Fluid mechanics lab report

Submitted by:
Abdullah Arshad 2021-ME-54

Submitted to :
Dr. Muhammad Zubair sheikh
Experiment no 7
7.1 Objective
To determine the loss factors for flow through a range of pipe fitting
including bends, contraction, enlargement and gate valve
7.2 Introduction
Two types of energy loss predominate in fluid flow through a pipe network;
Major Losses
Major losses are associated with frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous
effects of the medium and roughness of the pipe wall.
Minor Losses
  Minor losses, on the other hand, are due to pipe fittings, changes in the flow direction,
and changes in the flow area.  Due to the complexity of the piping system and the number of
fittings that are used, the head loss coefficient (K) is empirically derived as a quick means of
calculating the minor head losses. The term “minor losses”, used in many textbooks for head loss
across fittings, can be misleading since these losses can be a large fraction of the total loss in a
pipe system. In fact, in a pipe system with many fittings and valves, the minor losses can be
greater than the major (friction) losses. Thus, an accurate K value for all fittings and valves in a
pipe system is necessary to predict the actual head loss across the pipe system. K values assist
engineers in totaling all of the minor losses by multiplying the sum of the K values by the
velocity head to quickly determine the total head loss due to all fittings.  Knowing the K value
for each fitting enables engineers to use the proper fitting when designing an efficient piping
system that can minimize the head loss and maximize the flow rate.
 The Bernoulli equation represents as
Normal relation, but in reality, the sign = is replaced by the sign >.
1 2 1 2
Pi + ρV i + ρgh i=Po + ρV o + ρg ho +losses
2 2
Neglecting the elevation difference
1 1
Pi + ρV 2i =Po + ρV 2o +losses
2 2

2 2
Pi V i Po V o
+ = + +∆ h
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
V 2i V 2o
Hi+ =H o + + ∆ h
2g 2g
V 2i V 2o
∆ h=( H i− H o ) +( − )
2g 2 g
For sections of constant cross-sections
∆ h=( H i− H o )
 2
Kv
∆ h=
2g
Hence, we have the following formula as:
∆h
k=
v2
2g
Where K = the loss coefficient and v = mean velocity of flow into the fitting.

7.3 Methodology
The head loss coefficients are determined by measuring the pressure head differences across a
number of fittings that are connected in series, over a range of steady flows, and applying the
energy equation between the sections before and after each fitting.
The fittings listed below, connected in a series configuration, will be examined for their head
loss coefficient (K):
long bend
area enlargement
area contraction
elbow
short bend
mitre.

Apparatus
The following equipment is required to perform the energy loss in pipe fittings experiment:
F1-10 hydraulics bench
F1-22 Energy losses in bends apparatus
Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement
Clamps for pressure tapping connection tubes

Procedure

Set up the apparatus on the hydraulics bench and ensure that its base is horizontal.
Connect the apparatus inlet to the bench flow supply, run the outlet extension tube to the
volumetric tank, and secure it in place.
Open the bench valve, the gate valve, and the flow control valve, and start the pump to fill
the pipe system and manometers with water. Ensure that the air-bleed valve is closed.
To purge air from the pipe system and manometers, connect a bore tubing from the air valve
to the volumetric tank, remove the cap from the air valve, and open the air-bleed screw to
allow flow through the manometers. Tighten the air-bleed screw when no air bubbles are
observed in the manometers.
 For flow measurement, close the ball valve, and use a stopwatch to measure the time that it
takes to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank, which is read from the hydraulics
bench sight glass. Collect water for at least one minute to minimize errors in the flow
measurement.
Open the air-bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the top of the manometers; re-tighten
the screw when the manometer levels reach a convenient height. All of the manometer levels
should be on scale at the maximum flow rate. These levels can be adjusted further by using
the air-bleed screw and the hand pump. The air-bleed screw controls the air flow through the
air valve, so when using the hand pump, the bleed screw must be open. To retain the hand
pump pressure in the system, the screw must be closed after pumping.
Take height readings from all manometers after the levels are steady.

