Welcome to this training programme which is part of the SAEINDIA Black Belt Certification for

Engineering Product Design. This module on Design for Assembly will address the skillsets
needed for designing individual parts which will help the parts to integrate and function well in
the product assembly.
Engineering Product Design is itself a not so well understood discipline. Creating models and
creating drawings in CAD is often misunderstood as “Design”. Training is limited to CAD and FEA
skills. There are no defined standards for product design skills. In those Companies, where
product design is being done, fresh engineers pick up the needed skills from other experienced
engineers in an anecdotal fashion. This knowledge is valid only for those particular products,
and environments.
There is no standardised means of training and assessing engineers in product design skills. This
is very unlike other more mature trades like medicine, accounting, banking and even software
development.
However, to make initiatives like “Make in India”, there is a need for original design and
development efforts for industries to make an impact in the Global Markets. Now the country
is facing difficulty in finding skilled design engineers. Designers with experience in one product
are having difficulty in designing other products since their experience in designing products
from scratch is very limited. The problem is more acute for new start-ups. They cannot get
fresh engineers with adequate design skills. Recruiting experienced engineers are also not
very helpful.
To address these problems, SAEINDIA is launching this initiative of Design Black Belt
certification program. This program trains, assesses the skills and certifies engineers in design.
The benefits of this program are many. Most important ones are:

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 ● Prescribing a minimum standard
● Creating designers who can be put into design teams
● Providing a reference for competence building
● Acting as benchmark for lateral recruitment
The certification comes in three tiers, namely, foundation, specialisation and super
specialisation. Foundation program deals with predominantly mechanical design of parts and
small subassemblies.
Design for Assembly is the second module of the foundation program.

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The main objectives of the module are:
● Clarifying the functions of parts in an assembly
● Detailing the parts correctly so that they will perform these functions properly.
As the saying goes, “The Devil is in the details”. If the details of the parts are taken care of in
design, it goes a long way in ensuring that the product functions correctly. However, very often
enough attention is not paid to the details of the part design, which results in product failures.
The learning from this module will enable the engineers to design parts right first time in terms
of function and ease of assembly.

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As we discussed earlier, the discipline of Engineering Product Design itself is not well
understood in the Indian Industry. SAEINDIA’s Black belt product design certification program
was conceived to fill this gap. The foundation programme aims to bring a structure to learning
product design in a systematic way, which will be generic to mechanical design and hence will
be useful across many product lines.
The benefits of this program are many. Most important ones are:
● Prescribing a minimum standard
● Creating designers who can be put into design teams
● Providing a reference for competence building
● Acting as benchmark for lateral recruitment

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This slide gives an overview of the modules conceived for the foundation level course.
The modules are split into design processes, tools for design, engineering materials and
standard and common parts.
Design for Assembly is the second module of the process section.

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The product design process starts with the concept design of the product, deciding on the
mechanical concept and means by which the product function will be achieved. This is called
generically “System Design”.
The second part of the product design is making a physical layout of the assembly, breaking
them into parts. This is called “Layout design”.
These two levels are higher level than part design. Very often the part characteristics are
assumed to have been understood. Hence insufficient information is passed on for completing
the part design.
In this module, we deal with design of parts that works well in an assembly. While most of the
details are related to the part being designed, there will often be inputs for design of other
parts in assembly that are mating with the part being designed.
The main purposes of part design are:
 The parts should mate properly with other parts in the assembly. Mistakes here could
lead to assembly difficulty or assembly errors like wrong orientation.
 Positioning of functional features in the right place. If not done properly this can result
in immediate functional issues or worse, functional issues that remain dormant.
 Assemblies that require relative motion of the parts. Clearances for preventing parts
rubbing of interfering is critical for function of the assembly.
 Improving ease of assembly. This is required for ease of handling parts for assembly
and preventing assembly errors.
 Reducing assembly time. This is required for reducing cost of the product
 Providing inputs for the design of mating parts. Design features, dimensioning and
tolerancing of parts have influence on mating part also.

