Fluid mechanics – II lab report

Submitted by

Muhammad Huraira

Reg. no. 2017-ME-53

Section: B

Submitted to

Sir Kashif Tariq

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE.
 Experiment no 6

“Investigate reaction forces produced due to change in

momentum of fluid flow”
6.7 Observations and calculations
Diameter of pipe = d = 0.010 m

Cross sectional area of pipe = A = πd2 = 7.854 × 10-5 m2

4
Kinematic viscosity = υ = 1.002 × 10-6 m2/s
 40

35

30

25

2 20
V

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
W
6.8 Discussion
We observe that increasing flow rate increases force due to jet. As velocity is related with flow

rate so, force also increases. Other errors may be due to parallax errors and negligence of

performer. Error measured between experiment performed readings and calculated is about 7 %.

References

2014https://www.lmnoeng.com/Tank/TankTime.php

2018Junehttps://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-rectangular-orifice-in-a-plate-of-finite-

thickness-subjected-to-the-high-intensity_fig1_268581512

2017March https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Flow-through-a-Small-Orifice_fig5_316025091

2012Dynamic Force Exerted By Fluid

Jethttp://mechanics4change.blogspot.com/2016/02/dynamic-force-exerted-by-fluid-

jet.html

2102Fluid dischargehttps://www.slideshare.net/KeithVaugh/fluid-discharge

2014NRPD and Meter dP http://kb.eng-software.com/display/ESKB/NRPD+and+Meter+dP

Orificehttps://www.codecogs.com/library/engineering/fluid_mechanics/orifice/

2012Orifice Rating Curve Calculated Incorrectly in SSAhttps://forums.autodesk.com/t5/civil-3d-

forum/orifice-rating-curve-calculated-incorrectly-in-ssa/td-p/3620582

2017Submerged

Orificehttps://www.codecogs.com/library/engineering/fluid_mechanics/orifice/geometry/

submerged-orifice.php
2018357-

365ShenghaoYuhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016236118305076
 Experiment no 7

“To study laminar, turbulent and transitional flow in pipes”

7.1 Objective

 Observe experimentally laminar, turbulent and transition flow

 Use Reynold number to verify experimental results

7.2 Apparatus

 F1-10 hydraulic Bench.

 F1-20 Reynold’s Apparatus.

 Stopwatch.

 Thermometer
 Figure 1 Apparatus used

7.3 Types of fluid flows

There are number of types of fluid flows depending on basis we are talking about. So, there are

total six categories of fluid flows:

1. Laminar and turbulent

2. 1D, 2D and 3D flows

3. Steady and unsteady

4. Compressible and incompressible

5. Laminar and turbulent flows

6. Uniform and non – uniform flows (What are the types of fluid flow?)

Here we will discuss only Ist category as it is of our interest:

7.3.1 Laminar flow

Fluid flow which in which flow is purely streamlined and all streams move smoothly without

mixing. Every coming particle follows same path that followed by successor particle. Flow has

definite path. Layers of fluid move with each other but don’t mix.

For example, wakes observed in submarines.

Figure 2 Laminar flow (fresh2begin)

7.3.2 Turbulent flow

Fluid flow in which there is much perturbations observed. No layer has fixed or definite path.

Particles mix with each other forming zig zag flow. Confusing changes in pressure and velocity

is characteristics of turbulent flow. For example, fluid from chimney, turbulent flows in rivers

and oceans. (Turbulence)

 Figure 3 Turbulent flow (fresh2begin)

7.3.3 Transitional flow

Fluid flow in which degree of turbulence is lying between that of laminar and turbulent flow, is

known as transitional flow. Also, viscous and inertial stresses are comparable. Flow is neither

turbulent nor laminar, but, between case. That’s why called as transition flow. Actually, it is

transition phase from laminar to the turbulent when we are increasing velocity or flow rate.

Figure 4 Transitional flow (Classification of Flows, Laminar and Turbulent Flows)

7.4 Reynold number

Reynold number is a unit less parameter is fluid mechanics which helps in determining many

properties of fluids. Reynold number is ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. Actually friction

forces and viscosity are two opposing terms. Because inertial forces cause turbulence and viscous

forces prevent this. Reynold number tells us strength and domination of one of two by its value.

In this way we predict the fluid flow type. Relative motion between different fluid layers due to

inner friction causes turbulence.

Reynold number is helpful in design considerations of various parts of aviation industry. As wings

involve viscous effects, so determination from laminar to turbulent becomes necessary. This is

done by calculating Reynolds number, which will tell transition of fluid from laminar to turbulent

point. It’s very important and has applications in aviation, pipe flows, etc. (Reynolds number)

7.4.1 Classification of fluids form Reynolds number

Mathematically, Reynolds number is defined as:

1. When viscous forces dominate over inertial forces, les turbulence and eddy currents are

produced and fluid flows along definite streamlines smoothly. So, flow is called as

laminar.