7.4 Observations and calculations

Volum
Fitting h1 h2 h1-h2 Time Flow Rate Velocity v2/2g
e k
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m)
0.29
Mitre 0.323 0.025 0.352544 0.006334 3.9464
8
0.34
Elbow 0.363 0.022 0.352544 0.006334 3.4729
1
0.36 0.001 9.4 0.000106383
Short bend 0.376 0.007 0.352544 0.006334 1.1050
9
0.39
Long bend 0.396 0.003 0.352544 0.006334 0.4735
3
Enlargemen 0.391 0.39 0.0029 0.352544 0.011984 0.2490
 t 4
0.37
Contraction 0.393 0.010 0.235127 0.017968 0.5573
7

h1 h2 h1-h2 Volume Time Flow Rate Velocity v2/2g

Fitting k
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m)
Mitre 0.338 0.28 0.058 0.44843 0.010249 5.6589
Elbow 0.377 0.33 0.047 0.44843 0.010249 4.5857
Short bend 0.394 0.381 0.013 0.44843 0.010249 1.2684
Long bend 0.416 0.409 0.007 0.001 7.39 0.00013532 0.44843 0.010249 0.6830
Enlargemen
0.412 0.414 0.006 0.44843 0.015244 0.3682
t
Contraction 0.414 0.392 0.014 0.29908 0.022856 0.6295

Volum
h1 h2 h1-h2 Time Flow Rate Velocity v2/2g k
Fitting e
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m)
Mitre 0.304 0.296 0.008 0.254917 0.003312 2.4154
Elbow 0.327 0.322 0.005 0.254917 0.003312 1.5096
Short bend 0.335 0.332 0.003 7.69231E- 0.254917 0.003312 0.9058
0.001 13
Long bend 0.345 0.344 0.001 05 0.254917 0.003312 0.3019
Enlargement 0.342 0.345 0.001 0.254917 0.008665 0.1532
Contraction 0.343 0.333 0.006 0.170015 0.012993 0.4366

Volum Tim
h1 h2 h1-h2 Flow Rate Velocity v2/2g
Fitting e e k
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m)
0.31 0.27
Mitre 0.035 0.3899 0.0077 4.5177
1 6
0.35 0.32
Elbow 0.03 0.3899 0.0077 3.8724
7 7
0.37 0.36
Short bend 0.009 0.00011764 0.3899 0.0077 1.1617
2 3 0.001 8.5
7
0.39
Long bend 0.39 0.004 0.3899 0.0077 0.5163
4
Enlargemen 0.38 0.39
0.004 0.3899 0.0133 0.2730
t 9 2
Contraction 0.39 0.37 0.011 0.2600 0.0199 0.5728
1 3

Enlargement
0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
k

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
7.00E-05 8.00E-05 9.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.10E-04 1.20E-04 1.30E-04 1.40E-04
Flow rate

Enlargement
0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2
k

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
7.00E-05 8.00E-05 9.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.10E-04 1.20E-04 1.30E-04 1.40E-04
Flow rate

Contraction
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
k

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
7.00E-05 8.00E-05 9.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.10E-04 1.20E-04 1.30E-04 1.40E-04
flow rate
 Long Bend
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
k

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
7.00E-05 8.00E-05 9.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.10E-04 1.20E-04 1.30E-04 1.40E-04
flow rate

Short Bend
1.4

1.2

0.8
k

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
7.00E-05 8.00E-05 9.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.10E-04 1.20E-04 1.30E-04 1.40E-04
flow rate