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The main concepts covered in this module are:
 Assuring mate function
As we have seen in the Design Basics module, the main functions of a part are basic
function, mate function and prevent failure functions. The later module “Prevent
failures” more exhaustively with the part failures and how to design to prevent failures.
Here we shall examine those factors that are important for the mate function and
common errors.
 Reduce assembly time
Reducing assembly time is to be addressed to make the product shop floor friendly.
This is directly related to making parts easy to handle, easy to orient and easy to
assemble. We shall see some general guidelines and thumb rules to achieve this.
 Avoiding common assembly problems
Proper functioning of parts in an assembly are decided by many factors of the part
design like accuracy of alignment.
Not considering aspects like extreme tolerance situation can result in assembly
difficulty
Assembling in wrong orientation can even result in product recalls.
We shall the above aspects in greater detail in succeeding slides.

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In this section we shall examine the aspects related to mate function in part design

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Now we shall examine the important mate functions one by one.
 Assure matching.
Parts should mate correctly with the adjacent parts. If we do not address this, the parts
cannot be assembled. We also must assure matching under extreme tolerance
condition. If not done properly, it will be difficult to detect it even when the product
reaches production and may result in difficulties arising later in the product life cycle.
 Define relative locations.
This deals with locating functional features and subsequent mating parts in the right
place so that the basic functions are assured. In the least, it may result in parts jamming
and difficult to assemble. When moving parts are involved, if relative locations are not
clearly defined, it may result in unwanted rubbing and fouling of parts and even erratic
functioning of the product.
 Allow motion.
Most parts do not move in relation to each other. However, some parts do. We should
ensure that only necessary motion is allowed, and other degrees of freedom are
constrained.
 Isolate volume.
We may also to isolate some volume from the rest. This may have to be done at
different levels of isolation. Some examples are prevention of dust and water entry into
product assemblies, which will adversely affect the function. This is dealt with in
greater detail in “Prevent failures” module.
The above are most common, especially in mechanical assemblies. They are covered in some
detail in this module. There may be more mate functions. We may define them and address
them as and when the need arises.

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Let us first look at the mistakes and failure modes that can occur in “Assure Matching”
 Inadequate constraining
When parts are free to move with respect to one another, it is important to constrain
them so that they will assume correct position with respect to mating parts when
assembled. Inadequate constraining can result in parts getting displaced in assembly.
This can result in parts getting damaged during assembly or parts not oriented properly
with respect to each other. We will examine this with examples in the next slide.
 Wrong orientation.
When there are multiple orientations possible assembly, and only one orientation is
correct then wrong orientation will not allow the product to function correctly. The
best way to prevent this is to assure the part itself has features that will prevent wrong
orientation. We shall discuss these features in the subsequent slides.
 Not fitting.
Another trouble is that parts cannot be assembled. This normally occurs if mating part
features are not defined with respect to butting datums and functional axis. It can also
occur if we do not take care of extreme tolerance conditions and minimum material
conditions. If we do not take care of this in the design stage, trouble may occur
randomly in the production. We shall see some good practices in the subsequent slides.

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Proper constraining is required for parts that are fixed
Usual methods of constraining:
 One surface + two points
Part normally butt with each other on a surface. Relative movement on the butting
surface or away from the butting surface should be prevented for proper assembly.
To prevent relative movement along the butting surface, two point constraint is the
minimum needed.
First method of achieving this is using clamping screws. Typically, four screws are used
even though two are sufficient. For two screw clamping, the surface should be large
and rigid.
The second method is with a spigot and a pin or two screws.
The third method is constraining by two pins like dowel pins.
The fourth method is by constraining through non-circular part in a non-circular recess.
In the crankcase and end cover example shown, a spigot and multiple screws are used
to achieve proper positioning and clamping.
 Typical mistakes
1. Relying on friction to avoid movement in the plane. In the example of the gasket
assembled to the flange, if we depend on the friction of the gasket on the flange
alone for proper positioning, it may move during assembly and get damaged and
leak. Hence a spigot is provided to restrain the gasket from movement along the
butting plane.
Similarly, in the spring brake actuator, if the springs are not provided with guides, it
will not be possible to position it, compress and assemble it.
2. Relying on pressure difference to provide clamping force.
In the spring brake actuator example shown, the heavy spring could be compressed
by applying air pressure on the piston before clamping the flange with screws. But
this will be an extremely unsafe assembly method. Safe assembly demands that the
heavy spring should be mechanically compressed with the screw before assembly.

