 24h + 24a − 22 − 2a2 − 24a − (−22)
= 2h2 + 4ha + 24h = h(2h + 4a + 24)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(2h + 4a + 24)
mtan = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (2h + 4a + 24) = 4a + 24
h→0
The tangent line is horizontal when mtan = 0, so we substitute and solve mtan = 0 = 4a + 24,
yielding 4a = −24 and a = −6. Thus, the tangent line is horizontal at (−6, f (−6)) =
(−6, −94).
27. f (a) = a3 − 3a; f (a + h) = (h + a)3 − 3(h + a)

f (a + h) − f (a) = [(h + a)3 − 3(h + a)] − (a3 − 3a)
= h3 + 3h2 a + 3ha2 + a3 − 3h − 3a − a3 − (−3a)
= h3 + 3h2 a + 3ha2 − 3h = h(h2 + 3ah + 3a2 − 3)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(h2 + 3ah + 3a2 − 3)
mtan = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (h2 + 3ah + 3a2 − 3) = 3a2 − 3
h→0
The tangent line is horizontal when mtan = 0, so we substitute and solve mtan = 0 = 3a2 − 3,
yielding 3a2 = 3 and a = ±1. Thus, the tangent line is horizontal at (−1, f (−1)) = (−1, 2)
and (1, f (1)) = (1, −2).
28. f (a) = −a3 + a2 ; f (a + h) = −(h + a)3 + (h + a)2

f (a + h) − f (a) = [−(h + a)3 + (h + a)2 ] − (−a3 + a2 )
= −h3 − 3h2 a − 3ha2 − a3 + h2 + 2ah + a2 − (−a3 ) − a2
= −h3 − 3h2 a − 3ha2 + h2 + 2ah = h(−h2 − 3ah − 3a2 + h + 2a)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(−h2 − 3ah − 3a2 + h + 2a)
mtan = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (−h − 3ah − 3a + h + 2a) = −3a + 2a
2 2 2
h→0
The tangent line is horizontal when mtan = 0, so we substitute and solve mtan = 0 = −3a2 +2a,
yielding a(3a − 2) = 0 and a = 0, 2/3. Thus, the tangent line is horizontal at (0, f (0)) = (0, 0)
and (2/3, f (2/3)) = (2/3, 4/27).
change of distance 290 mi

29. vave = = = 58 mi/h
change in time 5h
change of distance 1/2 mi (1/2 mi) 1/2 mi

30. vave = = = = = 45 mi/h
change in time 40 s (40 s)/(3600 s/h) 1/90 h
The car will not be stopped for speeding.
change of distance 3500 km
31. vave = ; 920 km/h = ; t ≈ 3.8 h = 3 h 48 min
change in time t
change of distance 20 mi − 10 mi 20 mi − 10 mi 10 mi
32. vave = = 1 = = = 6 mi/h
change in time 3 6 h − 1 12 h 19/6 h − 3/2 h 5/3 h
33. ∆s = s(t0 +∆t)−s(t0 ) = f (3+∆t)−f (3) = [−4(3+∆t)2 +10(3+∆t)+6]−0 = −14∆t−4∆t2

The instantaneous velocity at t = 3 is
∆s −14∆t − 4∆t2
v(3) = lim = lim = lim (−14 − 4∆t) = −14.
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0
1 5∆t3 + ∆t2 − 5∆t

34. ∆s = s(t0 + ∆t) − s(t0 ) = f (∆t) − f (0) = ∆t2 + −1= = −5
5∆t + 1 5∆t + 1
The instantaneous velocity at t = 0 is
∆s 5∆t3 + ∆t2 − 5∆t 5∆t2 + ∆t − 5

