FLEXIBLE POWER-TRANSMITTINGELEMENTS

USEFUL INFORMATION
Flexible connectors are machine elements used when the distance between the driving shaft and driven shaft is too great to be
connected by gears. These elements are in the form belts, ropes and power chains. These are the important members of the class
of links that are termed as non-rigid and flexible.

TYPES OF FLEXIBLE CONNECTORS

Belts – flexible connectors which are usually made of leather, rubber, or woven fabrics; flat and thin; and run on pulleys nearly
cylindrical with smooth surfaces.
Flat Belts
Used to connect shafts as much as 9 m (30 ft) apart; Run economically at speeds as high as 23 m/s (4500 fpm); Made of leather,
rubber, or woven fabrics; and Run on pulley nearly cylindrical with smooth surfaces.
V-belts – made with V-shaped cross section to be used on grooved pulleys
Used for connecting shafts which are less than 5 m (15 ft) apart; Speed ratios up to 7 to 1; Speed is up to 25.5 m/s (5000 fpm); An
endless type constructed of canvas, cotton cords, and rubber; Run in grooved pulleys, the angle of groove being about 36 o in the
smaller-diameter pulleys and 38o to 40o in the larger pulleys; The sides of the belt are slightly concave, and the included angle is
usually 42o; Belt may be operated very satisfactorily with a short center-to-center distance. Center distance need not be greater
than the diameter of the larger pulley; and Require little adjustment to compensate for wear or stretch owing to the wedging
action in the groove
Timing belts or Synchronous belts – are basically flat belts with series of evenly spaced teeth on the inside circumference, thereby
combining the advantages of flat belts with excellent traction of gears and chains.
Ropes – flexible connectors that are nearly circular in cross section and made up of manila, hemp, cotton, or wire. These are used
instead of flat belts or V-belts when power must be transmitted over long center distances as in hoists, elevators, and ski lifts
Run on either grooved pulleys or drums with flanges; Used for connecting shafts up 30.5 m (100 ft) apart; and Operate at a speed
of less than 3 m/s (600 fpm)
Chains – flexible connector composed of metallic links jointed together, and run on either sprockets or drums either grooved,
notched, or toothed, to fit the links of the chain.
Used for connecting shafts less than 5 m (15 ft) apart; Speed depends on the type of chain; and Roller and silent chains may
operate at speeds up to 13 m/s (2500 fpm).
Roller Chains – are used to transmit power through sprockets rotating in the same plane.

BELTS CONNECTING PARALLEL SHAFTS (FLAT BELT)

Open Belt Connection

Characteristics:
Pulleys are of the same sense or direction of rotation; No slipping between the belt and pulley surfaces; Angle of contact for
bigger pulley is greater than the angle of contact for smaller pulley; Surface speeds of smaller pulley is the same as the bigger
pulley; Belt speed is the as the pulleys surface speeds; and Used for connecting parallel shafts.

Figure 1. Open Belt Connection

1 2
1

 D1 N1  D 2 N 2 D 2 N1 R 2 1
Belt Speed: Vb   Speed Ratio, SR: SR    
60 60 D1 N 2 R 1  2
1  R 2  R1  D 2  D1
Arc of Contact:     2 sin     
 C  C
Where,  = arc of contact, radians (+) – is used for larger pulley (-) – is used for smaller
pulley

 D1  D2   2C   D2  D1 
2

Belt Length, L: L 
2 4C

Where Vb = belt speed, m/s, fpm D1 = diameter of smaller pulley 1, cm, m, inch., ft.
D2 = diameter of the bigger pulley 2, cm, m, inch., ft. N1 = rpm of pulley 1
N2 = rpm of pulley 2 R1 = radius of pulley 1
R2 = radius of pulley 2 1 = angular speed or velocity of pulley 1, rad/s
 2 = angular speed or velocity of pulley 2, rad/s C = center distance, cm, m, inch., ft.