Elbow
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
k

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
7.00E-05 8.00E-05 9.00E-05 1.00E-04 1.10E-04 1.20E-04 1.30E-04 1.40E-04
flow rate
7.5 Conclusions
From this experiment we can conclude that Loss coefficient “K” is directly proportional to
the flow rat “Q” i.e., by increasing the flow rate the loss coefficient will also increase
because at high speeds
Since the flow is continuous it means that water first passes through the long bend then
enlargement and the end from the mitre moreover the bending angle is 90° that is why the
friction loss is maximum through the mitre bend as compared to the others so its “K” because
of very sharp turning angle.
Loss coefficient is maximum for contraction and minimum for enlargement.
The graph between “Q” and “K” is a straight line which shows that the loss is increasing
with flow rate as discussed earlier at high speed the flow becomes turbulent.
70° is the optimum angle at which major and minor losses are minimum if angle is decreased
the minor loss will decrease but you will need a longer pipe to make the transition laminar
which means more frictional losses.
Experiment No. 8
Objective
To investigate the head loss due to friction in the flow of water through a
pipe and to determine the associated friction factor over range of flow
rates
Introduction
The total energy loss in a pipe system is the sum of the major and minor losses.  Major
losses are associated with frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous effects of the fluid
and roughness of the pipe wall.  Major losses create a pressure drop along the pipe since the
pressure must work to overcome the frictional resistance. In laminar flows, f is only a function of
the Reynolds number and is independent of the surface roughness of the pipe. In fully turbulent
flows, f  depends on both the Reynolds number and relative roughness of the pipe wall.  In
engineering problems, f is determined by using the Moody diagram. In engineering applications,
it is important to increase pipe productivity, i.e. maximizing the flow rate capacity and
minimizing head loss per unit length. For a given flow rate, the head loss decreases with the
inverse fifth power of the pipe diameter. Doubling the diameter of a pipe results in the head loss
decreasing by a factor of 32 (≈ 97% reduction), while the amount of material required per unit
length of the pipe and its installation cost nearly doubles. This means that energy consumption,
to overcome the frictional resistance in a pipe conveying a certain flow rate, can be significantly
reduced at a relatively small capital cost.
For laminar flow, the Darcy-Welsbach coefficient (or friction factor f ) is only a function
of the Reynolds number (Re) and is independent of the surface roughness of the pipe, i.e.:
64
f=
ℜ
Reynolds number is given by:
∆ h=( H i− H o )

∆ h∝ l ( 12 ρ v ) D ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ exp
2

2 ∆ hgd
f= 2
lv
ρdV
ℜ=
μ
For turbulent flow, f is a function of both the Reynolds number and the pipe roughness
height, other factors, such as roughness spacing and shape, may also affect the value of f;
however, these effects are not well understood and may be negligible in many cases. Therefore, f
must be determined experimentally. The Moody diagram relates f to the pipe wall relative
roughness ( /D) and the Reynolds number. Instead of using the Moody diagram, f can be
determined by utilizing empirical formulas. These formulas are used in engineering applications
when computer programs or spreadsheet calculation methods are employed. For turbulent flow
in a smooth pipe, a well-known curve fit to the Moody diagram is given by:
−0.25
f =0.316 ℜ

Methodology
The friction factor is determined by measuring the pressure head difference between two
fixed points in a straight pipe with a circular cross section for steady flows.

Apparatus
The following equipment is required to perform the energy loss in pipes experiment:
F1-10 hydraulics bench
F1-18 pipe friction apparatus
Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement
Measuring cylinder for measuring very low flow rates

Procedure

Close the bench valve, open the apparatus flow control valve fully, and start the pump. Open
the bench valve progressively, and run the flow until all air is purged.
Remove the clamps from the differential pressure gauge connection tubes, and purge any air
from the air-bleed valve located on the side of the pressure gauge.
Close off the air-bleed valve once no air bubbles observed in the connection tubes.
Close the apparatus flow control valve and take a zero-flow reading from the pressure gauge.
With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss shown by the pressure gauge.
Determine the flow rate by timed collection.
Adjust the flow control valve in a step-wise fashion to observe the pressure differences at
0.05 bar increments. Obtain data for ten flow rates. For each step, determine the flow rate by
timed collection.
Close the flow control valve, and turn off the pump.
 Observation and calculations
Static
Initial
No. Final Head Flow Velocity(v
Head(h1 Volume(V) Time(t) Reynold's Friction Friction %
of head(h2) Difference Rate(Q) )
) No.(Re) Factor(fexp) Factor(fthe) error
Obs. (∆h)
(m) (m) (m) (m3) (s) (m3/s) (m)
1 0.349 0.24 0.109 9.20E-05 20 4.60E-06 0.65 1952 0.030 0.0328 7.57
2 0.34 0.251 0.089 8.60E-05 20 4.30E-06 0.61 1825 0.028 0.0351 19.27
3 0.366 0.217 0.149 1.03E-04 20 5.15E-06 0.73 2186 0.033 0.0395 16.40
4 0.357 0.229 0.128 9.50E-05 20 4.75E-06 0.67 2016 0.033 0.0402 16.94
5 0.345 0.248 0.097 9.00E-05 20 4.50E-06 0.64 1910 0.028 0.0335 15.92
6 0.357 0.229 0.128 1.01E-04 20 5.05E-06 0.71 2143 0.030 0.0397 25.61