v(0) = lim = lim = lim = −5.
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 (5∆t + 1)∆t ∆t→0 5∆t + 1
35. (a) ∆s = s(t0 + ∆t) − s(t0 ) = f (1/2 + ∆t) − f (1/2) = −4.9(1/2 + ∆t)2 + 122.5 − 121.275
= −4.9∆t2 − 4.9∆t
The instantaneous velocity at t = 1/2 is
∆s −4.9∆t2 − 4.9∆t
v(1/2) = lim = lim = lim (−4.9∆t − 4.9) = −4.9 m/s.
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0
(b) The ball hits the ground when s(t) = 0:
−4.9t2 + 122.5 = 0; t2 = 122.5/4.9; t = 5 s.
(c) Since the ball impacts at t = 5,
∆s = s(t0 + ∆t) − s(t0 ) = f (5 + ∆t) − f (5) = [−4.9(5 + ∆t)2 + 122.5] − [−4.9(5)2 + 122.5]
= −49∆t2 − 49∆t
The impact velocity at t = 5 is
∆s −49∆t2 − 49∆t
v(5) = lim = lim = lim (−49∆t − 49) = −49 m/s.
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0
p
36. (a) Setting − 12 gt2 + h = 0 and solving for t > 0, we obtain t = 2h/g.
p
(b) Earth: timpact = 2(100)/32 = 2.5 s
p
Mars: timpact = 2(100)/12 ≈ 4.08 s
p
Moon: timpact = 2(100)/5.5 ≈ 6.03 s
1 1 1
(c) ∆s = s(t0 + ∆t) − s(t0 ) = − g(t0 + ∆t)2 + h − (− gt20 + h) = − g∆t2 − gt0 ∆t
2 2 2
The instantaneous velocity at timpact is
1
∆s − g∆t2 − gt0 ∆t 1
v(timpact ) = lim = lim 2 = lim − g∆t − gt0 = −gt0 .
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 2
(d) The impact velocities are
vEarth = −(32)(2.5) = −80 ft/s

vMars ≈ −(12)(4.08) = −48.96 ft/s
vMoon ≈ −(5.5)(6.03) = −33.165 ft/s.
37. (a) s(t) = −16t2 + 256t

s(2) = −16(22 ) + 256(2) = 448 ft
s(6) = −16(62 ) + 256(6) = 960 ft
s(9) = −16(92 ) + 256(9) = 1008 ft
s(10) = −16(102 ) + 256(10) = 960 ft
(b) s(5) = −16(52 ) + 256(5) = 880 ft
s(2) = 448 ft [from (a)]
change of distance 880 ft − 448 ft
vave = = = 144 ft/s
change in time 5 s−2 s
(c) s(7) = −16(72 ) + 256(7) = 1008 ft

s(9) = 1008 ft [from (a)]
change of distance 1008 ft − 1008 ft 0
vave = = = = 0 ft/s
change in time 9 s−7 s 2
At t = 7 s, the projectile is at a height of 1008 ft on its way upward. After it reaches
a maximum height, it begins to fall downward and, at t = 9 s, the height is once again
1008 ft. Since distance upward is positive and distance downward is negative, the net
distance is zero.
(d) The projectile hits the ground when s(t) = 0:
−16t2 + 256t = 0; 16t2 = 256t; t = 256/16 = 16 s
(e) For some general time t:
∆s = s(t + ∆t) − s(t) = [−16(t + ∆t)2 + 256(t + ∆t)] − (−16t2 + 256t)
= −16∆t2 + 256∆t − 32t∆t = ∆t(−16∆t + 256 − 32t)
The instantaneous velocity at a general time t is
∆s ∆t(−16∆t + 256 − 32t)
v(t) = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
= lim (−16∆t + 256 − 32t) = (256 − 32t) ft/s.
∆t→0
(f) From (d), the projectile impacts at t = 16 s. From (e), v(t) = 256 − 32t so v(16) =
256 − 32(16) = −256 ft/s.
(g) The maximum height is reached when v(t) = 0: 256 − 32t = 0 gives us t = 8 s. Since
s(t) = −16t2 + 256t, we have s(8) = −16(82 ) + 256(8) = 1024 ft.
38. (a) s(4) ≈ 1.3 ft; s(6) ≈ 2.7 ft
s(6) − s(4) 2.7 − 1.3
(b) vave ≈ = = 0.7 ft/s
6−4 2
(c) The instantaneous velocity at t = 0 is the slope of the tangent line to the graph at t = 0.
In this case, v0 ≈ 1 ft/s.
(d) t ≈ 3 s
(e) The velocity is decreasing where the slopes of the tangent lines are decreasing; in this
case, for 0 < t < 3.
(f) The velocity is increasing where the slopes of the tangent lines are increasing; in this
case, for 3 < t < 7.
39. The slopes m of a tangent line at (a, f (a)) and m0 of a tangent line at (−a, f (−a)) are:
f (a + h) − f (a) f (−a + h0 ) − f (−a)
m = lim ; m0 = lim
h→0 h h0 →0 h0
As defined in Section 1.2, an even function is a function which is symmetric with respect to
the y-axis: f (−x) = f (x) for all x. Since f is even, then f (−a) = f (a) and f (−a + h0 ) =
f (−[−a + h0 ]) = f (a − h0 ), resulting in:
f (a − h0 ) − f (a) f (a + [−h0 ]) − f (a)
m0 = lim = lim
0
h →0 h0 h0 →0 h0
CHAPTER 2 IN REVIEW 111
Without loss of generality, we apply the substitution h0 = −h to obtain:

