AIAA Paper 1 I-1103
STRAPDOWN NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY: A LITERATURE SURVEY
S. C. Gargt
U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
L. D. Morrow
Spar Aerospace P r o d u c t s Ltd., Toronto, Canada
R. Mament
Department of Communications, Ottawa,
Abstract
a T h i s paper p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s of a comprehen-
& s i v e l i t e r a t u r e s u r v e y of approximately 300 t e c h n i -
c a l p a p e r s and r e p o r t s on strapdown n a v i g a t i o n
3 technology. It p r o v i d e s a g e n e r a l survey f o r t h o s e
s e e k i n g a s o u r c e of r e f e r e n c e s and a n overview of
LL!
t h e e n t i r e f i e l d . The paper d o e s n o t d w e l l on com-
b u5 p a r i s o n s between strapdown and gimballed systems.
Rather, i t aims a t a n organized and c o h e r e n t sum-
mary of e x i s t i n g work on strapdown technology by
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reviewing t h e f o l l o w i n g t o p i c s : b a s i c terms and
3Z
H C 3C
4. concepts, strapdown components, a n a l y t i c a l
7 4 C; : a s p e c t s , e r r o r g e n e r a t i o n and p r o p a g a t i o n , system
d a t a p r o c e s s i n g , r e l i a b i l i t y enhancement and
c u r r e n t t r e n d s . An e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y i s
included.
1. Introduction
Self-contained i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n depends on
t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of a c c e l e r a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o
a Newtonian r e f e r e n c e frame. Conventional
systems p h y s i c a l l y m a i n t a i n such a r e f e r e n c e
frame by means of gimbals. T h i s i s termed a
s t a b i l i z e d p l a t f o r m and t h e system g y r o s and
a c c e l e r o m e t e r s a r e mounted on i t . Many h i g h
performance systems of t h i s t y p e have evolved
d u r i n g t h e p a s t two decades. The 'strapdown'
v e r s i o n of t h i s i d e a , wherein s e n s o r s a r e mounted
d i r e c t l y on t h e v e h i c l e and t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
from t h e sensor t o i n e r t i a l r e f e r e n c e frame i s
computed r a t h e r t h a n mechanized, h a s been recog-
n i z e d a s long a s t h a t of t h e s t a b i l i z e d p l a t -
form. P o t e n t i a l advantages of t h i s concept have
o f t e n been noted and i n c l u d e lower c o s t , weight
and power consumption, i n c r e a s e d r e l i a b i l i t y
and e a s e of maintenance, manufacture and redun-
d a n t design.
Strapdown system development commenced in
t h e l a t e 1950's. The f i r s t f l i g h t o p e r a t i o n a l
hardware was b u i l t by Honeywell f o r t h e PRIME
r e e n t r y v e h i c l e , and was f i r s t flown i n December
1966. A major m i l e s t o n e was reached i n 1969
when t h e Apollo a b o r t guidance system achieved
man-rated o p e r a t i o n a l s t a t u s . These e a r l y
strapdown systems, however, o p e r a t e d i n a
r e l a - ti v e l y benign dynamic environment. To
d e a l w i t h r a p i d maneuvers and v i b r a t i o n s would
have r e q u i r e d s e n s o r s w i t h much g r e a t e r dynamic
r a n g e and t h e n - p r o h i b i t i v e amounts of on-board
computation. The second r e s t r a i n t h a s drama-
t i c a l l y weakened i n t h e l a s t decade and i s now
v i r t u a l l y a b s e n t . T h i s has prompted e x t e n s i v e
development of s e n s o r s u n i q u e l y s u i t e d t o s t r a p -
down requirements. Thus a t r e n d towards wide-
- s p r e a d u s e of strapdown i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n h a s
-- been d i s c e r n i b l e f o r some time. Whether s t r a p -
down n a v i g a t i o n h a s ' a r r i v e d ' , however, i s s t i l l
a p o i n t of l i v e l y d e b a t e , cf, t h e 1976 p a p e r s
tMember AIW
*References a r e grouped a c c o r d i n g t o s e c t i o n s .
' ~. 7 7 -
//
6 /9
Canada
by Shaw [l]*and P e t e r s o n [ 2 ] i n t h e same conference.
The p r e s e n t paper d o e s n o t e n t e r i n t o t h i s d e b a t e . /
The b e n e f i t s of t h e strapdown approach a c c r u e
from more t h a n j u s t t h e d e l e t i o n of gimbals. The
i n t e g r a t i o n of i n e r t i a l w i t h o t h e r t y p e s of naviga-
t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n i s f a c i l i t a t e d and*modular d e s i g n
i s encouraged. S i n c e a more powerful computer i s
used, s o p h i s t i c a t e d d a t a p r o c e s s i n g , e s t i m a t i o n
and f a i l u r e p r o c e s s i n g methods can b e employed.
Redundancy f o r i n c r e a s e d r e l i a b i l i t y c a n b e con-
v e n i e n t l y implemented a t t h e s e n s o r and component
l e v e l , r a t h e r t h a n a t tliq system l e v e l , and skewed
con£ i g u r a t i o n s can b e used t o minimize t h e number
of s e n s o r s . Above a l l , a strapdown system h a s t h e
p o t e n t i a l t o show a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n
c o s t of ownership and l i f e c y c l e c o s t over i t s
gimballed c o u n t e r p a r t . These and o t h e r advantages
have been w i d e l y t o u t e d f o r many y e a r s ; however,
t h e development of t r u l y c o m p e t i t i v e strapdown
systems has been q u i t e r e c e n t .
A s strapdown n a v i g a t i o n technology has matured
o v e r t h e y e a r s , s i g n i f i c a n t l i t e r a t u r e covering
a l l a s p e c t s of t h e f i e l d h a s become a v a i l a b l e .
Many review p a p e r s d i s c u s s t h e development of
strapdown n a v i g a t i o n i n i t s v a r i o u s s t a g e s . Its
e a r l y p e r i o d of e v o l u t i o n from t h e c o n c e p t u a l s t a g e
t o t h e development of e a r l y f l i g h t hardware i s
d i s c u s s e d i n [3-111; t h e maturing of t h e strapdown
approach a s hardware l i m i t a t i o n s were surmounted
i s d i s c u s s e d i n [12-161 and t h e dynamic and com-
p e t i t i v e present-day s c e n a r i o i s r e v e a l e d i n [ I , 2,
17,181. To t h e a u t h o r s ' knowledge, no g e n e r a l
l i t e r a t u r e survey of t h e f i e l d h a s appeared i n
t h e p a s t , however, and t h e p r e s e n t paper a t t e m p t s
t o f i l l t h i s role.
/'
Approximately t h r e e hundred t e c h n i c a l r e p o r t s
and p a p e r s i n t h e open l i t e r a t u r e were reviewed f o r
t h i s work, which was o r i g i n a l l y sponsored by t h e
Communications Research C e n t r e of t h e Canadian
Department of Communications. The aim of t h e
paper is t o p r o v i d e a n organized s o u r c e of r e f e r -
ences and a n overview of t h e e n t i r e f i e l d of s t r a p -
down n a v i g a t i o n technology. It i s f e l t t h a t t h e
b i b l i o g r a p h y accompanying t h i s paper i s comprehen-
s i v e ; however, t h e a u t h o r s do n o t c l a i m t h a t i t i s
complete and r e g r e t any major omissions.