Crossed Belt Connection

Figure 2. Crossed Belt Connection

1 2

Characteristics:
Pulleys are in opposite directions of rotation Belt is moving without slipping on the pulley surface
Angles of contact for both pulleys are the same Surface speeds of smaller pulley is the same as the bigger pulley
Belt speed is the same as the pulleys surface speeds. Used for connecting parallel shafts

 D1 N1  D 2 N 2 D 2 N1 R 2 1
Belt Speed: Vb   Speed Ratio: SR    
60 60 D1 N 2 R 1  2
1  R 2  R1  D 2  D1
Arc of Contact:     2 sin     
 C  C

 D1  D2   2C   D2  D1 
2

Belt Length: L 
2 4C

DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Angle of Contact or Wrap Angle and Design Considerations for open belt connection
In the power capacity formula, the factor e f governs the design.
If pulleys are of the same material, f is the same and the smaller pulley is the basis of design calculations.
Dd
   
 C 
Where, s = wrap angle of smaller pulley, radians d = diameter of smaller pulley, inches, mm.
D = diameter of larger pulley, inches, mm. C = center distance, inches, mm.

If pulleys are of different materials, compute for the value of e f for both pulley and use the smaller value.
 Dd  Dd
s      1     
 C   C 
Where, l = angle of contact for larger pulley, radians.

Angle of Contact or Wrap Angle and design considerations for Crossed Belt connection

For the crossed belt connection the angles of contact for both pulleys are the same.

Dd
1  2     
 C 
If the pulleys are of the same material, smaller pulley is the basis of design calculations.
If the pulleys are of different materials, thee pulley with smaller value of the factor ef will be the basis of design calculations.
Belt wider than 8 inches (203.2 mm) should be avoided for crossed belt installation.
Use reversing drive with idler pulley if wider belts are used.
The capacity of a crossed belt should only be 75 % as that of an open belt.
If pulley or speed ratio is greater than 3, the capacity of a crossed belt should only be 50 % as that of an open belt.

Belt Tensions
In a belt drive, the belt tensions are not equal. As illustrated in Figure 9.8 below, consider a driving pulley with a direction of
rotation shown.

Figure 3. Belt Tensions F1

F2
 F1
Belt tensions ratio, if the effect of centrifugal force is neglected:  ef
F2
F1  Fc
Belt tensions ratio, if the effect of centrifugal force is considered:  ef
F2  Fc
12btVs2
Centrifugal force on the belt: Fc 
g
 ef  1 
Belt net tension or tangential load: F  F1  F2   F1  Fc   f 

 e 
 12Vs2  ef  1 
Let F1 = sA = sbt and substituting the value of Fc, F1  F2  bt  s   
 g  ef 
  

d  d  63 000 Hp 30P

T  F    F1  F2     
Transmitted Torque: 2
  2
  n n
English S.I.

Tn FVm n T
Transmitted Hp or Power: Hp   P
63 000 33 000 30

Where, F1 = tight side belt tension, lb F2 = slack side belt tension, lb F = net belt tension, lb
Hp = transmitted Hp P = transmitted power, Kw T = transmitted torque, in-lb, kN-m
 = angle of contact, radians f = coefficient of friction f = 0.3 for leather belt on iron
or steel pulleys
f = 0.5 for leather belt on paper pulleys s = maximum allowable stress of the belt, psi b = belt width, inches
t = belt thickness, inch Vs = belt speed, fps Vm = belt speed, fpm
Vm = 4000 to 4500 fpm, most economical belt speed.  = belt density  = 0.035 lb/in3., for leather belt
 = 0.045 lb/in3., for flat rubber belting

Joint

Belt Joint Design Considerations

Most likely failure occurs at the belt joint.

Figure 4. Belt Joint.