Exceptions:
Exceptions are the assembly of axisymmetric components – typically round part in a round
bore.
Here constraining against relative motion is not an issue.
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The issue is ensuring that after assembly, they assume the correct position axially. Examples
are:
Press fit of bearing
Oil Seal pressing in the housing
Conical bore of pulley on tapered shaft with screw clamping
Here the axial position in assembly should be assured by part feature like bore depth and
shoulder for butting and proper design of assembly tool.

12
The second failure mode in mate function is wrong orientation.
If multiple orientations are possible, and only one orientation is correct for proper function,
wrong assembly should be prevented. Due to wrong orientation, customer mounting flange
may be wrongly assembled causing vehicle assembly problem, or an internal passage may be
blocked causing malfunction.
Part symmetry causes wrong orientation. Designing asymmetry into parts is the way of
preventing this. Asymmetry may be achieved by:
Asymmetric bolt pitches
Asymmetric profiles and recesses
Different size of pins or screws (this is the least preferred from production point of view
as it affects tooling complexity)
Asymmetry should be significant visually as not to cause wrong assembly. Slight asymmetry
may not serve the purpose and can lead to damage during assembly.
In the gasket examples shown, the top one has symmetric pitches whereas in the bottom
figure, asymmetric pitches assure correct assembly.
Axi-symmetric parts like O’rings, radial seals, circlips etc. can be assembled in any orientation.

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Parts not fitting together can happen due to two reasons:
1. In extreme tolerance conditions the features may not match on mating components
causing difficulty in assembly.
Consider the flange and gasket shown in figure. Under nominal conditions they will
match. However, if the tolerance of position of the bolt holes exceed the bolt clearance
in the bolt holes, the component cannot be assembled.
The correct way to tolerance the position of the bolt holes with geometric tolerancing
under maximum material conditions.
In the figure shown, the maximum deviation of the centre of the holes in the flange and
gasket is 0.2 mm each when the bolt hole is the minimum condition. Hence the holes
can move by a maximum of 0.4 mm from their true position. Since the minimum
clearance of the bolt hole is 0.5 mm (Max material condition), the parts can still be
assembled.
2. The parts may not reach the final position intended due to fouling of root or
deformation of snap fitted parts.
In the figure shown, the corner radius if left undefined, may result in fouling if the peg
shoulder radius is more than the cavity edge radius in the mating part.
A good way to define the shoulder edges is to define a maximum radius or to provide
an undercut profile that will not foul with the mating slot shoulder.
Not enough attention is normally paid to these details.

14
Defining relative locations of parts is another important aspect in parts and assembly design,
where mistakes are often made. Let us look at some of the important aspects of “defining
relative location”.
1. References are not taken from mating surfaces and features. In assembly design, the
accuracy of relative location of features for proper functioning of the assembly is taken
for granted. Examples are dimensioning with mating axis or surface as reference. Also
defining the geometric features like parallelism of and perpendicularity of axis of the
features is very important. References for the geometric features have to be clearly
defined.
2. Imprecise location. Control of clearances of locating features is important. For example,
a spigot is provided for a bolted joint for a more precise location than the bolt holes
themselves. Hence the spigot clearance in the mating bore has to be closely controlled.
3. Deformations can happen in service. This may be due to mechanical forces causing
elastic deformation (Sensor bracket deforming due to inadequate stiffness) or parts
expanding due to thermal condition (Lining of a foundation brake made of polymeric
materials)
4. Inadequate clearance for contained parts. For parts like sheet metal of cast housings,
which act as enclosure for internal parts, adequate running clearances should be
provided. For this both the manufacturing tolerances of the housings and deformation
of parts in service should be considered. Examples are:
Crank and connecting rod big end rotating inside a crankcase.
Spring coils expanding when compressed. Springs should not rub with their housings.
Now we shall see the examples and guidelines for part design in the following slides.