0.0290

0.0280

0.0270

0.0260
fexp

0.0250

0.0240

0.0230

0.0220
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200 2250
Re
Conclusions
After performing this experiment, we can conclude the relation between friction and Reynold
number. As Reynold number increased friction factor decreased so they have inverse relation
with each other and there is no bends and the area will remain unchanged and we see the loses in
this experiment majorly due to friction between the internal surface of tube or pipe and fluid
flowing
Compare the loss coefficient with the volumetric flow rates as
Experiment No 9
Objective
To locate the position of Meta center of a floating body
Introduction
Buoyancy 
It is the tendency of fluid to lift a submerged body.
Force of Buoyancy 
It is the resultant upward force or thrust exerted by a fluid on submerged body. According to
Archimedes Principle,
FB = weight of volume of liquid displace by the body.
Center of gravity
It is the point where is weight of the body is acting.
Center of Buoyancy 
It is the point to which force of Buoyancy is acting. Center of Buoyancy is center
of gravity of volume of liquid displace by the body. Or in 2D case, we can say that center if Area
if immersed section.
W . GMsinθ=pxcosθ
Pxcotθ
GM =
W

Metacenter
It is the point of intersection of symmetrical axis of floating body and the new line

of action of force of Buoyancy. For proper design of ships or other floating vessel, care should
be taken that the metacentre is above the centre of gravity for all angles of heel which may be
encountered in its use. As a floating body can be tilted in any direction, it is required to consider
tilting about both the longitudinal axis and transverse (pitching) axis. Usually the tilting about
the longitudinal axis is more critical.
Methodology
Apparatus
A Tank
A Floating Ship which contains horizontal beam at its middle and a movable pointer on a
graduated scale at the center of horizontal beam.
Weights

Procedure
Take an empty tank and fill it with water up to 2/3rd of its height and note down the height of
water level (Z1).
Now place the floating ship in the tank and note down the rise in the water level (Z2).
Adjust the floating ship in such a way that the pointer should show zero reading on the
graduated scale.
After adjusting, add weight (w1) to the horizontal beam of floating ship at a known distance
(Y) from the center of the beam.
Now the ship will tilt at some angle on one side and observe the tilt angle on graduated scale
and note it down.
Repeat the same procedure for 4 more times by keeping the load constant and varying the
distance or by keeping the distance constant and varying the load.
In this case, distance is kept constant as (Y) and weight is varied.
Finally, calculate the metacentric height using the given formula.
 Observations and calculations
No. of l b W P di Angle Theoretical Experimental
d (m) y (m) x (m) % Error
obs. (m) (m) (kg) (kg) (m) (deg) GM GM
1 0.095 0.014 2.8 0.051223828 8.347026999
0.055888889
2 0.095 0.024 4.8 0.051144657 8.488685293

3 0.103 0.020 5 0.040907556 14.57819014

0.047888889
4 0.103 0.030 7.1 0.043100259 9.999459059
0.35 0.2 0.075 1.71 0.306 0.024
5 0.100 0.025 5.7 0.044820536 11.92471145
0.050888889
6 0.100 0.035 7.7 0.046323315 8.971652068