Design at belt joint: Tensile failure

F1
For equal strength (belt and joint): F1  s t  bt   s  b t  bt 
st
For good design, the maximum induced fiber stress should be equal to the design or allowable stress.

s t  s design  s  max . allowable stress

su
Computation of design stress if not directly given: s  JF
N

Where, s = design or maximum allowable stress, psi, kPa su = ultimate stress, psi, kPa
N = factor of safety JF = joint factor

Joint Factors and belt strength data are indicated in Table 9.1 and Table 9.2 below.

Table 1. Typical Strength and Factor of Safety

 Ultimate Stress
Type (tension), su Factor of Safety Mass density, 
psi MPa lb / in3 kg / mm3
Leather 4000 27.0 10 0.035 3.7 x 10-7
Rubber 4200 29.0 12 0.045 1.137 x 10-6

Table 2. Joint Factor

Type of Joint JF
Cemented by belt maker 1.0
Cemented 0.98
Wire laced by machine 0.90
Wire laced by hand 0.82
Rawhide laced 0.60
Metal belt hook 0.38

Determination of Belt Size (Cross section)

550 Hp  ef 
bt   
Belt size if power capacity is given or known (English system):   12V 2   ef  1 
Vs s   s 
  g 
Where, b = belt width, inch. t = belt thickness, inch.  = angle of contact,
radians
f = coefficient of friction s = design or maximum allowable stress, psi. Vs = belt speed, fps.
 = belt density, lb/in3. g = 32.2 fps2.
746 Hp  e f  1000P  e f 
   
Belt size if belt power is given (Metric system): bt 
 
V s  1000V s  e f  1   
s  1000Vs  ef  1 
Where, b = belt width, mm. t = belt thickness, mm. s = design or maximum allowable stress,
N/mm2(MPa).
V = belt speed, m/s.  = belt density, kg/mm3.

Ddriver n driver 1  % Slip  Ddriven n driven 1  % Slip

Belt Speed (If % slip is considered): V  
60 60
Ddrivern driver Ddrivennldriven
Belt speed (If % slip is not considered): V  
60 60

Transmitted Power
P
 F1  F2  Vs 
 F1  F2  Vm   F1  F2  V
Power transmitted in terms of belt velocity : 550 33 000
Hp Hp kW
Tn 2Tn
P 
Power transmitted in terms of rpm: 63 000 60
Hp kW

V-BELTS

USEFUL INFORMATION
V-belts are used with electric motors to drive a great number of components such blowers, compressors, machine tools, etc.
Used to drive accessories on automotive and other internal combustion engines.
V-belts are made to standard lengths and with standard cross-sectional sizes.
V-belts run on grooved pulleys, called sheaves.
V-belts are used on short center distances
Sheaves are usually made up of cast iron, pressed steel or die-cast iron.
V-belts have a fiber glass-reinforced neoprene core and fabric-impregnated neoprene jacket that protects the interior and provide
a wear resistant surface for the belt.
V-belt cross-sections are trapezoidal and are classified into A, B, C, D, and E.
Advantages of V-Belt Figure 1. V-belt connection
Wedging action permits a smaller arc of contact
Shorter center distances that economize space
Lower belt tension due to its gripping action
Absorbs higher shock than flat belts
Do not require frequent adjustment of initial tension 1
2
 D1  D 2   2C   D2  D1 
2

Belt Length: C 
2 4C
C
Arc of Contact:    
 D2  D1 
C

Center Distance: C  B  B2  32 D 2  D1  2 Where, B  4L  6.28 D 2  D1 

16
D1  D 2
Minimum Center Distance (if D1 and SR are known): C   D1 or C  D2 →Take whichever is larger
2
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Steps on V-belt Design
Choose the type of belt cross-section
Solve for the number of belts to be used
  3 0.09  V 2  V
10  c
Rated Hp per belt: Rated Hp  a    e m6   m3
Vm  K d D1  10   10
    