2. Overview and Basic Concepts
T h i s s e c t i o n g i v e s a n overview of t h e paper and
f u r t h e r d e t a i l s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a strapdown
system. A g e n e r i c schematic of a strapdown n a v i g a t o r
n a v i g a t o r i s shown i n F i g u r e 1. The s p e c i f i c
f o r c e f" [ 2 ] i s supplemented by t h e computed
g r a v i t y , and p o s s i b l y " i n e r t i a l " f o r c e f i e l d t o
give the i n e r t i a l acceleration a". This i s inte-
g r a t e d t w i c e t o o b t a i n p o s i t i o n and v e l o c i t y , which
 a r e a l s o i n p u t s t o n a v i g a t i o n c o o r d i n a t e computa-
t i o n (e.g. l a t i t u d e and l o n g i t u d e ) and t o t h e
g r a v i t y computer. T y p i c a l l y , o t h e r s e n s o r s such
a s b a r o m e t r i c a l t i m e t e r s a r e used t o improve
e r r o r propagation. Other s e n s o r s may i n c l u d e r a d i o
and o p t i c a l a i d s ; t h e r e q u i s i t e "data mixing" func-
t i o n s would a l s o t h e n b e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e naviga-
t i o n computer. The f u n c t i o n s d e s c r i b e d s o f a r a r e
a l s o found i n gimballed systems, a s d i s c u s s e d in
books [1,2,31.
The strapdown system d i f f e r s i n t h a t fb i s
measured ( i n t h e body frame) and t h e a t t i t u d e t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n t o f" i s computed from g y r o d a t a . The
form o f t h e a t t i t u d e computation problem depends on
t h e gyros used. S e v e r a l t y p e s of g y r o s and a c c e l e r -
ometers e x i s t f o r strapdown a p p l i c a t i o n . These and
o t h e r hardware components a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n
3. Strapdown spinning-mass g y r o s a r e e l e c t r o n i c a l l y
"caged" t o t h e maneuvering v e h i c l e by s e r v o commands,
termed r e b a l a n c e t o r q u e s . The l a s e r gyro d o e s n o t
r e q u i r e caging. The above g y r o s a r e u s u a l l y r a t e
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i n t e g r a t i n g gyros and o u t p u t i n c r e m e n t a l a n g l e
p u l s e s , a measure of a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o i n t h e l i m i t
a s p u l s e s i z e approaches zero. The a t t i t u d e para-
m e t e r s 5 aTe t h e n found from s o l v i n g t h e k i n e m a t i c
e q u a t i o n s 5 = Z(5, w), where 2 must b e c o r r e c t e d
f o r f i n i t e p u l s e s i z e . Various a t t i t u d e para-
m e t r i z a t i o n ~and n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n methpds a r e
reviewed i n S e c t i o n 4. The i n t e g r a t i o n of 5 must
be done a t a high r a t e and i s t h e c h i e f computa-
t i o n a l l o a d when r a t e g y r o s a r e used. T h i s problem
i s avoided i n t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c gyro, which o u t p u t s
t h e parameters directly.
Strapdown s e n s o r o u t p u t s c o n t a i n a number of
e r r o r s such a s gyro b i a s and t o r q u e r s c a l e f a c t o r
n o n l i n e a r i t i e s . The e r r o r s remaining a f t e r system-
a t i c compensation c o n t r i b u t e t o system e r r o r . T h i s
c o n t r i b u t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t from gimballed systems
i n t h a t ( i ) t h e dynamic environment i s . w r e s e v e r e ,
s o t h a t s e n s o r s of g i v e n accuracy y i e l d l a r g e r
system e r r o r s , and ( i i ) t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n depends
s t r o n g l y on t h e v e h i c l e mission p r o f i l e . E r r o r
g e n e r a t i o n and p r o p a g a t i o n r e c e i v e a t t e n t i o n i n
S e c t i o n 5. Often, some e r r o r s a r e t r e a t e d a s
a d d i t i o n a l s t a t e v a r i a b l e s t o b e e s t i m a t e d in
f l i g h t [ 4 ] , and even d e t e r m i n i s t i c c a l i b r a t i o n mod-
e l s can b e r a t h e r e l a b o r a t e [51. Kalman f i l t e r s a r e
u b i q u i t o u s l y used i n e s t i m a t i o n of s t a t e s , espe-
c i a l l y when d a t a from v a r i o u s s o u r c e s a r e combined.
For i n s t a n c e , sun s e n s o r s and c e l e s t i a l [ 6 ] o r t e r r e -
s t r i a l landmark [ 7 ] s i g h t i n g s may b e used t o a i d t h e
a t t i t u d e and/or n a v i g a t i o n f u n c t i o n s . The f i l t e r -
i n g t a s k i s u s u a l l y done a t lower i t e r a t i o n r a t e s
and i s an example of system-level d a t a p r o c e s s i n g
t a s k s . Other examples a r e i n i t i a l i z a t i o n o r ' a l i g n -
ment' of t h e strapdown n a v i g a t o r , and p e r i o d i c a l
o r t h o g o n a l i z a t i o n of t h e a t t i t u d e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
m a t r i x . System d a t a p r o c e s s i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d i n
S e c t i o n 6.
The e s t i m a t e s of e r r o r s t a t e s c a n g e n e r a l l y b e
used t o d e t e c t and i s o l a t e f a i l u r e s i n redundant
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . System r e l i a b i l i t y can b e g r e a t l y
enhanced by such methods. Real-time f a i l u r e cor-
r e c t i o n and system r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a r e p o s s i b l e i f
redundancy i s implemented a t t h e s e n s o r l e v e l , a s
- i s i o s t c o n v e n i e n t l y done i n a strapdown system.
The s e l e c t i o n of o p t i m a l redundant c o n f i g u r a t i o n s
and f a i l u r e p r o c e s s i n g methods a r e i m p o r t a n t
a s p e c t s of r e l i a b i l i t y enhancement, which i s
reviewed i n S e c t i o n 7. Improvements i n t e s t i n g
methods and e a s e of maintenance, l e a d i n g t o over-
FIGURE 1 S T P A P O M SYSTU! SCHEMTIC
a l l c o s t s a v i n g s , r e s u l t s when a modular approach i s
adopted i n implementing redundant c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .
T h i s is a n example of c u r r e n t t r e n d s b e i n g recognized
i n strapdown system e v o l u t i o n . A ' s u b j e c t i v e d i s -
c u s s i o n and e v a l u a t i o n of t h e s e a r e g i v e n i n S e c t i o n
8.
C e r t a i n a s p e c t s of t h i s f i e l d could n o t r e c e i v e
a t t e n t i o n i n t h i s review. Perhaps t h e most impor-
t a n t one i s t e s t methods, procedures and r e s u l t s .
These a r e , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , a p p l i c a b l e t o p a r t i c u -
l a r systems. Also omitted from d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a -
t i o n a r e thermal c o n t r o l d e v i c e s , s p e c i f i c program-
ming t e c h n i q u e s , e t c . However, papers d e a l i n g w i t h
t h e f o r e g o i n g t o p i c s a r e grouped t o g e t h e r i n t h e gen-
e r a l b i b l i o g r a p h y a t t h e end of t h e r e f e r e n c e s e c t i o n .
F i n a l l y , computational and hardware a s p e c t s of gim-
b a l l e d systems which a r e common t o strapdown systems
a r e n o t reviewed i n d e t a i l .
3. Strapdown Components
I n t h i s s e c t i o n , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e body of l i t e r a -
t u r e on t h e components fundamental t o a strapdown
system i s reviewed. A t t e n t i o n i s focussed p r i m a r i l y
on t h e major gyros c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e , namely f l o a t e d
r a t e i n t e g r a t i n g , d r y tuned, l a s e r and f r e e r o t o r
gyros. Accelerometers a r e n o t emphasized, s i n c e f o r
t h e most p a r t t h e i r d e s i g n i s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e used
i n gimballed systems [47], and t h e l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g
e x p l i c i t l y w i t h strapdown v e r s i o n s i s s p a r s e . The
e v o l v i n g technology i n t h e strapdown computer f i e l d
is b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d .
Sensors
E a r l y strapdown systems employed s i n g l e d e g r e e of
freedom (SDF), f l o a t e d r a t e i n t e g r a t i n g gyros. T h i s
h a s been r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l approach.