7 0.09 0.015 2.9 0.052987097 12.97739583

0.060888889
8 0.09 0.025 4.5 0.056843548 6.643808844

Conclusions:
In conclusion we can compare the center of gravity height there is a decrease in the metacentric
height it shows that there is inverse relation between y and GM. On the other side change in
affect the stability of metacentric body. The general angle is 20 degrees. By increasing it more
than 20 it goes toward sinking. Finally, the difference between the theoretical and experimental
value is due to un ability to measure the exact angle as the body is floating and some uncertainty
in readings may occur.
Experiment 10
Objective
To determine the surface profile of a forced vortex
Introduction
Vortices can occur naturally or be produced in a laboratory. There are two types of
vortices: free vortices and forced vortices. A free vortex is formed, for example, when water
flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base. No external force is required to rotate the
fluid, and the degree of rotation is dependent upon the initial disturbance. Whirlpools in rivers
and tornadoes are examples of natural free vortices. A forced vortex, on the other hand, is caused
by external forces on the fluid. It can be created by rotating a vessel containing fluid or by
paddling in fluid. Rotational flow created by impellers of a pump is an example of a forced
vortex in turbomachinery. Studying natural phenomena such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and
whirlpools (free vortices) requires a full understanding of vortex behavior. It is also critical for
engineers and designers to be able to characterize forced vortices generated in machinery, such
as centrifugal pumps or turbines. Vortices often have adverse effects, as have been seen during
hurricanes, tornadoes, or scour holes created downstream of a dam outlet; however,
understanding vortex behavior has enabled engineers to design turbomachinery and hydraulic
structures that take advantage of these phenomena.  For example, hydrodynamic separators have
been developed, based on vortex behavior (swirling flow), to separate solid materials from
liquids. This type of separator is used in water treatment plants.

When water is forced to rotate at a constant speed the velocity will be also constant and equal to:
v=rw
The velocity head (or kinetic energy) can be calculated as:
2
v
hc=
2g
2 2
r w
hc=
2g
If the horizontal plane passing through the lowest point of the vortex is selected as datum, the
total energy is equal to:
H=ho + hc
2 2
r w
H=ho +
2g
At r=0: H=0, therefore, ho=0, and:
r2 w 2
H=
2g

Methodology
This experiment is performed by measuring the water surface profiles of a number of free
and forced vortices, and observing the differences. We will study the profiles of free vortices that
are produced when water flows from orifices of different diameters that are installed at the base
of a tank. Varying the size of the orifice creates changes in the flow rate, thereby changing the
rotational speed and size of the vortex profile. Forced vortices are created due to external forces,
so we will increase the rotational speed throughout the experiment to study the theoretical and
experimental relationships between the vortex surface profile and angular velocity.

Apparatus
The following equipment is required to perform the free and forced experiment:
 P6100 hydraulics bench, and
P6238: Free and forced vortices apparatus.

Procedure

Position the bushed plug into the outlet of the vessel and mount the two-blade paddle wheel
on the shaft, ensuring that the tapered edges of the blades angle upward.
Adjust the 3-way valve so that water flows into the vessel via the 60-degree outlet ports.
Turn on the pump, open the bench control valve, and allow the vessel to fill with water until
water just begins to overflow through the cutouts. Note that the inlet may need to be adjusted
in order to achieve a low-profiled, calm vortex. Water will now flow through these ports and
impinge on the paddle wheel before flowing out of the apparatus via the two 15-degree ports.
After the vessel is filled with water, adjust the outlet valve so that the water level remains
stable.
After the water level is stable, measure the vortex surface profile. This is done by mounting
the measuring bridge to the vessel, and then lowering the needles until they are touching the
profile of the vortex. Lock them in place, then remove the bridge, and measure the height of
each needle. It is recommended that this be done with a graph or engineering paper.
Record the time that it takes for the paddles to make 10 revolutions in the vessel. You can
find the angular velocity of the flow by dividing the number of revolutions by the time.
Increase the inflow rate to achieve higher angular velocity, and repeat the process so that you
have four distinct vortex profiles. Note that as you increase the inflow, you will need to
adjust the outlet flow to maintain the water level. As you increase the flow rate, change the
count of the revolutions to 20, 40, and 50.
Observations and calculations
No of No of Time No of rev R
hm ho Hc Error
obs. rev s rad/s m
1 10 10.92 5.75091575 0.11 -0.125 -0.145 -0.1246 -0.31738
2 10 10.92 5.75091575 0.09 -0.128 -0.145 -0.13135 2.614059
3 10 10.92 5.75091575 0.07 -0.133 -0.145 -0.13674 2.812158
4 10 10.92 5.75091575 0.05 -0.137 -0.145 -0.14079 2.763359
5 10 10.92 5.75091575 0.03 -0.144 -0.145 -0.14348 -0.35911
6 10 10.92 5.75091575 0 -0.145 -0.145 -0.145 0