f (a + [−h0 ]) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
m0 = lim = lim = −m
0
h →0 h0 h→0 −h
40. The slopes m of a tangent line at (a, f (a)) and m0 of a tangent line at (−a, f (−a)) are:
f (a + h) − f (a) f (−a + h0 ) − f (−a)

m = lim ; m0 = lim
h→0 h 0
h →0 h0
As defined in Section 1.2, an odd function is a function which is symmetric with respect to
the origin: f (−x) = −f (x) for all x. Since f is odd, then f (−a) = −f (a) and f (−a + h0 ) =
−f (−[−a + h0 ]) = −f (a − h0 ), resulting in:
−f (a − h0 ) − [−f (a)] −[f (a − h0 ) + f (a)]

m0 = lim 0
= − lim
0
h →0 h 0
h →0 h0
Without loss of generality, we apply the substitution h0 = −h to obtain:
−[f (a − h0 ) + f (a)] −[f (a + h) − f (a)]
m0 = lim 0
= lim =m
0
h →0 h h→0 −h
41. To show that the graph of f (x) = x2 +|x| does not possess a tangent line at (0, 0), we examine
f (0 + h) − f (0) [(0 + h)2 + |0 + h|] − 0 h2 + |h|

lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
From the definition of absolute value, we see that
h2 + |h| h2 + h
lim+ = =h+1=1
h→0 h h
whereas
h2 + |h| h2 − h
lim− = = h − 1 = −1
h→0 h h
f (0 + h) − f (0)
Since the right-hand and left-hand limits are not equal, we conclude that lim =
h→0 h
h2 + |h|
lim does not exist, and that therefore f has no tangent line at (0, 0).
h→0 h
Chapter 2 in Review
A. True/False
1. True
√
2. False; lim x − 5 = 0.
x→5+
|x|
3. False; lim− = −1.
x→0 x
2
4. False; lim e2x−x = 0.
x→∞

1 π
5. False; lim tan −1
= .
x→0+ x 2
6. True
7. True
8. False; let f (x) = 0.
1 1
9. False; consider f (x) = , g(x) = 4 , and a = 0.
x2 x
1 1
10. False; consider f (x) = , g(x) = , and a = 0.
x 2 tan2 x
11. False; consider f (x) = −x.
12. True
13. True; since f (−1) < 0 and f (1) > 0.
14. False; consider f (x) = 1 and g(x) = x − 2.
15. True
(
−1, x<0
16. False; consider f (x) = and a = 0.
1, x>0
(
1, x≤3
17. False; consider f (x) = .
2, x>3
18. True; since lim [(x − a)f (x)] = [ lim (x − a)][ lim f (x)] = 0 · f (a) = 0.
x→a x→a x→a
19. True
20. False; lim f (x) = 4 = f (5).

x→5
√
x
21. False; since is undefined for x < 0.
x+1
22. False; the slope m of the tangent line at (3, f (3)) is 1. There is not enough information to
determine the value of f (3).
B. Fill in the Blanks

1. 4
2. 1
3. -1/5
4. -1/2
5. 0
6. 3/5
7. ∞
8. 0
9. 1
10. 1/4
11. 3−
12. 4
13. −∞
14. 0+
15. −2

x2 f (x) x2
16. Dividing by x2 we have 1 − ≤ 2 ≤ 1. Since lim 1 − = 1 = lim 1, by the Squeeze
3 x x→0 3 x→0
f (x)
Theorem we have lim = 1.
x→0 x2
17. 10
18. 8
19. continuous
20. 2
21. 9
22. Since f (x) = x2 is continuous, lim f (g(x)) = f ( lim g(x)) = f (−9) = (−9)2 = 81.
x→−5 x→−5
C. Exercises
5
5
1. 2.
-5 5 -5 5
-5
-5
3
5
3. 4.
-3 3
-5
-3
5. (a), (e), (f), (h)

6. (b), (e), (h)
7. (c), (h)
8. (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (i)
9. (b), (c), (d), (e), (f)
10. (a), (g), (j)
11. The function is continuous everywhere.