I n t h i s mechanization t h e gyro s p i n n i n g mass i s 'caged'
t o t h e v e h i c l e , i . e . , t h e gyro i s made t o f o l l o w t h e
v e h i c l e motion by a p p l y i n g a r e b a l a n c e t o r q u e about
t h e gyro o u t p u t a x i s which n u l l i f i e s t h e p r e c e s s i o n
t o r q u e due t o r o t a t i o n s about t h e i n p u t a x i s . The
t o r q u e r e b a l a n c e l o o p s a r e g e n e r a l l y pulsed i n na-
t u r e , w i t h b i n a r y , t e r n a r y , f o r c e d b i n a r y and time-
modulated schemes being used. I n some a p p l i c a t i o n s
a d u a l mode t o r q u i n g scheme i s used t o permit opera-
t i o n i n b o t h a h i g h and low r a t e mode w i t h automatic
mode s w i t c h i n g . The development of SDF f l o a t e d gyros
f o r strapdown u s e i s d i s c u s s e d i n [l-31, i n c l u d i n g
t e s t r e s u l t s 14-81. Some p a p e r s [ 9 , 1 0 ] a r e predom-
i n a n t l y concerned w i t h v a r i o u s t y p e s of r e b a l a n c e
l o o p s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d e r r o r s [11,12] . These
a r e f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5 of t h i s paper.
Although s t i l l a prime c a n d i d a t e f o r s p a c e a p p l i c a -
t i o n s , t h i s t y p e of gyro is being e c l i p s e d by 'un-
c o n v e n t i o n a l ' i n s t r u m e n t s f o r g e n e r a l strapdown u s e .
 Two d e g r e e of freedom (TDF) g y r o s may a l s o be
used i n a t o r q u e r e b a l a n c e mode, such a s t h e g a s
b e a r i n g f r e e r o t o r gyro i n [13]. However, t h e
tuned r o t o r gyro i s t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t mature
[14] TDF strapdown gyro. T h i s d e v i c e employs a
r o t o r t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a gimballed u n i v e r s a l
j o i n t [15] spun a b o u t i t s a x i s of symmetry. Ro-
t a t i o n s about a x e s normal t o t h e s p i n a x i s a r e
r e s i s t e d by s p r i n g s w i t h i n t h e j o i n t . The s p r i n g
c o n s t a n t s a r e made t o c a n c e l a n e g a t i v e s p r i n g
c o n s t a n t induced by g y r o s c o p i c e f f e c t s , s o t h a t
i d e a l l y t h e r e i s z e r o e f f e c t i v e c o u p l i n g between
t h e r o t o r and t h e gyro c a s e about t h e two a x e s
normal t o t h e s p i n a x i s . A two-axis t o r q u e r w i t h
damping provided e l e c t r o s t a t i c a l l y i s used t o
' c a g e ' t h e gyro. The p r i n c i p l e s of o p e r a t i o n of
t h e tuned r o t o r gyro a r e c l a r i f i e d i n [15,16] and
i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s t o strapdown systems a r e d i s -
cuassed i n [14,17].
The most s u c c e s s f u l f r e e - r o t o r gyro i s t h e e l e c -
t r o s t a t i c a l l y supported gyro (ESG), which has been
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developed f o r b o t h gimballed and strapdown a p p l i c a -
t i o n s . The ESG employs a l i g h t w e i g h t s p h e r i c a l
b e r y l l i u m r o t o r suspended i n a n evacuated envelope
by a n e l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d . The d e s i g n i n t e n t i s t o
e l i m i n a t e a l l t o r q u e s on t h e r o t o r , which then pro-
v i d e s a long-term a t t i t u d e r e f e r e n c e . Displace-
ments of t h e housing r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r g i v e
a t t i t u d e and can b e sensed e i t h e r o p t i c a l l y o r by
i n t r o d u c i n g a known minute mass unbalance i n t o t h e
r o t o r and o b s e r v i n g t h e r e s u l t a n t modulation of t h e
suspension c u r r e n t i n p u t . The development of t h e
ESG i s d i s c u s s e d i n [18-191 and i t s strapdown a p p l i -
c a t i o n s i n [20-241.
Besides t h e tuned r o t o r gyro and t h e ESG, t h e
l a s e r gyro [26] i s a n o t h e r strapdown gyro competing
f o r t h e low-cost i n e r t i a l n a v i g a t i o n market. T h i s
d e v i c e (not a gyro i n t h e c l a s s i c a l s e n s e ) h a s been
developed c h i e f l y f o r strapdown a p p l i c a t i o n s , and
a l t h o u g h n o t y e t u n i v e r s a l l y recognized a s being
' m a t u r e ' , i t h a s reached o p e r a t i o n a l s t a t u s . The
r i n g l a s e r gyro c o n s i s t s of a r e s o n a n t c a v i t y around
which two o p p o s i t e l y d i r e c t e d l a s e r beams t r a v e l i n
a c l o s e d ( u s u a l l y t r i a n g u l a r ) p a t h . R o t a t i o n of t h e
i n s t r u m e n t about an a x i s normal t o t h i s p a t h r e s u l t s
i n an observed frequency d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two
beams, which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t e of r o t a t i o n .
T h i s p h y s i c a l phenomenon i s p r e d i c t e d by t h e t h e o r y
of r e l a t i v i t y [25]. S e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e l a s e r gyro
d e s i g n s a r e a v a i l a b l e today, d i f f e r i n g mainly i n
t h e means used t o overcome t h e l o c k - i n phenomenon
(deadband f o r low r a t e i n p u t s ) . The p r i n c i p l e s of
o p e r a t i o n of t h i s gyro and d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e
d i s c u s s e d i n [26-291. New c o n c e p t s i n o p t i c a l r a t e
s e n s i n g a r e s t i l l b e i n g proposed [30]. Current ca-
p a b i l i t i e s of l a s e r g y r o s a r e analyzed i n [31,32]
and t y p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n [33-371.
Computers
For many y e a r s p r o g r e s s i n strapdown develop-
ment was impeded by t h e l a c k of s u i t a b l e computing
equipment. With t h e d r a m a t i c advances made i n
computer technology d u r i n g t h e p a s t decade and
s t i l l c o n t i n u i n g , computers a r e no l o n g e r an
o b s t a c l e . A s u r v e y of t h e computational hardware
a p p l i c a b l e t o strapdown systems would b e a major
t a s k i n i t s e l f ; t h e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e i s but
b r i e f l y discussed here.
E a r l y strapdown systems made heavy u s e of
d i g i t a l d i f f e r e n t i a l a n a l y z e r s (DDA's).Discussions
on t h e u s e of DDA v e r s u s g e n e r a l purpose computers
occur i n [38,39]. Whole number computers g r a d u a l l y
r e p l a c e d DDA'S, a l t h o u g h i n some a p p l i c a t i o n s
h y b r i d systems were used, i n v h i c h DDA's handled
t h e high-frequency a t t i t u d e u p d a t e s w h i l e a
g e n e r a l purpose machine d i d t h e r e s t . E v e n t u a l l y ,
d e d i c a t e d strapdown computers were developed 140,
411, and i n some a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e strapdown naviga-
t i o n f u n c t i o n s were done i n a general-purpose
computer [42 1. Many c u r r e n t strapdown systems
a r e microprocessor based [43,44,45], and t h e
c u r r e n t r a p i d developments i n t h i s technology
a r e y e t t o b e imparted t o strapdown use. C u r r e n t l y
a v a i l a b l e computers a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d i n p a p e r s
d e s c r i b i n g complete systems. A review of space-
c r a f t computers t o a b o u t 1974 i s g i v e n by
R u k s t i k a l n i s [46].
4. A n a l y t i c a l Aspects
We now t u r n t o t h e a n a l y t i c a l and numerical
b a s e s of strapdown n a v i g a t i o n . Rigid-body
k i n e n a t i c s , n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of o r d i n a r y
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s (ODE'S), and f o r m u l a t i o n
of n a v i g a t i o n frames and e q u a t i o n s a r e t h e t o p i c s
considered.