2. When inertial forces are dominant over viscous forces, usually at higher velocities and

higher characteristic length, like flow in large diameter pipes, eddy currents start to

produce leading to much turbulence called as turbulent flows.

 3. When inertial and viscous forces, both are comparable and no none is dominating, fluid

flow is called transitional fluid flow. It’s a boundary line case between laminar and

turbulent and occurs for small time when flow is changing from laminar to the turbulent

flow.

7.5 Characteristic length

It is important parameter used in determining Reynold number. This parameter depends on

geometry of fluid flow area. It is calculated by the formula given:

Where, A = cross sectional area.

P = perimeter

Characteristic length for circular pipe is diameter.

7.6 Critical Reynold number

Value of Reynold number at which flow starts transition from laminar to the turbulent region.

For non – circular pipe, critical Reynold number is 2300. At R less than 2300, viscous effects are

dominant and fluid flow is laminar. At R greater than 2300 and less than 4000, there is transition

phase. At R above 4000, flow is characterized as turbulent flow in non-circular pipes.

7.7 Procedure

 Set the apparatus for experimentations.

 In the Reynolds apparatus, attach the bell mouth entry and add marbles to the head tank.
  Connect Reynolds apparatus on hydraulic bench.

 Attach dye injector on upper section of Reynold apparatus.

 Turn on the hydraulic bench.

 Change the flow rate and observe the nature of flow at different flow rates. Measure flow

rates using flask.

 Calculate Reynold number from measure flow rate and characteristic length.

 Verify nature of fluid as laminar, turbulent and transition experimentally and from

Reynold number theoretically.

7.8 Observations and calculations

Diameter of pipe = d = 0.010 m

Cross sectional area of pipe = A = πd2 = 7.854 × 10-5 m2

4
Kinematic viscosity = υ = 1.002 × 10-6 m2/s

Volume Volume Reynolds

Sr. collected Time flow rate number Nature of
Velocity v
No. V t Q flow
vd
(m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) Re = υ

1. 34 × 10-6 10 3.4 × 10-6 0.04 399 Laminar

2. 36 × 10-6 10 3.6 × 10-6 0.0458 457 Laminar

3. 76 × 10-6 10.29 7.3 × 10-6 0.094 938 Laminar

4. 230 × 10-6 10 23 × 10-6 0.2928 2923 Transitional

5. 545 × 10-6 10 54.5 × 10-6 0.6936 6925 Turbulent

7.8.1 Graph

The graph between the velocity of flow and Reynolds number is:

7.9 Discussion

At low velocities, fluid is laminar showing streamlined definite motion of ink at Reynold number

lea than 2300. With increases in flow rate and indirectly, velocity and Reynold number, motion

becomes less streamlined between Reynold number 2300 to 4000. With further increase in

Reynold number or flow rate die color starts disappearing and finally becomes fade at fully

developed turbulent flow.

References

https://fresh2begin.com/fluid-mechanics/types-of-fluid-flow/

Classification of Flows, Laminar and Turbulent Flows2104http://www-

mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/aerothermal_dvd_only/aero/fprops/pipeflow/nod

e8.html

Reynolds numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_number

Turbulencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence

What are the types of fluid flow?https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-types-of-fluid-flow

 Experiment no 8

“To study laminar, turbulent and transitional flow in pipes”

8.1 Objective

 To locate the position of Metacenter (M) of a floating body, by determining its distance

from center of gravity (G), this distance (GM) is known as metacentric height

8.2 Apparatus

1. F1-10 Hydraulic bench

2. F1-14 Metacentric height apparatus

3. Weight balance

Figure 5 Apparatus used

8.3 What is Metacenter

When a straight vertical line is passed from the center of buoyancy and center of gravity of a

body in vertical position, and then body tilts. Now, again pass a line from the new center of

buoyancy. There are two lines. Both will intersect at a point called metacenter when body is

partially submerged in water or fluid.

Figure 6 Meta center (Anon., n.d.)

8.3.1 Metacentric height

Measure of length between center of gravity and metacenter of submerged body is known as

metacentric height. Metacentric height is measure of stability of body. High metacentric height

means more instability and less resistance to overturning and drowning. So, there is always an

ideal metacentric height for safety and comfort of passengers in ships.

 Figure 7 Metacentric height (Anon., 2005)

8.4 Stability of a body

Relative positions of metacenter and center of gravity determine whether body is in stable, unstable

or neutral equilibrium.