15
Now let us see how a feature needs to be dimensioned. In the figure a fixing block and an L
bracket supporting the fixing block are shown. The position of the fixing block is important in
the bed on which the L bracket is fixed. The dimensioning of the bracket on the left shows no
understanding of this requirement. The figure on the right specfies the position of the fixing
hole of the L bracket correctly – from the face where the block is mounted.
In a part, the function of the major features should be understood and their dimensioning
from the reference axis or reference face should be done directly.

16
Let us consider precision of defining relative location.
Imprecise location happens due to large clearances in the mating features such as bolt hole
clearances. These clearances should be controlled to the required precision. This may lead to
reducing the position tolerance of the mating features.
Let us first consider a bolted joint requiring only a low level of precision.
In a bolted part, bolts are doing the locating function in most cases. Number of bolts are
decided based on the loads. Bolts are also used as locating features. This is ok if we do not
need precise positioning. For this purpose bolts with clearance holes in both flanges should be
adequate.
For the same bolted joint, a more precise positioning is needed, we can use a spigot with low
clearance as the primary locating feature. Another idea may be a threaded hole in one
component to receive the bolt with a clearnace hole with a smaller clearance in the mating
part.
When a still higher level of precision is needed, two dowels can be used. Dowel pins centres
are precisely controlled. One part of the dowel is press fitted in one component. The other
part of the dowel has a high precision sliding fit with the mating part.
However we should specify only the required level of precision that is needed for the function.
The cost of manufacturing increases for increasing precision levels.

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Let us consider the errors in defining relative location for the following cases:
1. Deformation in service – caused by elastic deformations due to loads
Consider the case of an ABS speed sensor mounted on a sheet metal bracket and fixed
to the vehicle axle. If excessive deformations occur, the sensor signal may be affected.
The deformations could be due to either lack of stiffness of the mounting bracket itself,
causing it to vibrate resonantly with axle vibrations. It could also be due to the bracket
being fixed to a inadequately stiff member on the axle, which can deform due to loads
applied.
The following guidelines should be followed.
- FEA should be carried out for elastic deformation and natural frequency. If
required, the members should be stiffened so that the natural frequency of the
structure is well above the vibration frequencies.
- Non-metals like plastics deform much more than metals. So deformations should
be carefully checked before using them on such structures
2. Expansion in service caused by temperature differences
Consider the case of a drum brake. The structure supporting the lining is made of metal
like steel. The lining is a polymeric material. Polymeric materials are poor conductors of
heat and expand more than metals. If the shoe to drum clearances are not carefully
calculated, it may bind during service.
Expansions of non-ferrous materials like copper, brass and aluminium are more than
steel and cast iron. This should also be carefully considered in determining relative
locations of components in an assembly.

18
Let us look at the factors to be considered when a part like a housing contains other parts,
which very often are moving parts. An example is a an engine or compressor crankcase within
which the big end of the connecting rod rotates on the crankpin. A safe clearance is required
with the moving parts under all tolerance conditions of manufacture. The thumb rule for the
clearance to be provided are given in the tables.
 The basic clearance of 0.2 mm (c1)
 The variation of the housing containing the parts according to method of manufacture –
machined components are the most accurate, whereas sand cast housings are the least
accurate. Other processes like pressure die casting, sheet metal pressing etc. have
accuracies that are in between these two extremes. The table 1 gives thumbrules of
additoinal clearnce for various manucturing processes of the housing part. (c2)
 During running deformations may occur in the contained parts. Rigid gears and solid rotors
have least deformation at low speeds. Whereas high speed mechanisms made of multiple
linkages which are flimsy can have large deviations from their nominal locus. The nominal
locus and expected variations should be plotted in CAD and checked. The general
guidelines for additional clearance for these conditions are given in table 2.
 Total clearance to be provided will be c1+c2+c3.
The abvoe can be a starting point. However companies can develop their own standards
based on their product design experience.