No of No of Time No of rev. R
hm ho Hc Error
obs. rev s rad/s m
1 6.10887881 0.11 -0.115 -0.14 -0.11699 1.72616
2 6.10887881 0.09 -0.123 -0.14 -0.12459 1.295383
3 6.10887881 0.07 -0.13 -0.14 -0.13068 0.523008
15 15.43
4 6.10887881 0.05 -0.135 -0.14 -0.13524 0.181372
5 6.10887881 0.03 -0.138 -0.14 -0.13829 0.208802
6 6.10887881 0 -0.14 -0.14 -0.14 0
 No of No of Time No of rev. R
hm ho Hc Error
obs. rev s rad/s m
1 7.536 0.11 -0.129 -0.156 -0.12098 -6.22031
2 7.536 0.09 -0.138 -0.156 -0.13255 -3.94634
3 7.536 0.07 -0.141 -0.156 -0.14182 0.579184
12 10
4 7.536 0.05 -0.146 -0.156 -0.14876 1.892874
5 7.536 0.03 -0.149 -0.156 -0.15339 2.949594
6 7.536 0 -0.156 -0.156 -0.156 0

No of No of Time No of Rev. R
hm ho Hc Error
obs. rev s rad/s m
1 6.28 0.11 -0.135 -0.16 -0.13568 0.501958
2 6.28 0.09 -0.145 -0.16 -0.14372 -0.88407
3 6.28 0.07 -0.15 -0.16 -0.15015 0.1003
10 10
4 6.28 0.05 -0.1534 -0.16 -0.15497 1.026545
5 6.28 0.03 -0.154 -0.16 -0.15819 2.721363
6 6.28 0 -0.16 -0.16 -0.16 0

Conclusions
In this we can conclude that the error occur in our readings is by be because we measure the by
using stop watch as we know the pedal is rotating very fast so measuring by using stopwatch the
error possibility is their which includes in human error and experimental value may change
slightly from theoretical value. For surface profile we note that as the radius decreases the height
increases which shows that it is a parabola.
Experiment 11
Objective
To determine the surface profile of a free vortex
Introduction
Vortices can occur naturally or be produced in a laboratory. There are two types of
vortices: free vortices and forced vortices. A free vortex is formed, for example, when water
flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base. No external force is required to rotate the
fluid, and the degree of rotation is dependent upon the initial disturbance. Whirlpools in rivers
and tornadoes are examples of natural free vortices. A forced vortex, on the other hand, is caused
by external forces on the fluid. It can be created by rotating a vessel containing fluid or by
paddling in fluid. Rotational flow created by impellers of a pump is an example of a forced
vortex in turbomachinery. Studying natural phenomena such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and
whirlpools (free vortices) requires a full understanding of vortex behavior. It is also critical for
engineers and designers to be able to characterize forced vortices generated in machinery, such
as centrifugal pumps or turbines. Vortices often have adverse effects, as have been seen during
hurricanes, tornadoes, or scour holes created downstream of a dam outlet; however,
understanding vortex behavior has enabled engineers to design turbomachinery and hydraulic
structures that take advantage of these phenomena.  For example, hydrodynamic separators have
been developed, based on vortex behavior (swirling flow), to separate solid materials from
liquids. This type of separator is used in water treatment plants.
By using Bernoulli’s theorem, we will derive a relation between depth and radius of vortex
produce.
1 2
p+ ρ v + ρgz=constant
2
Where,
p is the constant pressure
ρ is the density of fluid
z is the depth of the vortex
Since pressure is constant, so
1 2
ρ v + ρgz=constant
2
Now by dividing the whole above equation with product of ρg
v2
+ z=constant
2g
 2
v
=constant−z
2g
Since,
1
vα
r
k
v=
r
So,
k2
2
=constant −z
2 gr
1
Depth α 2
r
This is the relation we will derive between depth and radius so as greater the depth smaller is the
radius and vices versa.