Kinematics
R o t a t i o n s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e t h r e e -
dimensional manifold R of o r t h o g o n a l 3x3 m a t r i c e s
w i t h d e t e r m i n a n t +l. It i s known [1,2] t h a t
t h e minimal unique r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of i t must
employ f i v e parameters. However, t h e r e a r e
u s e f u l 3 and 4 parameter r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . Euler
a n g l e s [3] and t h e Euler-Rodriguez parameters
[ 4 , 5 ] , a s w e l l a s t h e " r o t a t i o n v e c t o r " concept
of Laning [5,6] employ t h r e e parameters. The l a s t
d e r i v e s from E u l e r ' s theorem t h a t any rigid-body
o r i e n t a t i o n can b e obtained by a s i n g l e r o t a t i o n
O about an a x i s e; the rotation vector i s simply
@=. Three-vectors d e f i n i n g r o t a t i o n s a r e con-
s i d e r e d by Davenport [8] and two o t h e r t h r e e -
p a r a m e t r i z a t i o n s i n terms of skew-symmetric
m a t r i c e s a r e d e s c r i b e d by S t u e l p n a g e l [ I ] . A l l of
t h e f o r e g o i n g a r e n o t unique, and l e a d t o non-
l i n e a r kinematic d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with
singularities.
Four-parameter f o r m u l a t i o n s i n c l u d e t h e complex
Cayley-Klein parameters [3,7] and E u l e r symmetrical
parameters [ 7 ] , which a r e i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o
Hamilton's q u a t e r n i o n s . The l a s t two, when expressed
a s column m a t r i c e s , obey l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l equa-
t i o n s w i t h bounded s o l u t i o n s . These f e a t u r e s
make t h e quaternion/ESP favoured i n comparative
s t u d i e s [9-111. I t s u s e i n strapdown computations
h a s been d e l i n e a t e d by s e v e r a l a u t h o r s [12-141,
i n c l u d i n g a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of computational e r r o r s .
D i r e c t u s e of q u a t e r n i o n a l g e b r a h a s a l s o been
c o n s i d e r e d [15,16]. On b a l a n c e , i t seems t h a t t h e
ESP f o r m u l a t i o n i s b e s t s u i t e d t o strapdown computa-
t i o n s . Other f o r m u l a t i o n s i n c l u d e t h e five-parameter
scheme of Hopf [ I ] , t h e six-parameter scheme, i n
which two columns of t h e d i r e c t i o n c o s i n e m a t r i x
(DCM) a r e t a k e n , and of c o u r s e t h e DCM i t s e l f . The
l a s t two obey l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s . A n a l y t i c a l solu-
t i o n s f o r r i g i d body a t t i t u d e a r e s c a r c e ; examples
a r e s i n g l e - a x i s r o t a t i o n , an approximate scheme
based on i t due t o Kane [17], and t h e t o r q u e - f r e e
P o i n s o t motion s o l u t i o n due t o Morton e t a 1 [7].
F i n a l l y , we n o t e t h a t t h e k i n e m a t i c s problem i s
 r e l e v a n t o n l y t o r a t e - g y r o systems.
Integration
The n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of ODE'S i s b o t h
c e n t r a l t o t h e strapdown concept and a n e x t e n s i v e
a r e a of a c t i v e r e s e a r c h . A good c u r r e n t r e f e r e n c e
on it i s t h e book by Lapidus and S e i n f e l d [18].
The rudimentary Euler method ( r e c t a n g u l a r r u l e ) was
almost u n i v e r s a l l y used i n t h e e a r l y DDA computers.
P r e s e n t computer c a p a c i t i e s a l l o w a c h o i c e o f
a l g o r i t h m s . B a s i c a l l y , we have two types: singl'e-
s t e p and m u l t i s t e p methods. Single-s t e p methods
of t h e e x p l i c i t t y p e , t y p i f i e d by Runge-Kutta
methods [18-211, a r e n o n i t e r a t i v e , s e l f - s t a r t i n g ,
a l l o w e a s y m o d i f i c a t i o n of s t e p s i z e , b u t r e q u i r e
n ( o r d e r of method) e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e ODE per
s t e p . T h e i r s t a b i l i t y ( s e e [22] f o r a n i n t r o d u c t i o n
t o t h i s and r e l a t e d concepts) and roundof f p r o p e r t i e s
a r e somewhat b e t t e r t h a n m u l t i s t e p methods. D e s p i t e
popular p r a c t i c e , l o c a l e r r o r e s t i m a t e s can b e
o b t a i n e d f o r such methods w i t h some e x t r a computa-
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t i o n . The advantages of doing so a r e c l e a r l y
demonstrated i n [23]. I m p l i c i t s i n g l e s t e p methods
[18] o f f e r h i g h e r accuraoy f o r t h e same o r d e r b u t
r e q u i r e i t e r a t i o n ; some of t h e s e r e q u i r e d e r i v a t i v e
e v a l u a t i o n s a t i r r a t i o n a l arguments.
L i n e a r m u l t i s t e p methods a r e a l s o commonly used.
T y p i c a l of t h e s e a r e p r e d i c t o r - c o r r e c t o r methods
(without c o r r e c t o r i t e r a t i o n ) . These r e q u i r e o n l y
two d e r i v a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s per s t e p r e g a r d l e s s of
order, but a r e not s e l f - s t a r t i n g , r e q u i r e increased
s t o r a g e , and s t e p s i z e changes a r e more d i f f i c u l t ,
a l t h o u g h a n e r r o r e s t i m a t e per s t e p i s e a s i l y ob-
t a i n e d . I t e r a t i n g t h e c o r r e c t o r more t h a n once i s
n o t u s u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l 124,251. The r e l a t i v e l y
complete t h e o r y of e r r o r p r o p a g a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g
roundoff e r r o r s , and s t a b i l i t y i n m u l t i s t e p methods
i s given by H e n r i c i [25].
The i n t e r a c t i o n s of q u a n t i z a t i o n and noncommuta-
t i v i t y e f f e c t s i n c u r r e n t r a t e g y r o s vzith i n t e g r a -
t i o n e r r o r p r o p a g a t i o n is a problem n o t o f t e n
addressed. Adaptive, v a r i a b l e - s t e p - s i z e i n t e g r a t i o n
based on computed l o c a l e r r o r e s t i m a t e s should prove
of m e r i t i n c e r t a i n a p p l i c a t i o n s . Other r e l e v a n t
a r e a s of numerical a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e numerical d i f f e r -
entiation t o obtain ,; approximation of t r i g o n o m e t r i c
f u n c t i o n s ( i n ESG r e a d o u t schemes), and R i c c a t i
e q u a t i o n s o l u t i o n f o r f i l t e r i n g purposes.
Navigation
The v a r i o u s frames used i n n a v i g a t i o n e q u a t i o n s
a r e d e s c r i b e d i n books on t h e s u b j e c t [26,27]. Some
of t h e more e x o t i c ones a r e d e s c r i b e d by Fedchin
[28] and Zakharin [29]. The e r r o r a n a l y s i s method-
ology i s comnon t o most r e f e r e n c e frames, and i s
s e t up by B r i t t i n g [27], i n c l u d i n g many s i m u l a t i o n
r e s u l t s . He makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e strapdown
mechanization i s a s p e c i a l c a s e of i n e r t i a l naviga-
t i o n systems t h a t i s t r e a t e d i n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
manner. For t e r r e s t r i a l systems t h e geographic o r
l o c a l v e r t i c a l frames a r e commonly used. The long-
term behaviour of o v e r a l l system e r r o r , e.g. whether
i t i s o s c i l l a t o r y o r unbounded, depends on t h e
c h o i c e of t h e n a v i g a t i o n frame [30,31]. Since t h e
-navigation function i s e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l to
gimballed systems it w i l l n o t b e pursued f u r t h e r .