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In this section we shall be considering the function “allow motion”
Any text book will provide the various types of motion:
 Motion about a point
 Motion about a line
 Motion along a line
 Motion on a surface – rotation
 Motion on a surface – linear
The design task is to prevent other degrees of motion (applying constraints) either fully or
partially. However these concepts can be understood only with respect to their physical
embodiments, which we will discuss in the subsequent slides.

20
Let us look at some embodiments that allow motion about a point.
In the first example, the Gimbal allows rotation in all 3 axis while constraining all translations.
Typical application is gyroscope, whose principle is used in boat stabilisers and machine gun
stabilisers.
The ball on a recessed plate allows rotaion of the ball in all three axis, while preventing all
translations. Typical application is thrust ball bearings. This arrangement cannot transmit
torque.
The hooke’s joint (universal joint) which is used in automotive transmission shft joint allows
rotaion in 2 axis, while constraining rotation about the third axis. Only translation (oscillation)
is allowed in third axis to take up the misalignment of the joined shafts. This allows the joint to
transmit torque.
Motion transmitting cable joints are also a variant of this. Full oscillatory movement is allowed
perpendicular to cable axis, whereas limited oscillation is allowed in the cable axis due to
inherent rotaional flexibility of the cable. Typical examples are clutch release mechanism in
light vehicle applications.

21
This slide shows examples of rotational motion about a line. Typically all rotational journal
bearing applications are motion about a line. All other rotations and translations are
constrained. Only a very small amount of translation is allowed along the axis of rotation for
providing a small clearance for assembly and free movement. In addition spherical roller
bearings and ball joints allow small rotations perpendicular to the axis, allowing a slight tilting
of the axis in operation.
Another set of embodiments that allow only oscillatory rotation about a line are the flexural
joint (used in aerospace instrumentation) and and torsion suspension (used in automobiles).
Here only limited oscillatory rotation allowed by the elasticity of the joint is permitted.

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Let us now examine linear motion about a line.
Railway car wheels running on rails is a typical example of continuous linear motion about a
line. All rotional degrees of freedom and translations in directions other than the motion are
constrained.
Another example of continuous linear motion along a line is a cable and pulley used in a winch
or a hovercraft moving along a guide.
Linear motion along a line can also be oscillatory. Examples of this are guideways of train and
bus doors or piston in a cylinder.

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Let us now examine rotation in a plane.
Plain thrust bearings used on crankshafts and other drive shafts are examples of this. These
are capable of continuous motion most often with lubrication. All other degrees of freedom
are constrained.
Car seat rotational damper and windshield wiper bearings are examples of oscillatory motion
along a plane.

24
The last type of motion is translational motion on a plane. Typical examples of this are
hovercraft moving over water. Air pad bearings used on many measuring equipment are also
similar examples, which undergo oscillatory motion.

25
Here we summarise most common types of “allow motion” function found in automobiles.
1. Shaft in bearings – Allowed motions ae rotation about shaft axis and rotation about the
butting faces in the shaft and housing, often with a thrust bearing. The bearings need
to handle radial and axial load. For example, in a helical gear drive both radial and axial
components will be present.
2. Piston and cylinder – Allowed motion is linear movement along piston axis. Normally
piston is allowed to rotate about the axis. If this should not be allowed, additional
constraints are required. In engines this is not allowed. In pneumatic and hydraulic
pistons this may be allowed.
3. Pin and link – Motion allowed is rotation about the axis. Linear movement along the
axis is prevented by using axial constraints like shoulder guides and circlips. E.g. Engine
piston gudgeon pin.
4. Spherical joints – Motion allowed is rotation about the centre point which is oscillatory.
This can be used for light loads and cannot transmit torque as the ball is allowed to
rotate.
Examples are steering linkages and suspensions.
5. Universal joints – Rotation about a joint and limited translation – torque can be
transmitted. Example is the cardan shaft in the transmission.