A free vortex is formed when water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base. The
degree of the rotation depends on the initial disturbance. In a free cylindrical vortex, the velocity
varies inversely with the distance from the axis of rotation.
The equation governing the surface profile is derived from the Bernoulli’s theorem:
2
k
C= +z
2 g r2
2
k
C−z=
2 g r2
which is the equation of a hyperbolic curve of nature 
This curve is asymptotic to the axis of rotation and to the horizontal plane through z=c.

which is the equation of a hyperbolic curve of nature

This curve is asymptotic to the axis of rotation and to the horizontal plane through z=c.
Methodology
This experiment is performed by measuring the water surface profiles of a number of free
and forced vortices, and observing the differences. We will study the profiles of free vortices that
are produced when water flows from orifices of different diameters that are installed at the base
of a tank. Varying the size of the orifice creates changes in the flow rate, thereby changing the
rotational speed and size of the vortex profile. Forced vortices are created due to external forces,
so we will increase the rotational speed throughout the experiment to study the theoretical and
experimental relationships between the vortex surface profile and angular velocity.

Apparatus
The following equipment is required to perform the free and forced experiment:
P6100 hydraulics bench, and
P6238: Free and forced vortices apparatus.

Procedure

Position the apparatus on the hydraulics bench so that the central outlet in the base of the
vessel is located over the weir trough.
Adjust the feet to ensure that the apparatus is level.
Push the 24 mm diameter orifice into the central outlet located in the base of the apparatus.
Connect the inlet pipe of the apparatus to the hydraulics bench outlet, using the flexible pipe
provided.
Close the bench outlet valve, and turn on the pump.
Gradually open the bench valve, and allow the vessel to fill with water until water begins to
overflow through the cutouts.
After the vessel is slightly overflowing, slowly open the outlet valve so that the water level
maintains a stable height. Note that you can also adjust the bench valve to maintain a
constant water level.
After a constant water level has been achieved, measure the water surface profile, by
adjusting the measuring caliper to a desired radius, and then lower it into the vortex until the
needles evenly touch the walls of the vortex. At this point, record the height indicated by the
caliper and repeat the procedure for the remaining radii.
After completing your measurements, close the bench valve, turn off the pump, drain the
apparatus, and repeat the process for the remaining two orifices.
Observations and calculations
Radius of Vortex(r) Squared Radius(r2) Depth of Vortex(z) C = z*r2
No. of Obs.
(mm) (mm2) (mm) (mm3)
1 50 2500 25.5 63750
2 45 2025 26.5 53663
3 40 1600 29 46400
4 35 1225 36.5 44713
5 30 900 45.5 40950
6 25 625 55.5 34688
60

55
f(x) = 2648.40310513588 x^-1.20352883187884
50

45
Depth(z)

40

35

30

25

20
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Radius(r)
Conclusions
From the experiment, we can conclude that as the radius decreases, the depth increases. Thus we
can state that the radius and depth of vortex are inversely proportional to each other. It means
that if the radius increases, the flowrate is also low and the surface profile is located at less depth.
Also there should be some errors in the experiment. This could be because of the fault in
apparatus or inexperience of the person performing the experiment. Such errors results in the
difference between the values of theoretical and experimental results.
Experiment 12
Objective:
To determine the drag coefficient of a settling object