-5 5
-5
12. The function is discontinuous at x = 2 and x = 4.

3
3 6
13. (−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1), and (1, ∞)

14. [−2, 1) and (1, 2]

√ √
15. (−∞, − 5) and ( 5, ∞)
16. (nπ, nπ + π) for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
17. For f (x) to be continuous at the number 3, we must have f (3) = 3k + 1 = lim (2 − kx).
x→3+
Thus, we must solve for k in the equation 3k + 1 = 2 − 3k, resulting in k = 1/6. Therefore:
x
 + 1, x ≤ 3
f (x) = 6 x
2 − , x > 3
6
18. For f (x) to be continuous everywhere, we must have f (1) = 5 = lim+ (ax + b) and f (3) =
x→1
3a + b = lim+ (3x − 8). Thus, we get two equations 5 = a + b and 1 = 3a + b. Solving for a
x→3
an b yields a = −2, b = 7. Therefore:


 x + 4, x≤1
f (x) = −2x + 7, 1 < x ≤ 3


3x − 8, x>3
19. f (a) = f (2) = 32; f (a + h) = f (2 + h) = −3(h + 2)2 + 16(h + 2) + 12

f (a + h) − f (a) = [−3(h + 2)2 + 16(h + 2) + 12] − 32
= −3h2 − 12h − 12 + 16h + 32 + 12 − 32 = −3h2 + 4h = h(−3h + 4)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(−3h + 4)
mtan = lim = lim =4
h→0 h h→0 h
20. f (a) = f (−1) = −2; f (a + h) = f (−1 + h) = (h − 1)3 − (h − 1)2
f (a + h) − f (a) = [(h − 1)3 − (h − 1)2 ] − (−2)
= h3 − 3h2 + 3h − 1 − h2 + 2h − 1 − (−2)
= h3 − 4h2 + 5h = h(h2 − 4h + 5)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(h2 − 4h + 5)
mtan = lim = lim =5
h→0 h h→0 h
With point of tangency (−1, −2), we have y + 2 = 5(x + 1) or y = 5x + 3.
−1
21. f (a) = f (1/2) = −2; f (a + h) = f (1/2 + h) =
2(h + 1/2)2
−1 −1
f (a + h) − f (a) = − (−2) = 2 − (−2)
2(h + 1/2) 2 2h + 2h + 1/2
−1 + 4h2 + 4h + 1 4h(h + 1)
= = 2
2h + 2h + 1/2
2 2h + 2h + 1/2
f (a + h) − f (a) 4h(h + 1)
mtan = lim = lim =8
h→0 h h→0 (2h2 + 2h + 1/2)h
With point of tangency (1/2, −2), we have y + 2 = 8(x − 1/2) or y = 8x − 6.

√
22. f (a) = f (4) = 12; f (a + h) = f (4 + h) = (h + 4) + 4 h + 4
√
√ √ (h − 8) − 4 h + 4
f (a + h) − f (a) = [(h + 4) + 4 h + 4] − 12 = [(h − 8) + 4 h + 4] · √
(h − 8) − 4 h + 4
(h − 8) − 16(h + 4)
2
h − 16h + 64 − 16h − 64
2
= √ = √
(h − 8) − 4 h + 4 (h − 8) − 4 h + 4
h(h − 32)
= √
(h − 8) − 4 h + 4
f (a + h) − f (a) h(h − 32) −32
mtan = lim = lim √ = =2
h→0 h h→0 [(h − 8) − 4 h + 4]h −16
23. f (a) = f (1) = 2; f (a + h) = f (1 + h) = −4(h + 1)2 + 6(h + 1)
f (a + h) − f (a) = [−4(h + 1)2 + 6(h + 1)] − 2 = −4h2 − 8h − 4 + 6h + 6 − 2
= −4h2 − 2h = h(−4h − 2)
f (a + h) − f (a) h(−4h − 2)
mtan = lim = lim = −2
h→0 h h→0 h
With point of tangency (1, 2), we have y − 2 = −2(x − 1) or y = −2x + 4. Thus, the line
that is perpendicular to this line would have a slope of 1/2 and also passes through (1, 2),
resulting in the equation y − 2 = (x − 1)/2 or y = (x + 3)/2.
24. |2x + 5 − 7| = |2x − 2| = 2|x − 1| < whenever |x − 1| < /2. Thus, we choose δ = /2 and
so δ = 0.005 when = 0.01. Finding δ proves that lim (2x + 5) = 7.
x→1