5. E r r o r Generation and Propagation
The o v e r a l l system e r r o r s a r e r e l a t e d t o (i)
individual sensor or instrument e r r o r s , ( i i )
computational e r r o r s and ( i i i ) t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
of s i n g l e - c h a n n e l e r r o r s t o produce system-level
e r r o r s . Strapdown systems o p e r a t e i n a h a r s h e r
dynamic environment and r e q u i r e g r e a t e r c a r e and
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o y i e l d h i g h - q u a l i t y performance.
Instrument Errors
Dynamic e r r o r s of a s i n g l e degree-of-freedom
f l o a t e d gyro have r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n [I-191.
A d e t a i l e d account a p p e a r s i n some r e p o r t s from
a NASA c o n t r a c t [3,14-161. Basically, errors
a r i s e because a gyro is more than a "pure" a n g u l a r
momentum v e c t o r ; it i s a t h r e e dimensional, e l a s t i c ,
g e o m e t r i c a l l y m i s a l i g n e d , massive r o t o r , enclosed
i n f l u i d and torqued t o n u l l by cbmplex, pulsed
e l e c t r o n i c s . E r r o r s due t o a n g u l a r o u t p u t a x i s
a c c e l e r a t i o n , c r o s s c o u p l i n g t o r q u e s when t h e
o u t p u t a n g l e i s nonzero, misalignment, b i a s d r i f t ,
and t o r q u e r s c a l e f a c t o r asymmetry and n o n l i n e a r i t y
a r e d i s c u s s e d by s e v e r a l a u t h o r s [4,6,8-131,
i n c l u d i n g computer s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s [6] and
g e n e r a t i o n of e r r o r models f o r compensation [8,9].
These e r r o r s o u r c e s a r e an i m p o r t a n t s u b s e t of
t h e d e f i n i t i v e t r e a t m e n t i n [3]. Design considera-
t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o b e t t e r performance w i t h d i f f e r e n t
t y p e s of t o r q u i n g schemes appear i n [5,7], u s i n g
describing functions. Similar e r r o r sources
appear i n pendulous a c c e l e r o m e t e r s [4,10]. Single
a x i s p l a t f o r m s a r e considered i n [11,18,22].
Back-to-back c o n f i g u r a t i o n s [21-231 reduce some
e r r o r s a t t h e expense of more components.
The p r i n c i p l e s of a d r y tuned two degree-of-
freedom gyro a r e d i s c u s s e d i n [27-281 and by
Craig [24,25]. I t s e r r o r sources a r e considered
i n 124-26,291. As b e f o r e , cross-coupling, a n i s o -
i n e r t i a , misalignment and t o r q u e r s c a l e f a c t o r
e r r o r s e x i s t , b u t now we a l s o have e r r o r s due t o
non-exact t u n i n g , damping i n t h e s p r i n g j o i n t s
and d i s t u r b a n c e s o c c u r r i n g a t t w i c e s p i n frequency.
Some o t h e r e r r o r s o u r c e s common t o t h e s e and
f l o a t e d g y r o s a r e r e c t i f i c a t i o n e r r o r s under
v i b r a t o r y e x c i t a t i o n : pseudo-coning, pseudo-
s c u l l i n g , u n d e t e c t e d coning, u n d e t e c t e d s c u l l i n g ;
t h e s e a r i s e from combinations of more t h a n one
g y r o s / a c c e l e r o m e t e r s . Furthermore, t o r q u e r l o o p
sampling, q u a n t i z a t i o n and p o s s i b l y l i m i t c y c l i n g
e r r o r s should b e mentioned [3]. For r e c e n t work
on advanced t o r q u i n g methods, s e e [30-331.
The remaining c o m p e t i t i v e r a t e gyro i s t h e l a s e r
' g y r o ' , p r e s e n t l y under i n t e n s i v e development and
t e s t [34-401, w i t h a promising f u t u r e i n t h e n e x t
decade [41-441. Lucid d i s c u s s i o n s of e r r o r s o u r c e s
a r e given i n [33] and by Savage [38], who a l s o
d e t a i l s current c a p a b i l i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n to require-
ments and t o o t h e r s e n s o r s . E r r o r s due t o i n e r t i a
and t o r q u i n g a r e a b s e n t s i n c e a l a s e r gyro h a s
n e i t h e r ; thus, excellent s c a l e f a c t o r l i n e a r i t y is
p o s s i b l e . Overcoming t h e l o c k - i n phenomenon ( i t
c a u s e s a deadband i n gyro o u t p u t ) c a u s e s new
e r r o r s 137-401, depending upon t h e method used.
Another s i g n i f i c a n t s o u r c e of e r r o r i s wide-band
n o i s e i n o u t p u t r a t e , a s w e l l a s random-walk t y p e
behaviour, i . e . n o i s e i n a n g l e o u t p u t [36,37]. In
a d d i t i o n , t h e p a t h l e n g t h of t h e l a s e r c a v i t y must
b e c l o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d , by s e r v o s .
 The e l e c t r o s t a t i c gyro i s a whole-angle a t t i t u d e
instrument. I t s dominant e r r o r s r e s u l t from geomet-
r i c , dynamic ( e . g. mass unbalance) and e l e c t r i c -
f i e l d asymmetries and from t h e r e a d o u t mechanism
[45-471. Small d e v i a t i o n s from s p h e r i c a l symmetry
c a u s e r e s i d u a l t o r q u e s on t h e r o t o r whose e f f e c t
i s manifested a s a t t i t u d e d r i f t . Detailed discussion
of e l e c t r - i c f i e l d e r r o r s o c c u r s i n [48-501, i n c l u d i n g
a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e r o t o r mass-unbalance r e a d o u t
t e c h n i q u e used i n t h e MICRON system [49,50] and
development of a c a l i b r a t i o n model [48]. O p t i c a l
r e a d o u t e r r o r s a r e d e t a i l e d in [46], p r o j e c t e d
e r r o r magnitudes d i s c u s s e d in [47], and performance
e v a l u a t i o n s a r e made i n [51-521. With proper
compensation [48,53] an e l e c t r o s t a t i c gyro h a s
t h e p o t e n t i a l of s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower d r i f t r a t e s
and computational demands t h a n massive r a t e g y r o s
1471.
Algorithm E r r o r s
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The dominant computational e r r o r s a r i s e i n t h e
i n t e g r a t i o n of k i n e m a t i c e q u a t i o n s , f o r r a t e gyros.
Some methods t y p i c a l of e a r l y systems, which used
d i r e c t l y t h e i n c r e m e n t a l a n g l e o u t p u t s t o update
t h e d i r e c t i o n c o s i n e m a t r i x (DCM), a r e [54-581;
r e c e n t approaches w i t h a view t o improving perform-
ance a r e [59-601. E r r o r s in whole-number a t t i t u d e
computers, u s i n g DCM i n t e g r a t i o n , a r e summarized
i n [61-621 and d e t a i l e d i n [63], d i s c u s s i n g l i m i t a -
t i o n s due t o bandwidth ( i . e . update f r e q u e n c y ) ,
t r u n c a t i o n , q u a n t i z a t i o n and roundoff. Over a l o n g
time t h e dominant s e c u l a r e r r o r s a r i s e from non-
commutativity [68] of s u c c e s s i v e r o t a t i o n s , a s
noted i n [64-661. A good d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of
t h i s and o t h e r e r r o r s o u r c e s i s g i v e n by J o r d a n
[66], i n c l u d i n g an a l g o r i t h m f o r DCM i n t e g r a t i o n
1671.
Among non-DCM a t t i t u d e p a r a m e t r i z a t i o n s , q u a t e r -
nion/ESP e r r o r s a r e analyzed i n [69,70], w h i l e t i m e
s a v i n g s of 50% o r more a r e claimed i n [71]. Quater-
n i o n s i d e a l l y y i e l d z e r o skew e r r o r ( p r e s e r v a t i o n
of a n g l e s ) , b u t r e t a i n s c a l e e r r o r s ( p r e s e r v a t i o n
of l e n g t h ) . An optimum r e s c a l i n g method i s g i v e n
i n [72] and c o r r e c t e d i n [73]. A t t i t u d e a l g o r i t h m
e r r o r s u s i n g Euler a x i s l a n g l e v a r i a b l e s a r e d i s -
cussed and compared w i t h q u a t e r n i o n s i n [74].