26
Let us examine some of the failure modes that occur in “allow motion” function.
1. Under or overconstraining
While constraining, small movements might have to be built in to prevent components
from interfering and preventing motion. At the same time allowing excess motion may
result in degradation of basic function.
In the example of the engine crankshaft assembly, only rotational motion should be
allowed and axial motion should be constrained. However without a small axial
clearance, parts cannot be assembled or the shoulders may jam causing tight motion.
In this case at least 5 components are invovled and their linear dimension and
tolerance in the axial direction butting the crankshaft shoulder should be carefully
calculated and controlled.
2. Jamming or rubbing of shafts, pins etc.
This can happen due to misalignment of the axis of the pins which leads to the pins
tilting along with the connected components. Adequate care should be taken in
defining the geometric tolerances to control the axis tilt.
For example let us consider the piston and cylinder bore of an engine. If the crankshaft
axis tilts due to misalignment, the piston skirt will rub with the cylinder causing piston
scuffing.
Another way is allow tilt to a limited extent by increasing guide clearances or guide
lengths. However the allowed tilt should not adversely affect the function.

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Coming to the last part mate function, “Isolate volume”, there are broadly two types of
classifications of this function:
1. Related to external parts
Preventing ingress of external particles like dust, water and mud into products come in
this category. International standards specify standardised levels of this protection and
test methods to prove the function. The guidelines for design are covered in the
upcoming module “Prevent failure modes”
2. Related to internal parts
Here isolating volume will be for a functional purpose of the product. These are
normally achieved with sealing elements. The design methods are covered in the
upcoming module “Sealing elements design”

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Ingression protection for external parts is covered by the standard ISO 20653 (E). This
standards was originally developed for electronic enclosures and later adopted for automotive
use.
The basic protection class definition consists of the letter IP followed by 4 alpha numeric digits.
The first digit indicates the level of protection against ingress of solid objects level 0 to level 6K,
which is the most stringent. Similarly the second digit indicates the protection against ingress
of liquids, level 0 to 9K, which is the most stringent. The last digit indicates whether the
specification is with internal parts in moving condition M (device operated) or in stationary
condition (device at rest).

29
Here typical design examples are shown for different levels of protection. The design methods
from left to right represent increasing levels protection needed. These are covered in more
detail in “Prevent failure modes” module.
The left most figure represents requirement of protection against ingress of large particles.
The second method represents ingress against fine dust and water jet.
The third method represents protection against fine dust and water jet with one way breathing
allowed in the device.
The last method represents protection against dust and also when immersed in water where
the device is allowed to breathe in both directions. This typically happens when pneumatic
devices operate on vehicles whose chassis is wading in water and mud.

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This section gives an overview of how to design parts for ease of assembly. Ease of assembly
reduces assembly time, reduces need for additiona aids for assembly. Hence product costs are
reduced. All these guidelines are taken from “Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly”
by Boothroyd and Dewhurst who are pioneers in this field.
This book also provides methodology for part count reduction, which is not within the scope of
this training module.

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The assembly process has two main processes which has major influence on assembly time.
1. Handling Time: Based on assembly process and complexity of parts
– How many hands are required? Single hand better
– Is any grasping assistance needed? No grasping assistance better
– What is the effect of part symmetry on assembly? – If asymmetry aids correct
assembly it should be adopted
– Is the part easy to align/position? – Asymmetry and locating features should lead to
easy alignment.
2. Insertion time: based on difficulty required for each component insertion
- Is the component easily visible during assembly? Good visibility is needed
– Is the part secured immediately upon insertion? This is the best situation.
– Is it necessary to hold down part to maintain location? Self-locating designs are
better.
– What type of fastening process is used? (mechanical, thermal, other?)
– Is the part easy to align/position? Aligning aids in the mating component desirable.