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Chapter 2

2.1 Limits — An Informal Approach

13. lim f (x) = 0 14. No limit as x → 0.

15. (a) 1 (b) -1 (c) 2 (d) doesn’t exist

16. (a) 0 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 3

17. (a) 2 (b) -1 (c) -1 (d) -1

18. (a) doesn’t exist (b) 3 (c) -2 (d) doesn’t exist

23. Incorrect; lim bxc = 0

26. Incorrect; lim cos−1 x = 0

35. 1 36. 0.5

–π -1 -0.5 0.5 1 –π -0.5 0.5

The limit does not exist. The limit is 0.

37. 0.5 38.

The limit is −2. The limit does not exist.

42. x → 1− 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999

43. x → 0− −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001

lim f (x) = 0.33333333

47. x → 4− 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999

48. x → 3− 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999

49. x → 1− 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999

50. x → −2− −2.1 −2.01 −2.001 −2.0001

2.2 Limit Theorems

10. does not exist

19. does not exist

2x2 + 3x − 9 (2x − 3)(x + 3) 2(x − 1.5)(x + 3)

36. −210 or −1024

1 − cos2 x sin2 x sin x sin x

11. Discontinuous at e−2

13. (a) yes (b) yes

14. (a) no (b) yes

15. (a) yes (b) yes

16. (a) yes (b) yes

17. (a) no (b) no

18. (a) yes (b) yes

19. (a) yes (b) no

20. (a) no (b) no

21. Solving 2 + sec x = 0, we obtain cos x = − 12 , so x = 2π

22. Since sin x1 is discontinuous only at x = 0, it is continuous on [ π1 , ∞) and discontinuous on

23. Since f (x) is discontinuous only at x = 2, it is discontinuous on [−1, 3] and continuous on

30. Discontinuous at every integer

57. We want to solve f (x) = x5 + 2x − 7 = 50 or x5 + 2x − 57 = 0. It is easily seen that the

lim (f + g)(x) = lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

lim (f /g)(x) = lim [f (x)/g(x)] = lim f (x)/ lim g(x)

(g ◦ f )(x) = |x| − 1 is continuous at x = 0.

2.4 Trigonometric Limits

sin(5x + 10) 5 1 sin(5x + 10) 5 sin(5x + 10) 5

Focusing first on the denominator, we multiply out and simplify:

36. Using the trigonometric identity cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x, we have:

(cos x + sin x)(cos x − sin x)

sin |x| sin x

sin |x| sin |x| sin |x|

2.5 Limits that Involve Infinity

|4x| + |x − 1| −4x − (x − 1) −5x + 1

33. -5 5 Vertical asymptote: none

34. -5 5 Vertical asymptote: none

42. Vertical asymptote: x = −1, x = 1

43. (a) 2 (b) −∞ (c) 0 (d) 2

44. (a) ∞ (b) ∞ (c) 1 (d) 3

45. (a) −∞ (b) −3/2 (c) ∞ (d) 0

46. (a) ∞ (b) −∞ (c) 0 (d) 0

At this point, we substitute t = 3/x, resulting in:

53. x→∞ 10 100 1000 10000

(b) A(100) ≈ 3.1395r2 ; A(1000) ≈ 3.1416r2

whenever 0 < |x − 1| < /2. Choose δ = /2.

whenever x > 7/4. Hence, choose N = 7/4.

whenever x > 16/9. Hence, choose N = 16/9.

whenever x < −30/. Hence, choose N = −30/.