T h e o r e t i c a l upper bounds on computational e r r o r s
can b e o b t a i n e d a t l e n g t h [75], b u t a r e t o o conser-
v a t i v e . A method of r e t a i n i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o r t h o -
g o n a l i t y even w i t h roundoff e r r o r s i s d i s c u s s e d i n
[76]. The g e n e r a t i o n of a t t i t u d e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
w i t h d i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t r i z a t i o n s i s c o n s i d e r e d in
[77-801, w h i l e [81] d i s c u s s e s a l g o r i t h m s f o r whole-
number computers.
System E r r o r s
I n a strapdown system, t h e system-level e r r o r s
r e s u l t i n g from an i n t e r a c t i o n of m u l t i p l e s e n s o r
e r r o r s and computational e r r o r s depend n o t o n l y on
t h e n a v i g a t i o n frame b u t a l s o s t r o n g l y on t h e
mission p r o f i l e , t h a t i s , on t h e v e h i c l e t r a j e c t o r y
i n t h e six-dimensional p o s i t i o n / o r i e n t a t i o n space.
An a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n e r r o r a n a l y s i s
methods of B r i t t i n g [2-31 i s t h e so-called p s i
a n g l e approach f o r l o c a l - l e v e l n a v i g a t i o n [83]. A
t y p i c a l system e r r o r a n a l y s i s , e.g. f o r coning
motion [84] o r s p a c e c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n [85] i s
i n s u f f i c i e n t u n l e s s i t i n c l u d e s r e a l i s t i c t r a j ec-
t o r y e f f e c t s . The l a t t e r t y p e of a n a l y s i s i s made
i n [86 1 f o r d i f f e r e n t a i r c r a f t t r a j e c t o r i e s , u s i n g
pulse-rebalanced i n s t r u m e n t s , a t h i r d - o r d e r
q u a t e r n i o n a l g o r i t h m and a Monte C a r l o s i m u l a t i o n .
Similar simulations f o r f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t including
Kalman f i l t e r i n g i n an a i d e d strapdown configura-
t i o n a r e r e p o r t e d i n [87]. The s i g n i f i c a n c e of
t r a j e c t o r y e f f e c t s i s c l e a r l y seen.
6. System Data P r o c e s s i n g
T h i s s e c t i o n i s devoted t o system-level d a t a
p r o c e s s i n g t a s k s done a t low i t e r a t i o n r a t e s .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , we c o n s i d e r i n i t i a l i z a t i o n of t h e
n a v i g a t o r s t a t e , o r t h o g o n a l i z a t i o n of a t t i t u d e
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , and e s t i m a t i o n of t h e system
o u t p u t and i n s t r u m e n t e r r o r s t a t e s .
Alignment
The i n i t i a l v a l u e s of p o s i t i o n and v e l o c i t y
can b e i n s e r t e d s i m i l a r l y t o gimballed systems,
once a t t i t u d e 'alignment' h a s been performed.
T h i s means com u t a t i o n of t h e body-to-navigation
frame m a t r i x I&. E Coarse alignment can b e performed
by s e n s i n g two v e c t o r s ; a f i n e phase may b e added
l a t e r a l o n g w i t h f i l t e r i n g methods. Sensing t h e
g r a v i t y g l e a d s t o l e v e l i n g [l]w h i l e t h e e a r t h
r a t e toe i s used i n gyrocompassing [2,3]. In this
mode, azimuth alignment i s v e r y slow [2]. O p t i c a l
means such a s P o r r o prism [4] and t h e o d o l i t e
s i g h t i n g s , p o s s i b l y coupled w i t h p h y s i c a l azimuth
r o t a t i o n 151 have been suggested. I n n o i s y s i t u a -
t i o n s such a s a launch v e h i c l e , toe i s a poor
c h o i c e [6]; a l s o , some f i l t e r i n g i s n e c e s s a r y
[6-91. Alignment methods u s i n g n o n r e c u r s i v e
f i l t e r i n g a r e compared by F a r r e l l [ l o ] , f a v o r i n g
l e a s t - s q u a r e s (LS) .
A n a t u r a l , r e c u r s i v e a l t e r n a t i v e i s t h e Kalman
f i l t e r (KF), a s summarized i n 171. Comparisons
between KF and LS methods [8,9] f a v o r KF when
c o r r e l a t e d n o i s e i s p r e s e n t . An e x c e l l e n t r e f e r e n c e
on KF t h e o r y and p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s i s [ l l ] ,
w i t h a t t e n t i o n t o n a v i g a t i o n [12]. A r a t h e r high
o r d e r KF i s needed i f i n s t r u m e n t b i a s e s a r e a l s o t o
b e e s t i m a t e d [6]. The KF i s a n a t u r a l c h o i c e i n
r a p i d i n f l i g h t alignment, a s i n t r a n s f e r alignment
of a m i s s i l e [13]. B e t t e r accuracy i s a c h i e v a b l e
by p h y s i c a l r o t a t i o n s of t h e v e h i c l e [13]. Optimum
maneuvers in b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l p l a n e s ,
which minimize t h e f i n a l c o v a r i a n c e in t h e KF, a r e
c o n s i d e r e d in [14]. A performance improvement
r e s u l t s when a n g u l a r r a t e s a r e a l s o measured [15].
A simple approach employing o n l y t h r e e s t a t e s
a p p e a r s in [16]. For alignment i n s p a c e , sun and
s t a r s i g h t i n g s a r e u s e f u l [17,18]. Much improve-
ment i s p o s s i b l e by a l l o w i n g l i m i t e d s e n s o r motion
[19,20]. D i r e c t i n i t i a l i z a t i o n of a t t i t u d e para-
m e t e r s , r a t h e r t h a n t h a t of t h e DCM i s r a r e l y
c o n s i d e r e d [21].
Orthonormalization
This operation i s p e r i o d i c a l l y useful s t a r t i n g
w i t h t h e i n i t i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x . For a
q u a t e r n i o n p a r a m e t r i z a t i o n , which h a s j u s t one
e x t r a parameter, an optimum scheme i s e a s i l y
d e r i v e d [22,23]. For t h e DCM c a s e , an optimum
scheme e x i s t s [24,5] which i n v o l v e s a m a t r i x
s q u a r e r o o t . Simple i t e r a t i v e apprc,ximations t o i t
a r e a v a i l a b l e [3,5], a s w e l l as e l a b o r a t e ones based
on g r a d i e n t p r o j e c t i o n [25], s e r i e s expansions [26],
p o l a r decomposition of a m a t r i x [27] and an a l g o r i t h m
d u a l t o it 1281. The l a s t t h r e e p a p e r s i n c l u d e
 convergence a n a l y s e s . Three i n t u i t i v e , non-optimal
a l g o r i t h m s were proposed i n [29], w i t h o u t conver-
gence c r i t e r i a . The p r o f u s i o n of DCM o r t h o g o n a l i -
z a t i o n schemes would seem t o c a l l f o r a comparison.
S t a t e Estimation
I n most c a s e s , t h e KF i s used f o r f i l t e r i n g and
e s t i m a t i o n . A p p l i c a t i o n s t o alignment have a l r e a d y
been mentioned. The KF is used t o e s t i m a t e a n g u l a r
v e l o c i t y from a n g l e increment d a t a in [31]. Its
u s e is almost mandatory when d a t a from v a r i o u s
s o u r c e s a r e combined. Perhaps t h e f i r s t a c t u a l
implementation o c c u r r e d i n t h e SPARS system [32];
t h e a l g o r i t h m s a r e reviewed i n [33]. A key f e a t u r e
was t h e u s e of gyro b i a s d r i f t s a s a d d i t i o n a l s t a t e
variables, t o be estimated using s t a r sightings.