Where, a, c, and e = constants for a particular belt section Kd = small-diameter factor Vm = belt speed, fpm
D1 = diameter of smaller sheave, inches
  103 
0.09
 V2   Vm
   13.962 
Rated Hp per belt of a B-section V-belt: Rated Hp  4.737   0.0234 m6
  10   103
  Vm  K d D1   
Design Hp: Design Hp = Nsf(Hp) Where, Nsf =service factor Hp = transmitted Hp

Adjusted Rated Hp: Adjusted Rated Hp = K KL (Rated Hp)

Where, K = correction factor for arc of contact other than 180 degrees KL = belt length correction
factor
Design Hp
Number of belt required: Number of Belt 
Adjusted Hp

POWER-TRANSMISSION CHAINS

USEFUL INFORMATION
Chains are made of a series of jointed metal links in a variety of forms in accordance with their uses as a) hoisting and hauling, b)
elevator and conveyor chains, and c) power-transmission chains.
The roller chain is used mainly as a power-transmission chain. The construction at the joints is as shown in the figure below.
Types of Chains
1) Detachable Chains 2) Cast Roller Chains 3) Pintle Chains
Roller Chains
A roller chain is made up of two kinds of links: roller links and pin links alternately spaced throughout the length of the chain as
shown in Figure 9.11 below; Roller chains are manufactured in several types, each designed for the particular service required; All
roller chains are so constructed that the rollers are evenly spaced throughout the chain; The outstanding advantage of this type
of chain is the ability of the rollers to rotate when contacting the teeth of the sprocket; Two arrangements of roller chains are in
common use: the single-strand type and the multiple-strand type; In the multiple-strand type roller chains, two or more chains
are joined side by side by means of common pins that maintain the alignment of the rollers in the different strands.

Figure 2. Roller Chain

Types of Roller Chains

Standard roller chains
These roller chains are manufactured to the specifications in the American National Standard for precision power transmission
roller chains, attachments, and sprockets; and These roller chains and sprockets are commonly used for the transmission of
power in industrial machinery, machine tools, motor trucks, motorcycles, tractors, and similar applications.
Nonstandard roller chains
These roller chains are similar in form and construction to standard roller chains but do not conform dimensionally to standard
chains; Some sizes of these chains are still available from the originating manufacturers for replacement on existing equipment;
and These are not recommended for new installations.
Standard double-pitch roller chains
These roller chains are like standard roller chains, except that their link plates have twice the pitch of the corresponding standard-
pitch chain; and These are especially useful for low speeds, moderate loads, or long center distances.
DESIGNATION OF CHAIN SIZES
Roller chain sizes are in terms of pitches measured in inches with the corresponding chain number as indicated Table 1 below.
Table 1. Roller Chain Sizes
Chain # 25 35 40 50 60 80 100 120 140 160 200
Pitch, inch ¼ 3/8 ½ 5/8 ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 1¾ 2 2½
General Considerations in Roller Chain Design
The recommended minimum number of teeth of smaller sprocket
12 Teeth  for very slow speeds 17 teeth  for slow speeds
21 teeth  for moderate speeds 25 teeth  for high speeds
23 teeth  for speed increasing drives
Maximum speed ratio is 7:1 but higher ratios are feasible. Higher ratios could be attained by two or more stages of reduction.
The general rule for center distance between sprockets: C  1.5 D or 30 P  C  50 P
Arc of contact of the chain on the smaller sprocket should not be smaller than 120 o.
The number of teeth of the bigger sprocket should not be more than 120 teeth.
Preferred arrangement for chain drive: with the center line of the sprocket horizontal, the tight side on top.
The chain length must be an integral multiple of the pitch and an even number of pitches is recommended.
Types of Sprockets for Chain Drive
Type A  is a plain plate Type B  is the one that has hub on one side only
Type C  is a sprocket with hub on both sides Type D  is a sprocket with detachable hub
Types of Chain Lubrications
Type I – is a manual lubrication applied at least once every 8 hours of operation.
Type II – is the so called dip lubrication
Type III – is the bath or disc lubrication
Type IV – is the oil stream lubrication
DESIGN EQUATIONS
Sprocket Pitch Diameter
Pitch diameter of the sprocket is the diameter of the circle passing through the roller chain
P
D 
 180o 
sin  
 T 
 