32
Now let us see some of the guidelines for increasing ease of handling and reducing handling
time

33
Symmetricity of parts like identical features at both ends and uniform bolt pitches are easy to
assemble. No special orientation is needed.
Asymmetry is provided in parts if they have to be asembled only in a particular orientation.
Asymmetry prevents wrong orientation during assembly. However this asymmetry if provided
should be significant visually for easy orientation.
Parts should not jam with each other, so that extraction of single parts for assembly are not
difficult. Example of the conical part is shown which will jam normally if stacked. Providing a
small pip at the bottom will prevent this.
Small parts with open ends and features tend to tangle, which consumes handling time to
untangle. Feature should be provided in the part to avoid tangling. We shall see this later with
more examples.

34
Here are some examples where the part characteristics increase handling difficulty. These are
to be avoided.
Parts that are very small to grip may require special gripping aids.
Slippery parts may also need special aids
Sharp or pointed parts can injure the hand during picking up.
Flexible parts are difficult to handle, orient and insert. Two hand operation may be
required.

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A systematic Design For Assembly approach provides a framework for estimating the ideal
assembly time based on empirical rules and an opportunity for improving the design.
DFA index = Ideal assembly time as per empirical rules/ Actual assembly time.
Ideal assembly time for product is calculated by multiplying the number of parts with the ideal
assembly time per part.
This exercise will give ideas for improving the design further from assembly point of view.
Participants are encouraged to take up one product in their company and take up this analysis
and ideas for improvement.

36
There are mainly 4 factors that influence handling time. Empirical rules have been developed
for this based on extensive research by Boothroyd.
The four factors are:
Symmetry
Thickness and size
Nesting and tangling
Flexing
The above factors have been briefly discussed in slides 33 and 34.

37
This slide defines the way symmetry of parts are defined in two oreintations
Along the assembly plane α
About the part’s axis β
Let us see the example of the rectangular peg. If this is understood, other shapes are self
explanatory.
The assembly plane has two axis, X and Y. The rectangular peg can be flipped along either X or
Y axis by 90o to achieve correct orientation. Hence α = 360o/4=90o
About its own axis B only two orientations are possible for correct assembly, hence rotation
required β = 360o/2 = 180o.
The ball can be oriented in any direction hence both α and β are zero.
The asymmetric peg can be assembled only in one correct orientation hence both α and β are
360o.
The sum of α and β determine assembly time, the lower the sum the better. This means that
perfect symmetry aids easy assembly and perfect asymmetry increases assembly time. For
asymmetric components the component feeding and presenting system in the assembly line
should be designed to present the component only in one correct way.

38
The second factor is the size and thickness of parts. Thickness depends on overall envelope of
the component. For the same diameter, a longer cylinder is a thinner part and more difficult to
handle.
The handling time penalty for non-cylindrical thin parts increases steeply.

39
Parts with open ends, especially small parts tend to nest or tangle with each other and are
difficult to separate during assembly operation. This will impose a penalty on assembly time.
Here we can see various guidelines for design features to avoid tangling or nesting.
End coils of springs and other similar open features in partts have to be closed.
Aviod self locking angles in conical parts or provide features which will not allow conical
surfaces to contact each other.

40
9
The table above taken from Boothroyd’s book, gives thumrules for handling time depending on
the features of parts discussed before.
1. α + β for symmetry – Values higher than 360o increased handling time
2. “Thinner” components increase handling time
3. Nesting/ tangling increases handling time
4. Flexible parts increase handling time as they require two hands.
This look up table simplifies calculation of ideal assembly time.

41
In this section are listed the general guidelines for design of components for easy insertion as
well as specific factors that needs to be checked.