The p r i n c i p l e s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e f o r p l a t f o r m
systems [34]. Many contemporary systems i n c o r p o r a t e
some form of r e c u r s i v e f i l t e r i n g , t o e s t i m a t e in-
strument e r r o r s i n o p e r a t i o n . One of t h e problems
of concern i s t h e p o s s i b l e d i v e r g e n c e due t o un-
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modelled d i g i t i z a t i o n e r r o r s [ 4 l ] . Another d i f f i-
c u l t y , t h e roundoff problem, can b e a l l e v i a t e d
by u s i n g a square-root f o r m u l a t i o n [42].
The a p p l i c a t i o n of n o n l i n e a r f i l t e r i n g tech-
n i q u e s i s n o t n e a r l y s o widespread. A c o n c i s e
i n t r o d u c t i o n t o i t , and a comparison w i t h KF on
s i m p l e problems r e l e v a n t t o strapdown systems
a p p e a r s i n [35]. The computational burden i s
s e v e r e and t h e b e n e f i t s u n c e r t a i n [35,36]; i t t u r n s
o u t t h a t from t h e computational v i e w p o i n t , t h e DCM
p a r a m e t r i z a t i o n i s s i m p l e r t h a n q u a t e r n i o n s [36].
An o f f - l i n e n o n l i n e a r f i l t e r i n g procedure i s ex-
p l o r e d in [37]. A s i m p l i f i e d s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g
parameter e s t i m a t i o n i s addressed u s i n g n o n l i n e a r
f i l t e r i n g methods i n [38-391; a comment on t h i s
work by F a r r e l l i s i l l u m i n a t i n g [40].
Landmarks
A s p e c i a l d a t a p r o c e s s i n g t a s k a r i s e s i f land-
mark s i g h t i n g s a r e added t o a strapdown a t t i t u d e
r e f e r e n c e , forming a d i f f e r e n t t y p e of autonomous
n a v i g a t i o n system. The i d e a i s n o t new [43], and
b o t h known [44] and unknown [45] landmarks may b e
used, t h e c h i e f a p p l i c a t i o n b e i n g t o l o w - a l t i t u d e
s a t e l l i t e s [46,47]. Two r e c e n t e x t e n s i o n s a r e
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of u s i n g l i n e a r landmarks ( r i v e r s ,
highways, e t c . ) [48] and an i n t e r f e r o m e t r i c land-
mark t r a c k e r [49]. Nonlinear f i l t e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s
a r e a p p l i e d t o a landmark o r 'autonomous n a v i g a t i o n '
system i n [50]. These p a p e r s a r e merely h i g h l i g h t s
of t h i s growing f i e l d .
7. R e l i a b i l i t y Enhancement
The most e f f e c t i v e means of i n c r e a s i n g t h e
r e l i a b i l i t y of a system is by redundancy. I n
gimballed systems, e n t i r e systems a r e d u p l i c a t e d
b u t i n t h e strapdown c a s e , s e n s o r - l e v e l redundancy
o f f e r s a decided advantage [I]. T h i s s e c t i o n d e a l s
w i t h redundant c o n f i g u r a t i o n s e l e c t i o n and f a i l u r e
p r o c e s s i n g c o n c e p t s and a l g o r i t h m s .
Configurations
Most papers i n t h i s a r e a c o n c e n t r a t e on g y r o s
( t h e y a r e u s u a l l y t h e c r i t i c a l components [ I ] ) t h a t
s e n s e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y . L i n e a r combinations of
any t h r e e noncoplanar g y r o s t h e n s u f f i c e f o r w.
Two skewed t r i a d s can s u f f i c e f o r u l t r a h i g h r e l i a -
b i l i t y i f a supply of s p a r e p a r t s and i n f l i g h t
r e p a i r f a c i l i t i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e 121. T h i s i s n o t
u s u a l l y t h e c a s e . I n skewed c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , t h e
gyro e r r o r , expressed a s a f r a c t i o n of i n p u t
r a t e s e n s e d , i n c r e a s e s . The i m p l i c a t i o n s of
t h i s i n systems u s i n g f o u r , f i v e and six SDF g y r o s
a r e d i s c u s s e d i n [3].
The optimum s i x gyro c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s t h e
dodecahedron c o n f i g u r a t i o n [4,5]. It minimizes
t h e a v e r a g e o u t p u t e r r o r c o v a r i a n c e f o r given
c o v a r i a n c e of r a t e i n p u t , and s i m p l i f i e s f a i l u r e
p r o c e s s i n g . Optimum c o n f i g u r a t i o n s u s i n g TDF gyros,
assuming t h a t b o t h a x e s f a i l s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a r e
g i v e n in [6,7]. The r a t i o n a l e f o r and t h e d e r i v a -
t i o n of optimum c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r t h i s c a s e a r e
d e t a i l e d in 181. I f we assume t h a t one a x i s can
f u n c t i o n even when t h e o t h e r h a s f a i l e d , t h e optimum
gyro mounting c o n f i g u r a t i o n s change s i g n i f i c a n t l y
[9,10]. Optimum TDF s e n s o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e
f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d i n [10,11]. S t u 4 i e s of redundant
con£ i g u r a t i o n s a r e [12,13], w h i l e r e c e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s
of systems designed on a redundant b a s i s a r e [14-161.
There seems t o b e no i n f o r m a t i o n on c o n f i g u r a t i o n
s e l e c t i o n and o p t i m i z a t i o n when a t t i t u d e s e n s o r s ,
s u c h as t h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c gyro a r e used.
F a i l u r e Processing
F a i l u r e s may b e c a t a s t r o p h i c , h a r d ( r a p i d dete-
r i o r a t i o n of performance), o r s o f t (slow changes,
d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t ) . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of a
f a i l u r e and of t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t can b e
based on t h e i n t e r n a l s t a t e s of t h e i n s t r u m e n t ,
o u t p u t s of c a l i b r a t i o n f i l t e r s , e t c . o r i n f o r m a t i o n
from e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s . F a i l u r e d e t e c t i o n r e l i e s
upon comparing t h e o u t p u t s of redundant s e n s o r s .
A d e t e r m i n i s t i c approach t o t h i s problem i s s i m p l e r
and e a s i e r t o v i s u a l i z e , b u t a s t a t i s t i c a l approach
i s l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n fewer f a l s e a l a r m s o r missed
alarms. D e t e r m i n i s t i c parity-checking c o n c e p t s
a r e used i n t h e dodecahedron system [5,17-181 and
f o r TDF c o n f i g u r a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d above 16-111. The
number of checks r a n g e s from 6 t o 15. I d e n t i f i c a -
t i o n of t h e f a i l e d s e n s o r i s p o s s i b l e i n a l l t h e s e
c a s e s f o r t h e f i r s t f a i l u r e . The method of [18]
a l l o w s each gyro t o have a d i f f e r e n t t h r e s h o l d f o r
p a r i t y checks. A u s e f u l i d e a in [17] i s t o u s e
p r e f i l t e r s t o r e d u c e u n c e r t a i n t i e s due t o quantiza-
t i o n and sampling.
A s t a t i s t i c a l approach t o f a i l u r e d e t e c t i o n and
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (FDI) i s t a k e n i n [19-221 f o r t h e
dodecahedron c o n f i g u r a t i o n . A maximum l i k e l i h o o d
c r i t e r i o n i s used i n [19]; t h e c r i t e r i o n of [20] i s
derived s t a t i s t i c a l l y but applied deterministically.
The method of Chien [21,22] i s based on Wald's
s e q u e n t i a l p r o b a b i l i t y r a t i o t e s t . Although t h e
t e s t implementation i s complicated, i t b a s e s t h e
d e c i s i o n s on a p a s t measurement h i s t o r y , n o t j u s t
on t h e c u r r e n t measurement.