Where, D = sprocket pitch diameter P = roller chain pitch T = number of teeth of the
sprocket
  180o  
Outside Diameter of the Sprocket: Do  P 0.6  cot  

  T  
Sprocket Circumference: Circumference = P x T
D PT N
Roller Chain Speed: Vm    N 
 12  12
Where, Vm = linear speed, fpm D = sprocket diameter, inches N = sprocket rpm
P = chain pitch, inch T = number of teeth of sprocket
Sprockets Center-to-center Distance (Average Good Center Distance)
D1
C  D2 
2
Where, C = sprockets center-to-center distance, inches D1 = pitch diameter of sprocket 1, inches
D1 = pitch diameter of sprocket 2, inches

Center Distance Between Sprockets (PSME Code Equation)


C
P
2P  T2  T1   2L  T2  T1  2  0.810 T2  T1  2 
8 
Where, C = center distance, mm P = pitch, mm L = length of chain, pitches
T1 = number of teeth of smaller sprocket T1 = number of teeth of bigger sprocket
General rule for center distance: C  1.5 D 2 or 30P  C  50P
T1  T2  T2  T1  2
Length of Chain: L  2 C  
2 40 C
Where, L = length of roller chain, in pitches C = center-to-center distance, pitches (may contain a fraction or decimal)

Design Hp: Design Hp = Nsf (Nominal transmitted Hp)

Rated Hp
The two equations below are used to determine the rated Hp of the chain and use whichever is smaller.
 100 T1  0.8
Hp  0.004T11.08n10.9P3 0.07P and Hp  K r  P

 n1 
 LinkPlate Fatigue  Roller  Brushing Im pact 
Where, T1 = number of teeth of the smaller sprocket n1 = rpm of the smaller sprocket P = chain pitch, inches
Kr = 17 for chain # 40 to 240, except for # 41 Kr = 3.4, # 25 & 35, Kr = 29,
DESIGN PROCEDURE IN DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF STANDS
This procedure applies if the size of chain, speed, number of teeth of smaller sprocket, and power transmitted are given or
obtained.
Find the service factor
Find the Hp rating per strand from
Divide the design Hp by the Hp rating per strand to get the number of strands.

WIRE ROPES

USEFUL INFORMATION
Individual wires are twisted into strands, and then the strands are twisted around a hemp or steel center to form the rope.
The central element is an independent wire rope core (IWRC).
Wire rope is made with two types of winding, the regular lang lay and the lang lay rope.
Regular lang lay rope – is the accepted standard, has the wire twisted in one direction to form a strands and the strands twisted in
opposite direction to form a rope.
Lang lay ropes have the wires in the strand and the strands in the rope twisted in the same direction, the outer wires run
diagonally across the axis of the rope.

Figure 3. Wire Rope (Cross Section)

Uses of Wire Ropes

Wire ropes could be used in elevators, cranes, hoists, drilling, conveyors, tramways, haulage devices, suspension cables, guy
wires, etc.
Materials for Wire ropes
The common materials for wire ropes are: plow steel (PS), Mild Plow Steel (MPS), Improved Plow Steel (IPS), wrought iron, cast
steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, copper, or bronze.
Designation of Wire Ropes
First number is the number of strands, second number is the number of wires per strand.
Nominal diameter of wire rope, Dr, is the diameter of the circle that just enclosed the rope.
Example: 6 x 7 IPS, 1.25”, a wire rope with 6 strands, 7 wires per strands, made of improved plow steel, and having a nominal
diameter of 1.25 inches.
Various Rope Sizes with Corresponding applications
6 x 7 – haulage, tramways, guy wires 6 x 19 – general [purpose rope, hoists, cranes, drilling,
elevators
6 x 37 – high speed elevators, cranes, hoists 8 x 19 – extra flexible hoisting rope applications
Design Calculations
Ft = tensile force due to the load (including acceleration force) Sb = equivalent bending stress
Fb = equivalent bending load due to the curvature of the sheave or drum Am = cross sectional area of
metal
Dw = wire diameter FS = factor of safety Ds = sheave or drum diameter
E = modulus of elasticity = 30 x 106 psi for steel Fu = breaking strength or force of rope