12.1 Introduction
Drag force is the resistance force of a fluid. This force applies acting opposite towards the
motion of the object which is moving submerge in a certain fluid. Thus, Drag Force is defined as
the force which resists the motion of a body with fluid. The Drag Coefficient (Cd) is a
dimensionless number that is used to quantify the resistance of an object as it moves through a
fluid. It allows aerodynamicists to model the influence of shape, inclination and flow conditions
on aerodynamic drag. As the coefficient of drag is dimensionless, aerodynamicists can easily
compare different designs to determine which has the best aerodynamic efficiency . Most
important that the drag coefficient varies with the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number is a
dimensionless quantity which defines the ratio between the inertial forces and the viscous forces
of a fluid. It essentially describes how the behavior of air changes with temperature, pressure,
velocity and the type of fluid.

Derivation for drag coefficient

F=6 πμr v t
F
C D=
1 ρ v (π r 2)
2
t
2
6 πμr v t 12 ×2
C D= 2 2
=
1 ρ v (π r )
t
2 ρ vt r
2 μ
2 ρ vt r
As here =ℜ
μ
The Strokes drag is given as follows:
24
CD= ∙ ∙∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙(t h eoretical)
ℜ
And for experimental:
F D =W −B
F D =ρo Vg−ρ f Vg
F D =Vg(ρo −ρf )
 Vg( ρ o−ρ f )
C D= 2 2
1 ρ f vt ( π r )
2
2 Vg(ρ o−ρ f )
C D= ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙(experimental )
ρf v 2t (π r 2)

12.2 Methodology
The figure of apparatus is as following

Apparatus
Supporting stand with wall
Two liquid filled tubes
Sphere balls
Stopwatch
 Procedure
First, we placed the apparatus vertical fixed with the wall.
Filled the both tubes with liquid (water) up to a certain height.
Mark the two lines upon which we note the time of flight.
Take the spherical balls (or any shape you use).
Drop the ball into the tube towards downward direction. During the downward motion
effective buoyancy due to hydrostatic pressure distribution, and drag forces contributed by
the relative motion between the sphere and water.
And during the downward motion of the balls, we note the time from certain height to
certain level which we marked on the tube.
The effective buoyancy force on the sphere can be determined by using the Archimedes’
principle as if it were immersed in real fluid with the density equal to the bulk density of
the material.
We calculate drag force by using its formula and also find the value of C D theoretical and
experimental.

12.3 Observation and Calculations

Diameter
Distance Volume of
Material Time(t) Velocity(v) of Drag Drag
of Fall(S) Object(V) Reynold's
Of Sphere(d) Coefficient Coefficient
Number
Object (Cd exp) (Cd the)
(m) (s) (m/s) (m) (m3)

0.92 1.60 0.00635 4.37E+12 10144 0.222 0.00237

Mild
0.83 1.78 0.0079375 1.16E+13 14055 0.226 0.00171
Steel
1.475 0.77 1.92 0.009525 2.52E+13 18180 0.233 0.00132

1.36 1.08 0.00635 1.35E+12 6862 0.198 0.00350

Ceramic
0.89 1.66 0.009525 1.63E+13 15729 0.127 0.00153
 0.25

0.2

Cd exp 0.15

0.1

0.05

0
6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
Re

Conclusions
It can be concluded that the coefficient discharge varies for each material. Also the
experiment clarifies that the coefficient discharge depends mainly on Reynolds number and the
beta factor. Dependence on Reynolds number is very week (except low Reynolds number), so
the performance of differential flow meters is rather intensive to liquid viscosity. The difference
between the actual discharge and theoretical discharge is called a negative slip. When the
theoretical discharge is less than actual discharge is known as negative slip. Thus, we can
conclude that as Reynolds number increases, coefficient discharge decreases. For the
experimental value, the discharge is proportional to the velocity of the settling object. The
discharge coefficient also depends on the material. For example, the value for the metallic
material is different as compared to the value of ceramics. Thus coefficient of discharge for the
metallic materials is greater. Chances of errors in the experiment is always there in the
experiment.