A comparison of s e v e r a l FDI a l g o r i t h m s by means
of a r e a l i s t i c s i m u l a t i o n program h a s been g i v e n by
Wilcox [23]. A s p a c e s h u t t l e b o o s t t r a j e c t o r y was
used, w i t h a s t e p f a i l u r e i n t r o d u c e d h a l f way through
t h e b o o s t . On t h e b a s i s of t h e e r r o r a t t h e end of
t h e b o o s t , i t a p p e a r s t h a t d e t e r m i n i s t i c FDI algo-
r i t h m s perform b e t t e r . Both l i n e a r and a n g u l a r
v i b r a t i o n i n p u t s were considered. F i n a l l y , we
mention b r i e f l y t h e s u b j e c t of f a i l u r e c o r r e c t i o n .
It i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d t o r e c o o f i g u r e t h e system
once a f a u l t y i n s t r u m e n t h a s 3een i d e n t i f i e d ; t h i s
i s merely a s o f t w a r e change. However, t h e degrada-
t i o n of performance d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e i d e n t i -
 f i c a t i o n i s usually accepted a s a necessary e v i l .
An a l t e r n a t i v e i s considered by Wilcox [24] but t h e
computational requirements a r e tremendous.
8. Concluding Remarks
The foregoing s e c t i o n s have attempted t o convey
t h e present s t a t u s of strapdown navigation tech-
nology, based on work reported i n t h e open l i t e r a -
ture. This l a s t s e c t i o n i s intended t o h i g h l i g h t
some c u r r e n t areas of development and t r e n d s which
a r e expected t o continue in t h e near f u t u r e . This
i s of n e c e s s i t y a s u b j e c t i v e judgement, and i s
l i m i t e d f u r t h e r by t h e p r o p r i e t a r y n a t u r e of
development a c t i v i t i e s .
The microprocessor explosion continues t o be a
d r i v i n g f o r c e i n strapdown system development.
Certain computing t a s k s , such a s sensor c a l i b r a t i o n
can b e done by d i s t r i b u t e d microprocessors 111.
This encourages modularization with i t s a t t e n d a n t
standardization and f l e x i b i l i t y [ 2 ] , which i s
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another c u r r e n t theme of development. This concept
can be applied t o sensors, power supplies, s i g n a l
converters, e t c . y i e l d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t cost reduc-
t i o n s 131. Modularity a l s o l e a d s t o o p e r a t i o n a l
savings due t o ease of maintenance, checkout and
t e s t i n g , and s i m p l i f i e s redundant design.
Low-cost i n e r t i a l navigation i s a b e n e f i t long
expected t o follow from strapdown systems. Apart
from t h e c o s t reductions p o s s i b l e with modularity
and microprocessors, savings can b e e f f e c t e d a l s o
by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e strapdown navigator with o t h e r
e x i s t i n g equipment. Thie i s an important consider-
a t i o n favoring i n t e g r a t e d navigationlair-data
systems f o r a i r c r a f t [4], and hybrid o r aided
strapdown systems using d a t a from r a d i o sources [5].
Another p o t e n t i a l source of information i s land-
mark tracking [ 61. Integrated navigation systems
can a l s o incorporate d a t a from s a t e l l i t e systems,
such a s t h e Global Positioning System [ 7 ] . Numerous
new a p p l i c a t i o n s of strapdown technology can be
expected t o follow s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t reductions.
I n conclusion, i t i s perhaps of i n t e r e s t t o
i n d i c a t e some p o s s i b l e f u t u r e s u b j e c t s f o r publica-
t i o n s i n t h i s f i e l d . These remarks n e c e s s a r i l y
r e f e r only t o p u b l i c a t i o n s i n t h e open l i t e r a t u r e .
Accelerometers and multisensors e x p l i c i t l y f o r
strapdown use have n o t o f t e n been described. The
development of d e t a i l e d sensor e r r o r models f o r
use with high-order f i l t e r s (expected t o be f e a s i b l e
with tomorrow's computers) is of i n t e r e s t . Further
a p p l i c a t i o n s of microprocessors, l i f e - c y c l e c o s t
f o r e c a s t i n g , and fast-developing new concepts i n
redundancy management and f a i l u r e processing w i l l
no doubt be reported. Comparison of t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s
of d i f f e r e n t types of sensors, i n r e l a t i o n t o re-
quired navigation accuracies, i s of i n t e r e s t t o
designers. An evaluation of c u r r e n t and projected
microcomputer c a p a b i l i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n t o strapdown
systems would be h e l p f u l . The evaluation of strap-
down system e r r o r s using r e a l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y models
and disturbances, a p p l i c a t i o n s of nonlinear f i l t e r i n g
techniques, algorithms f o r r e t r o a c t i v e f a i l u r e correc-
t i o n , and comparisons of a v a i l a b l e algorithms f o r
a t t i t u d e computation, orthonormalization, f a i l u r e
- d e t e i t i o n , etc. a r e some a r e a s deserving f u r t h e r
analytical/computational s t u d i e s .
Acknowledgements
The authors a r e g r a t e f u l t o t h e Communications
Research Center of t h e Department of Communications,
Government of Canada f o r permission t o publish t h i s
paper. It i s t h e authors' pleasure t o acknowledge
t h e b e n e f i t of discussions with M. S. P. Altman,
D r . P. C. Hughes and D r . D. A. Staley.
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32. D a v i s , W. R. and M i l l e r , J. A., "SPARS- A
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38. Lee, J. S. and Tung, F. F., " N o n l i n e a r
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39. Lee, J . S., N o n l i n e a r F i l t e r i n g T e c h n i q u e s
w i t h A p p l i c a t i o n s t o t h e Strapdown A t t i t u d e
Computations", Div. Eng. and A p p l i e d P h y s i c s ,
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F i l t e r i n g Techniques w i t h A p p l i c a t i o n s t o
Strapdown Computationr", IEEE T r a n s . on
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41. B i r d , M. W., " E l i m i n a t i o n of Kalman F i l t e r
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S a t e l l i t e Navigation-An H i s t o r i c a l Summary
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 A I M / I n s t . of Navigation Guidance and C o n t r o l
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S e c t i o n 7: Reliability
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6. Hung, J. C. and Doran, B. J., " H i g h - R e l i a b i l i t y
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Gyros", IEEE Trans. on Aerospace and E l e c t r o n i c
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i n Strapdown Technology", 1 5 t h Guidance and
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Using TDF Sensors", J o i n t Automatic C o n t r o l
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R e l i a b i l i t y Strapdown P l a t f o r m s Using TDF
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S a f e Strapped-Down Navigator", Proc. T r i -
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17. Evans, F. A. and Wilcox, J. C., "Experimental
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18. P o t t e r , J . E. and Deckert, J. C., "Minimax
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22. H a r r i s o n , J. V. and Chien, T-T., " F a i l u r e
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23. Wilcox, J. C., "Competitive E v a l u a t i o n of t h e
F a i l u r e D e t e c t i o n Algorithms f o r Strapdown
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 24. Wilcox, J. C., " R e t r o a c t i v e F a i l u r e C o r r e c t i o n
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S e c t i o n 8: Conclusion
1. Napjus, G. A., "Recent Advances i n Strapdown
I n e r t i a l Navigation", INTERCOM 75, New York,
A p r i l 8-10, 1975.
2. Feldman, J., "Standardized Strapdown I n e r t i a l
Component Modularity Study, Vol. 2", NASA-CR-
120428, J u l y 1974.
3. Gilmore, J. P., McKern, R. A. and Musoff, H.,
"Techniques f o r Achieving Low Cost Strapdown
Navigation", INTERCON 75, New York, A p r i l
8-10, 1975.
4. Shaw, J . , " B e n e f i t s of Strapdown over Gimbal
Systems", NAECON 76, Dayton, Ohio, May 18-20,
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1976.
5. S i l v e r , Marvin, "Low Cost Hybrid I n e r t i a l
Navigation", IEEE P o s i t i o n Location and
Navigation Systems, (PLANS) Conf., Region 3,
1976.
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Navigation Using Known and Unknown E a r t h
Landmarks", AIAA Guidance and C o n t r o l Conf.,
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