Design Equations: Figure 4. Wire Rope Loads

Sheave or Drum
E Dw F  Fb
Fb  Sb A m Sb  FS  u
Ds Ft
Recommended Factor of Safety Based on Ultimate Stress
Elevators 8 – 12 Mine Hoists 2.5 – 5
Cranes, motor driven 4–6 Cranes, hand driven 3–5
Derricks 3–5

Ft

Skip or
Elevator

DESIGN CONSIDERTIONS
Load
Selection of Wire Ropes
Determine the factor of safety for the type of service the wire rope is to be applied.
Select a suitable wire rope and based on the load and the characteristics of the rope. Solve for the factor of safety of the rope.
 Fu  Fb
FS 
Ft

For satisfactory design, the design factor of safety based on the load and ultimate strength must be within the factor of safety
based on the factor of safety on application.

Determination of the Ultimate Stress of the rope

For plow steel ropes, refer to Table AT 28 (Faires) For other materials Fu = breaking stress x metallic cross
section

Determination of the total load of the rope

The following items are the components of the total load of the rope
Useful load; Weight of the skip or elevator; Weight of the rope; Acceleration on the load = (W)(a)/g; Acceleration of rope = (W r)
(a)/g
Equivalent bending load
This load is due to the stress occurring in wire when the rope is passing over a sheave.
The equivalent bending load is:
A Er dw
FB 
D
Where, Er = Modulus of elasticity of rope dw = wire rope diameter D = drum or sheave diameter
Practice Problems
A roller chain and sprocket is to drive vertical centrifugal discharge bucket elevator. The pitch of chain connecting sprockets is
1.75”. The driving sprocket is rotating at 120 rpm and has 11 teeth while the driven sprocket is rotating at 38 rpm. Determine the
number of teeth of driven sprocket.
a) 33 teeth b) 35 teeth c) 30 teeth d) 37 teeth
In Problem # 1, determine the length of the chain if the minimum center distance is equal to the pitch diameter of the bigger
sprocket.
a) 46 pitches b) 47 pitches c) 48 pitches d) 49 pitches
Two shafts 3.6 m between centers carry pulleys 1.2 m in diameter and 0.91 m in diameter respectively, connected by a crossed
belt. It is desired to put the belt on as an open belt. How long a piece must be cut of it?
a) 300 mm b) 350 mm c) 400 mm d) 250 mm
A pulley 600 mm in diameter transmits 40 kW at 500 rpm. The arc of contact between the belt and pulley is 144 o, the coefficient
of friction between belt and pulley is 0.35 and the safe working stress of the belt is 2.1 MPa. Determine the belt tensions ratio,
neglecting the effect of centrifugal force.
a) 2.41 b) 2.14 c) 1.24 d) 4.12

A triple-thread worm has a lead angle of 17 o and a pitch diameter of 2.2802 inches. Find the center distance when the worm is
mated with a wheel of 48 teeth.
a) 6.72 inches b) 7.26 inches c) 6.27 inches d) 7.62 inches

A double-thread worm has a pitch diameter of 3 inches. The wheel has 20 teeth and a pitch diameter of 5 inches. Find the gear
helix angle.
a) 4.69o b) 9.46o c) 6.49o d) 6.94o