42
First, here are some general guidelines for easy insertion.
1. Design parts for easy venting of trapped air so that insertion resistance is minimised.
2. Provide pilot guides in blind bores for insertion
3. Standardise fasteners reducing variety and assembly tools needed.
4. Adopt pyramid assembly to guide stacked parts. Bolts or studs can provide the guide for
the pyramid
5. To avoid holding parts during assembly provide locating features
6. Provide guides for easily guiding components into final assembly position.
7. Use efficient fastening method. Snap fits are the most efficient, threaded fasteners are the
least efficient, with rivetting and press fits falling in-between. Fastening method also has
an impact on cost.

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There are just 4 factors that influence insertion time
1. Access and vision – There should be proper clearance for assembly tools and operator
should be able see the area of assembly.
2. Avoid separate securing operation.
3. Avoid holding down during securing operation – components should be self located
during assembly and should not depend on correct positioning by hand.
4. Components should easily align when placed in position – Provide self guiding features

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Always check for access clearance for tools. National/ International standards are available for
dimensions of most assembly tools.
Avoid assembling of components in blind areas. Shift fastening to visible areas
Avoid fastening inside deep recesses. Redesign parts for easy access for fastening.

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Separate securing operation requries re-positioning and hence has a time penalty. Redsigning
the parts as shown on the right reduces parts count and assembly time as the operation is
carried out at one go.

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Manual holding down and alignment of parts should be avoided during assembly. Seft locating
features for parts avoids this.

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Easy alignment of parts is important for assembly. Wherever possible, features should be
provided in the parts to align subsequent components easily.
The spring in the picture will get easily aligned in the guide bore if large entry chamfer is
provided.
On the right, by re-designing the part with a longer spindle, it aligns easily with the hole.

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This look up table provides an easy reference for calculating insertion time. The penalty on
assembly time increses with:
Access and vision
Alignment difficulty
Manual holding down required
Fastening with multiple fasteners with power tool.

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There are some more guidelines to achieve ease of assembly.

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External connections should be avoided. Especially multiple connections with flexible parts.
Best option will be to integrate the parts and achieve the connection internally.

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Adjustments in assembly should be avoided as a general rule
This can be achieved by proper tolerancing to reduce variations. If functionally the finger has
to be made of stainless steel, it may be cheaper to design the whole bracket in stainless steel
with optimised shape for required stiffeness.

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The assembly should be kinematically sound with proper constraining which we discussed
under “Allow Motion”. The designs on the left extreme are over constrained arresting all
movement, which could cause problems in aligning parts in assembly.
Kinematically correctly constrained parts also incidentally reduces number of parts!.

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In this section additional considerations are discussed for parts that need insertion. Parts with
low clearances and interference fitted parts are two such examples.

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Detailing of entry features requires special attention.
For clearance or sliding fits:
The entry chamfer angle is important. Otherwise the male portion may jam and not enter.
This can cause damage to both parts.
For closely guided parts, entry chamfer of 15o to 30o is recommended. The length of the
chamfer provided should be 0.3* D.
The above are general recommendations. Companies can have their own standards based on
their experience.
For interference fits:
In addition to the angle of chamfer, the finish on the chamfer and the merging radius with the
cylindrical portion is essential. The receommended angle is 12 degrees in both male and
female portions. The finish on chamfers should be 3.2 µm Ra. But at the merging radius which
needs to slide under high force during the fitting operation, the finish should be finer typically
1.6 µm Ra.
Proper guiding feature with adequate chamfer length or a pilot bore in the female portion are
also essential.
The values indicated are typical as a starting point. Companies can have their own standards
based on experience.

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In summary:
It is the part designer’s responsibility to:
- Ensure parts are designed and detailed to perform the intended function in the assembly
- Assembly functional requirements should be met, like part dimensioning, reference
datum and geometic tolerancing
- Parts should mate properly, should not be possible to assemble wrongly and easy to
assemble. Features of location and extreme tolerance situations should be considered.
- Parts should have features that are easy to handle and insert in assembly so that assembly
time is reduced
Part entry features require special attention
All these aspects have to be converted to company specific part design checklists and
guidelines for easy reference.

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