8.4.1 Stable equilibrium

When a little force is applied on a body in equilibrium and after force is released, body recovers

to original shape, then body is said to be in sable equilibrium. In fluid mechanics, analogously

when submerged or partially submerged body has metacenter above the center of gravity, body is

said to be in stable equilibrium.

8.4.2 Unstable equilibrium

When body does not return to original position after disturbing, body is said to be in unstable

equilibrium. When metacenter of a body in fluid lies below its center of gravity body is said to

be in unstable equilibrium.
8.4.3 Neutral equilibrium

When body is disturbed and it neither returns to its original position nor loses equilibrium

permanently, rather it attains new equilibrium position. In fluid mechanics, when body is

submerged and its center of gravity and metacenter coincide, it is said to be in neutral

equilibrium.

8.5 Center of buoyancy

Point in submerged body where force of buoyancy exists is known as center of buoyancy. It is

the point where weight us acting. Hence, here, weight of body and buoyant force are equal.

8.6 Meta-centric height determination (Experimental and theoretical)

In a floating body, the meta-centric height will be deliberated by the tilted angle caused by the

load(P) that is moving over the floating body center.

(a) For adjustable weight experiment of transverse position:

𝑃𝑥
GM= 𝑊 cotθ

P=moveable mass weight

x= distance between mass that is moveable and the pontoon mass

W=total weight of floating body (load weight(P)+body weight)

GM= metacentric height

(b) Based upon depth and immersion geometry:

𝐼
BM=𝑉 where BM is the metacentric radius.
 𝐿𝑏^3
I= L and B are the pontoon length and width respectively and I is the second moment of area.
12

The total weight is equal to the buoyancy force up thrust then,

W=ρ g V

The immersion depth will be delibearated from,

V=lbdi

The area that is immersed has the centroid shown by B and di /2 is the distance from base.

Y is the distance of center of gravity above base and subsituition gives the following answer.

GM=b2/12di-(y-di/2)

Figure 8 Metacentric height apparatus

8.7 Procedure

i. First of all, measure the pontoon mass, width and weight of pontoon.

ii. Adjust sliding mass at the top most point of pontoon and determine the center of gravity.

iii. Calculate distance between center of gravity and base of the pontoon.
 iv. Now, add water in the hydraulic bench and put pontoon apparatus in it. Then measure its

immersed depth using scale.

v. Move the moveable mass incrementally with 10 mm increment and measure the

corresponding change in angle of the pontoon and then use this formula to calculate

metacentric height.

Px

GM = cot θ w
v. Draw comparison between experimental results and theoretical results of metacentric
height.

8.8 Observations and calculations

Pontoon length = l = 0.350 m
Pontoon width = b = 0.200 m
Pontoon height = d = 0.075 m
Weight of moveable mass = P = 0.306 kg
Pontoon’s weight = w = 1.71 kg
Centre of gravity = y = 0.1 m

Metacentric
height
Depth of Metacentric Position of
Angle of tilt θ Px cotθ
immersion di height GM mass x
Sr. GM =
No. w
(m) (m) (m) (degrees) (m)

1. 0.0217 0.06446 0.01 2 0.0500

2. 0.0217 0.06446 0.02 4 0.0510

3. 0.0217 0.06446 0.03 5.5 0.0557

4. 0.0217 0.06446 0.04 7.5 0.0540

 5. 0.0217 0.06446 0.05 9 0.0565

8.9 Discussion

As we see, all values of GM are positive, so, body is all time in stable equilibrium. If it were zero,

it were in stable equilibrium and if it were negative, body were in unstable equilibrium. Also, as

angle of tilt increases, metacentric height also does so.

References

Anon., 2005

Available at:https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Transverse-metacentric-height-GM-t-and-

transverse-righting-arm-GZ_fig3_227219818

Anon., 2018What are the types of fluid flow?

Available at:https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-types-of-fluid-flow

Anon., 2019

Available at:https://fresh2begin.com/fluid-mechanics/types-of-fluid-flow/

Anon., 2019Reynolds number

Available at:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_number

Anon., 2019Turbulence

Available at:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence
Anon., 2104Classification of Flows, Laminar and Turbulent Flows

Available at:http://www-

mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/aerothermal_dvd_only/aero/fprops/pipeflow/node8.html

Anon., What is Initial Transverse Metacentre?

Available at:http://marinegyaan.com/what-is-initial-transverse-metacentre/
 Experiment no 9

“To determine the surface profile for a forced vortex”

 V= r ω

Fluid particle radius from the rotation axis is r.

h=hc+w2r2/2g

Some examples of forced vortex flow are:

 Water flow through runner.

 Liquid flow through impeller of centrifugal pump.

References

1.https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/forced-vortex
2. https://www.slideshare.net/yourmohsin/fluid-mechanicsvortex-flow-and-impulse-momentum
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